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AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 1: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life Name_______________________Period___________ Chapter 1: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life Begin your study of biology this year by reading Chapter 1. It will serve as a reminder about biological concepts that you may have learned in an earlier course and give you an overview of what you will study this year. 1. In the overview, Figure 1.3 recalls many of the properties of life. Label the seven properties illustrated here, and give a different example of each. Concept 1.1 Themes connect the concepts of biology 2. What are emergent properties? Give two examples. 3. Life is organized on many scales. Figure 1.4 zooms you in from viewing Earth from space all the way to the level of molecules. As you study this figure, write in a brief definition of each level. biosphere ecosystem Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 1: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life community population organism organs/organ systems tissues cells organelles molecules 4. Our study of biology will be organized around recurring themes. Make a list here of the themes that are presented, and give an example that illustrates each theme. Watch for these themes throughout your study this entire year. This will help you see the big picture and organize your thinking. (Go to the Summary of Key Concepts at the end of the chapter for a concise look at the themes.) Theme 1 Example Theme 2: Theme 3: Theme 4: Theme 5: Theme 6: Theme 7: (Find it in 1.2.) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 1: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life 5. As you read this section, you will be reminded of things you may have studied in an earlier course. Since this material will be presented in detail in future chapters, you will come back to these ideas, so don’t fret if some of the concepts presented are unfamiliar. However, to guide your study, define each of the terms in bold as you come to them. eukaryotic cell prokaryotic cell DNA genes genome negative feedback/positive feedback Concept 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life 6. Life is organized into groups. Study Figure 1.14. • Which level contains the greatest diversity of organism? • The least? • Write out the levels of organization in order. • Most people use a mnemonic device to remember these levels. If you have one, write it here. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 1: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life 7. Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names and classifies organisms. Because of new molecular information, there have been many changes in placement of certain groups in recent years. Notice that all life is now organized in your text into 3 domains rather than the 5 kingdoms you may have learned earlier. Put the kingdoms mentioned in the text in the space above the proper domain names shown here. Bacteria Archaea Eukarya 8. What two main points were articulated in Darwin’s The Origin of Species? 9. What did Darwin propose as the mechanism of evolution? Summarize this mechanism. 10. Study Figure 1.22, which shows an evolutionary “tree.” What is indicated by each twig? What do the branch points represent? Where did the “common ancestor” of the Galápagos finches originate? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 1: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life Concept 1.3 Scientists use two main forms of inquiry in their study of nature 11. What are the two main types of scientific inquiry? Give an example of each. 12. What is data? 13. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data. Which type would be presented in a data chart and could be graphed? Which type is found in the field sketches made by Jane Goodall? 14. In science, how do we define hypothesis? 15. A scientific hypothesis has two important qualities. The first is that it is testable. What is the second? 16. Are scientific hypotheses proved? Explain your answer! 17. Look at Figure 1.24. Use it to write a hypothesis using the “If . . . then . . .” format. 18. What is a controlled experiment? 19. The text points out a common misconception about the term “controlled experiment”. In the snake mimicry experiment, what factors were held constant? 20. Why are supernatural explanations outside the bounds of science? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -5- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 1: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life 21. Explain what is meant by a scientific theory by giving the three ways your text separates a theory from a hypothesis or mere speculation. 1. 2. 3. Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1. __________ 2.__________ 3. __________ 4. __________ 5. __________ 6. __________ 7. __________ 8. __________ 9. __________ 10. _________ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -6- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life Name_______________________Period___________ Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life This chapter covers the basics that you may have learned in your chemistry class. Whether your teacher goes over this chapter, or assigns it for you do review on your own, the questions that follow should help you focus on the most important points. Concept 2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds 1. Define and give an example of the following terms: matter element compound 2. What four elements make up 96% of all living matter? 3. What is the difference between an essential element and a trace element? essential element trace element Concept 2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms 4. Sketch a model of an atom of helium, showing the electrons, protons, neutrons, and atomic nucleus. 5. What is the atomic number of helium? _________ Its atomic mass? ________ 6. Here are some more terms that you should firmly grasp. Define each term. neutron proton electron atomic number Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life atomic mass isotope electron shells energy 7. Consider this entry in the periodic table for carbon. What is the atomic mass? ______ atomic number? _______ How many electrons does carbon have? _______ neutrons? _______ 6 C 12 8. Which is the only subatomic particle that is directly involved in the chemical reactions between atoms? 