Download Module 31

What is Memory?
Holding on to what you’ve learned over time
through encoding, storage & retrieval
Acquisition
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Acquisition – The initial learning of information.
Affected by…
1. Attention Process
2. Degree of Motivation
3. Preparedness of the Learner
4. Type of Practice Followed
5. Kind of Material to be Learned
6. Transfer of Training (Application)
The InformationProcessing Model
(comparing our memory to a computer)
Information Processing Model
• Encoding - getting information into
the memory system
• Storage - the retaining of encoded
information over time
• Retrieval - getting encoded
information out of memory storage
How is Our Memory Like a
Computer?
• Both encode, store, and retrieve data
• We can activate information from our long term
memory (hard drives)
• Information on the screen disappears if not used
right away – short term memory
• You use certain pathways to find info in folders
just like we use neural pathways to find info in the
brain (Connectionism)
Encoding
• The processing of information into the
memory system.
Typing info into a computer
Getting a girl’s name at a party
Storage
• The retention of encoded material over
time.
Typing the info in and
hitting save to put in
on the HD.
Trying to remember her name
when you leave the party.
Retrieval
• The process of getting the information out
of memory storage.
Finding your document
in its folder and
opening it up.
Seeing her the next day
and calling her the wrong
name (retrieval failure).
Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage
Theory of Memory
• Three memory stages that differ in…
– Capacity – How much info can be stored
– Duration – How long the info can be stored
– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
• Information is transferred from one stage to another
Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage
Theory of Memory
• Three memory stages that differ in…
– Capacity – How much info can be stored
– Duration – How long the info can be stored
– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
• Information is transferred from one stage to another
Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage
Theory of Memory
• Three memory stages that differ in…
– Capacity – How much info can be stored
– Duration – How long the info can be stored
– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
• Information is transferred from one stage to another
Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage
Theory of Memory
• Three memory stages that differ in…
– Capacity – How much info can be stored
– Duration – How long the info can be stored
– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
• Information is transferred from one stage to another
Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage
Theory of Memory
• Three memory stages that differ in…
– Capacity – How much info can be stored
– Duration – How long the info can be stored
– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
• Information is transferred from one stage to another
Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage
Theory of Memory
• Three memory stages that differ in…
– Capacity – How much info can be stored
– Duration – How long the info can be stored
– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
• Information is transferred from one stage to another
Parallel Processing
• Brain’s ability to do process different pieces
of information simultaneously.
• Example: How many different things must
you do/process to drive a car?
Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage
Theory of Memory
• Three memory stages that differ in…
– Capacity – How much info can be stored
– Duration – How long the info can be stored
– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
• Information is transferred from one stage to another
Memory’s 1st Stage:
Sensory Memory
• Iconic Memory or Visual sensory memory—
brief memory (.3 second) of an image or icon.
– George Sperling studied iconic memory
– (try his experiment yourself with a link on
our website)
• Echoic Memory or Auditory sensory
memory—brief memory of a sound or echo.
Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer
than visual sensory memories (3 seconds)
Sperling’s Sensory Memory Experiment
How much does it hold and for how long?
• Presented matrix of letters for
1/20 of a second
• Report as many letters as
possible
• Subjects recall only half of the
letters
• Was this because subjects
didn’t have enough time to
view entire matrix? No
• How did Sperling know this?
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Experiment
• Sperling showed people can
see and recall ALL the letters
momentarily
• Sounded low, medium or high
tone immediately after matrix
disappeared
– tone signaled 1 row to report
– recall was almost perfect
 Memory for image fades after
1-3 seconds or so, making report
of entire display hard to do
High
Medium
Low
Short-Term Memory/
Working Memory
• Function - conscious processing of information
– where information is actively worked on
• Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
– Holds about 7 numbers, 6 letters or 5 words before forgetting occurs
• Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
• Code - often based on sound or speech even with visual inputs
Sensory
Input
Attention
Sensory
Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
How Short-Term Memory Works
• Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info
• Phonological loop - holds verbal information
• Central executive - coordinates all activities of working
memory;
– Focuses attention on incoming info you want to get to your LTM
– Grabs info from LTM needed to make sense of incoming info.
Information you select and pay
attention to makes it to…
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
• STM has a very limited capacity for short
amount of time.
• It can multi-task but better off giving one
thing at a time your complete attention.
– Multi-taskers are Jack of Trades but a Master of
None.
• Young Adults have the best working
memory
Working Memory’s Storage Ability
• What happens if you need to keep information in
working memory longer than 30 seconds?
• To demonstrate, memorize the following phone
number (presented one digit at a time)...
8 5 7 91 6 3
Working Memory Storage
• What is the number?
857-9163
The number lasted in your working memory
longer than 30 seconds
So, how were you able to remember the
number?
Maintenance Rehearsal
• Mental or verbal repetition of information
Allows information to remain in working
memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
• What happens if you can’t use maintenance
rehearsal?
• Memory decays quickly
• To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number
(presented one digit at a time)
– BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by sevens
(i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 … etc.)
6 2 8 50 9 4
Working Memory Store
What is the number?