9. What is potential energy? 10. Explain which has more potential energy in each pair: a. boy at the top of a slide/boy at the bottom b. electron in the first energy shell/electron in the third energy shell c. water/glucose Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life 11. What determines the chemical behavior of an atom? 12. Here is an electron distribution diagram for sodium: a. How many valence electrons does it have? ______ Circle the valence electron(s). b. How many protons does it have? ______ Concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bonding between atoms 13. Define molecule. 14. Now, refer back to your definition of a compound and fill in the following chart: Molecule? (y/n) Compound? (y/n) Molecular Formula Structural Formula Water Carbon dioxide Methane O2 O2 15. What type of bond is seen in O2? Explain what this means. 16. What is meant by electronegativity? 17. Explain the difference between a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life 18. Make an electron distribution diagram of water. Which element is most electronegative? Why is water considered a polar molecule? Label the regions that are more positive or more negative. (This is a very important concept. Spend some time with this one!) 19. Another bond type is the ionic bond. Explain what is happening in the figure below (2.14): 20. What two elements are involved above? 21. Define anion and cation. In the preceding example, which is the anion? 22. What is a hydrogen bond? Indicate where the hydrogen bond occurs in this figure. 23. Explain van der Waals interactions. Though they represent very weak attractions, when these interactions are numerous they can stick a gecko to the ceiling! Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 24. Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life Here is a list of the types of bonds and interactions discussed in this section. Place them in order from the strongest to the weakest: hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, covalent bonds, ionic bonds. STRONG WEAK 25. Use morphine and endorphins as examples to explain why molecular shape is crucial in biology. Concept 2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds 26. Write the chemical shorthand equation for photosynthesis. Label the reactants and the products. 27. For the equation you just wrote, how many molecules of carbon dioxide are there? _____ How many molecules of glucose? _________ How many elements in glucose? _________ 28. What is meant by dynamic equilibrium? Does this imply equal concentrations of each reactant and product? Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1._______ 2._______ 3._______ 4._______ 5._______ 6._______ 7._______ 8._______ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -5- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Name_______________________Period___________ Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Concept 4.1 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds 1. Study this figure of Stanley Miller’s experiment to simulate conditions thought to have existed on the early Earth. Explain the elements of this experiment, using arrows to indicate what occurs in various parts of the apparatus. 2. What was collected in the sample for chemical analysis? What was concluded from the results of this experiment? Concept 4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms 3. Make an electron distribution diagram of carbon. It is essential that you know the answers to these questions: a. How many valence electrons does carbon have? b. How many bonds can carbon form? b. What type of bonds does it form with other elements? 4. Carbon chains form skeletons. List here the types of skeletons that can be formed. 5. What is a hydrocarbon? Name two. Are hydrocarbons hydrophobic or hydrophilic? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 6. Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life In Chapter 2 you learned what an isotope is. Since students often confuse this word with isomer, please define each term here and give an example. Definition Example isotope isomer 7. Use this figure to identify the three types of isomers. For each type, give a key character and an example. 8. Give one example of enantiomers that vary in their pharmacological effect. Concept 4.3 A small number of chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules 9. Here is an idea that will recur throughout your study of the function of molecules: Change the structure, change the function. You see this in enantiomers, you will see it in proteins and enzymes, and now we are going to look at testosterone and estradiol. Notice how similar these two molecules are, and yet you know what a vastly different effect each has. Label each molecule in the sketch below, and circle the differences. 10. Define functional group. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life 11. There are seven functional groups. Complete the following chart. Hydroxyl Carbonyl Carboxyl Amino Sulfhydryl Phosphate Methyl Structure Example Functional Properties 12. You will need to master the chart and the information in it. Using the functional groups above, see if you can answer the following prompts: a. –NH2 b. Can form cross-links that stabilize protein structure c. Key component of ATP d. Can affect gene expression e. CH3 f. Is always polar g. Determines the two groups of sugars h. Has acidic properties i. –COOH j. Acts as a base k. Circle and identify three functional groups in the molecule shown above. Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1._______ 2._______ 3._______ 4._______ 5._______ 6._______ 7._______ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules Name_______________________Period___________ Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules Concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers 1. The large molecules of all living things fall into just four main classes. Name them. 2. Circle the three classes that are called macromolecules. Define macromolecule. 3. What is a polymer? a monomer? 4. Monomers are connected in what type of reaction? What occurs in this reaction? 5. Large molecules (polymers) are converted to monomers in what type of reaction? 6. The root words of hydrolysis will be used many times to form other words you will learn this year. What does each root word mean? hydro– lysis 7. Consider the following reaction: C6H12O6 + C6H12O6Æ C12H22O11 a. The equation is not balanced; it is missing a molecule of water. Write it in on the correct side of the equation. b. So, what kind of reaction is this? c. Is C6H12O6 (glucose) a monomer, or a polymer? d. To summarize, when two monomers are joined, a molecule of __________ is always removed. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules Concept 5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material 8. Let’s look at carbohydrates, which include sugars and starches. First, what are the monomers of all carbohydrates? 9. Most monosaccharides are some multiple of (CH2O). For example, ribose is a 5-carbon sugar with the formula C5H10O5. It is a pentose sugar. (From the root penta–, meaning 5.) What is the formula of a hexose sugar? 10. Here are the three hexose sugars. Label each of them. Notice that all sugars have the same two functional groups. Name them: C=O ___________________ —OH ___________________ 11. What is the difference between an aldehyde sugar and a ketone sugar? 12. So, as a quick review, all of these sugars have the same chemical formula: C6H12O6. What term did you learn in Chapter 3 for compounds that have the same molecular formulas but different structural formulas? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 13. Here is the abbreviated ring structure of glucose. Where are all the carbons? Pay attention to the numbering system. This will be important as we progress in our study. Circle the number 3 carbon. Put a square around the number 5 carbon. 14. Let’s look at our reaction in question 7 again: C6H12O6 + C6H12O6Æ C12H22O11 + H2O Notice that two monomers are joined to make a polymer. Since the monomers are monosaccharides, the polymer is a disaccharide. Three disaccharides are important to us with the formula C12H22O11. Name them below and fill out the chart. Disaccharide Formed from which two monosaccharides? Found where? 15. Have you noticed that all the sugars end in –ose? This root word means ____________. 16. What is a glycosidic linkage? 17. Here is a molecule of starch, which shows 1–4 glycosidic linkages. Translate and explain this terminology in terms of carbon numbering. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 18. There are two categories of polysaccharides. Name them and give examples. Type of Polysaccharide Examples 19. Why can you not digest cellulose? What organisms can? 20. Let’s review some key points about the carbohydrates. Each prompt below describes a unique carbohydrate. Name the correct carbohydrate for each. a. Has 1–4 B glucose linkages b. Is a storage polysaccharide produced by vertebrates; stored in your liver c. Two monomers of this form maltose d. Glucose +________ form sucrose e. Monosaccharide commonly called “fruit sugar” f. “Milk sugar” g. Structural polysaccharide that gives cockroaches their crunch h. Malt sugar; used to brew beer i. Structural polysaccharide that comprises plant cell walls Concept 5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules 21. Lipids include fats, waxes, oils, phospholipids, and steroids. What characteristic do all lipids share? 22. What are the building blocks of fats? Label them on this figure. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 23. If a fat is composed of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol molecule, how many water molecules will be removed to form it? Again, what is this process called? 24. On the figure with question 22, label the ester linkages. 25. Draw a fatty acid chain that is 8 carbons long and is unsaturated. Circle the element in your chain that makes it unsaturated, and explain what this means. 26. Name two saturated fats. 27. Name two unsaturated fats. 28. Why are many unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature? 29. What is a trans fat? Why should you limit them in your diet? 30. List four important functions of fats. 31. Here is a figure that shows the structure of a phospholipid. Label the sketch to show the phosphate group, the glycerol, and the fatty acid chains. Also indicate the region that is hydrophobic and the region that is hydrophilic. 32. Why is the “tail” hydrophobic? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -5- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 33. Which of the two fatty acid chains in the figure with question 31 is unsaturated? Label it. How do you know it is unsaturated? 34. To summarize, a phospholipid has a glycerol attached to a phosphate group and two fatty acid chains. The head is hydrophilic, and the tail is hydrophobic. Now, sketch the phospholipid bilayer structure of a plasma membrane. Label the hydrophilc heads, hydrophobic tails, and location of water. 35. Study your sketch. Why are the tails all located in the interior? 36. Some people refer to this structure as three hexagons and a doghouse. What is it? 37. What are other examples of steroids? Concept 5.4 Proteins have many structures, resulting in a wide range of functions 38. Table 5.1 is loaded with important information. Select any five types of proteins and summarize each type here. Type of Protein Function Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Example -6- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 39. Enzymes are an important type of protein. They will be studied in Chapter 8. For now, use this sketch to review what you know about enzymes. Label the active site, the substrate, and the products. Show what happens to water. 40. Is this reaction dehydration synthesis or hydrolysis? 41. The monomers of proteins are amino acids. Sketch an amino acid here. Label the alpha or central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, and R group. 42. What is represented by R? How many are there? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -7- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 43. Study the figure. See if you can understand why some R groups are nonpolar, some polar, and others electrically charged (acidic or basic). If you were given an R group, could you place it in the correct group? Work on the R groups until you can see common elements in each category. 