628-5094
Without rehearsal, memory fades
Peterson’s STM Task
• Test of memory for 3-letter
nonsense syllables
• Participants count backwards for
a few seconds, then recall
• After 3 seconds recall drops by
half
• Without rehearsal, memory fades
Ways to Improve STM: Chunking
• Organizing a variety of items into
understandable smaller units
– More information can be encoded if organized
into meaningful chunks
– Which is easier to remember?
–4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
– 483 792 516
Encoding:
“Saving” info to
Long Term Memory
(LTM)
Semantic Encoding
• Encoding information based on the
meaning of the information
Semantic Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Acoustic Encoding
• Encoding information based on the
sounds of the information
Acoustic Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Visual Encoding
• Encoding information based on the
images of the information
Visual Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
• Some information,
such as where you
ate dinner
yesterday, you
process
automatically.
• Other information,
such as this
chapter's
concepts, requires
effort to encode
and remember.
Processing/Encoding leads to LTM
Hippocampus
Cerebellum
Types of LTM
Explicit/Declarative
General Knowledge
(semantic memory)
Personal Events
(episodic memory)
Explicit Memories are easy to explain facts or experiences.
Implicit
Skills and
Procedures
(procedural
memory)
Conditioning
(CC & OC)
Implicit Memories are hard to put into words. They
Involve skills and reactions we’ve learned.
Two Types of Explicit Memory
1. Episodic information—information about events
or “episodes”
2. Semantic information—information about facts,
general knowledge, school work
Episodic Memory
• Memory tied to your own personal experiences
• Examples:
– What month is your birthday?
– Do you like to eat caramel apples?
• Q: Why are these explicit memories?
• A: Because you can actively declare your
answers to these questions
Semantic Memory
• Memory not tied to personal events
• General facts and definitions about
the world
• Examples:
– How many tires on a car?
– What is a cloud?
– What color is a banana?
Automatic Processing = No Effort Encoding!
Can lead to 2 types of implicit Memories:
•Procedural Memories – How to swim, ride a bike or read
•Required effort and practice at first but later it’s automatic!
•Classically Conditioned/Learned Responses –
Learned Associations that result in Emotional
or Nervous System reactions
We Automatically encode information about:
•Space – Where things are you’ve encountered
•Time – Sequence of events in your day
•Frequency – How often something happened
•All of these are forms of explicit memories
Read the next sentence out loud to yourself…
Spring is the
The most beautiful
Time of the year.
Sometime automatic processing can cause us to miss something
Effortful Processing
Strategies:
Mnemonic Devices
Mnemonic Device
• A memory trick or technique for
remembering specific facts
• “Every good boy does fine” to remember
the notes on the lines of the scale
Peg-Word System
• A mnemonic device in which the person associates
items to remember with a list of peg words already
memorized
• Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the
items on the pegs
Acronyms
• Formed by the initial letters of
INDIVIDUAL words.
• Example: HOMES = Names of the Great
Lakes
Method of Loci
• Associate items to be remembered
with imaginary places you know well.
Acrostics
• Create an entire sentence from the first letter of
each item you want to remember.
– Serves as a memory prompt for actual items.
• Example: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally
(Math)
• Example: Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge
(Music)
Interactive Images
• Link a set of isolated words by creating visual
representations for the words & then picturing
interactions among the items.
• Example: If you had to remember a list of random
things like an aardvark, pencil, table and book…
– Picture the aardvark sitting on a table holding pencil in
its claws and writing in a book.
Hierarchies:
Categorical Clustering
• Organizing items you want
to remember by categories
• A type of chunking
• Example: Grocery list
organized by aisles or food
category.
Keyword System
• Learning isolated words by
linking sounds and meanings
together.
• Example: Elvis shook his
pelvis
– Stalactite holds tight to the
ceiling
– Cation is pawsitive
– Tibia is on top of the fibula
Do Mnemonics Work?
• Watch this 8 minute video on how the world’s best
memory competitors use mnemonics.
• Andi Bell - World Memory Champion 2002 BBC (5 min) - How the Method of Loci &
Interactive Images mnemonics help a memory
champion remember 520 cards in order in a short
amount of time. See how the host of this BBC
show does when he tries this method (6 min).
Encoding:
How you study matters!
Spacing Effect =
Distributed Practice = Success!
Massed Practice = Cramming
• Putting all rehearsal together in one
long session (cramming)
• Not as effective as distributed practice
What level are you encoding the info?
Shallow vs. Deep Processing
• Shallow is simple memorizing without thought.
• Deep is finding meaning to what you’re learning
Semantic Encoding is Deep Processing
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“What does this mean?”
What are examples of this?
How can I apply this to my life?
Actively question new information
Think about its implications
Try to generate your own
examples based on your
experiences
• Encoding information that is
meaningful enhances recall
How does this
apply to me?
Self-Reference Effect
• Type of semantic
encoding/deep processing
• Making information
meaningful to a person by
making it relevant to one’s
life
• See how the “mental
athletes” at the annual
Memoriad do it – ABC
News Report (4 min)
Types of Effortful Processing
• Maintenance Rehearsal – go over something
repeatedly till it is encoded in LTM
• Elaborative Rehearsal – relate the info to info you
already know.
– Self-reference effect – applies info to yourself.
– Visual imagery – vivid images you can remember.
Remember…
• Amount remembered depends on both the time
spent learning and your ability to give it
meaning.
• How will you use what you’ve learned in this
Module to improve your studying?