44. Define these terms: dipeptide polypeptide peptide bond Label each of these terms on the diagrams. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -8- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 45. There are four levels of protein structure. Refer to Figure 5.21, and summarize each level in the following table. Level of Protein Structure Primary (Io) Explanation Example Secondary (IIo) Alpha helix Beta pleated sheet Tertiary (IIIo) Quaternary (IVo) 46. Label each of the levels of protein structure on this figure. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -9- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 47. Enzymes are globular proteins that exhibit at least tertiary structure. On this figure, identify and explain each interaction that folds this portion. 48. Do you remember when, in Chapter 4, we said, “Change the structure, change the function”? Explain how that principle applies to sickle-cell disease. Why is the structure changed? 49. Besides mutation, which changes the primary structure of a protein, protein structure can be changed by denaturation. Define denaturation, and give at least three ways a protein may become denatured. 50. Chaperone proteins or chaperonins assist in the proper folding of proteins. Annotate this figure to explain the process. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 10 - AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules Concept 5.5 Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information DNA and RNA will be the core topics of Chapter 17. For now, you should just review the general functions and know the components. 51. The flow of genetic information is from DNA Æ RNAÆ protein. Use this figure to explain the process. Label the nucleus, DNA, mRNA, ribosome, and amino acids. 52. The components of a nucleic acid are a sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. Label each on the figure below. 53. You may recall that early in this chapter we looked at the numbering system for the carbons of a sugar. Label the end of the strand on the left side of the figure below that has the number 5 sugar 5' and the other end of the chain 3'. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 11 - AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 54. Notice that there are five nitrogen bases. Which four are found in DNA? 55. Which four are found in RNA? 56. How do ribose and deoxyribose sugars differ? 57. To summarize, what are the three components of a nucleotide? 58. Here is a model of DNA, which was proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick. What is this shape called? 59. Why are the strands said to be antiparallel? 60. What two molecules make up the “uprights”? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 12 - AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 61. What molecules make up the rungs? 62. For the two nucleotides of DNA below, provide the complementary base. A— C— 63. In a DNA double helix, a region along one DNA strand has this sequence of nitrogenous bases: 5'-T A G G C C T-3' Write the complementary strand. Indicate the 5' and 3' ends of the new strand. Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1._______ 2._______ 3._______ 4._______ 5._______ 6._______ 7._______ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 13 - AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules This summary table from the Chapter 5 Review is an excellent study tool. Use it to organize material from this chapter in your mind. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 14 - AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell Name_______________________Period___________ Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell Concept 6.1 To study cells, biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry 1. The study of cells has been limited by their small size, and so they were not seen and described until 1665, when Robert Hooke first looked at dead cells from an oak tree. His contemporary, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, crafted lenses; and with the improvements in optical aids, a new world was opened. Magnification and resolving power limit what can be seen. Explain the difference. 2. The development of electron microscopes has further opened our window on the cell and its organelles. What is considered a major disadvantage of the electron microscopes? 3. Study the electron micrographs in your text. Describe the different types of images obtained from: scanning electron microscopy (SEM) transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 4. In cell fractionation, whole cells are broken up in a blender, and this slurry is centrifuged several times. Each time, smaller and smaller cell parts are isolated. This will isolate different organelles and allow study of their biochemical activities. Which organelles are the smallest ones isolated in this procedure? Concept 6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions 5. Which two domains consist of prokaryotic cells? 6. A major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is the location of their DNA. Describe this difference. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 7. Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell On the sketch of a prokaryotic cell, label each of these features and give its function or description. cell wall plasma membrane bacterial chromosome nucleoid cytoplasm flagella 8. Why are cells so small? Explain the relationship of surface area to volume. 9. Describe how many neurons and intestinal cells each have greatly increased surface area. Concept 6.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes 10. In the figure below, label the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, and pore complex. 11. Describe the nuclear envelope. How many layers is it? What connects the layers? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell 12. What is the nuclear lamina? Nuclear matrix? 13. Found within the nucleus are the chromosomes. They are made of chromatin. What are the two components of chromatin? When do the thin chromatin fibers condense to become distinct chromosomes? 14. When are the nucleoli visible? What are assembled here? 15. What is the function of ribosomes? What are their two components? 16. Ribosomes in any type of organism are all the same, but we distinguish between two types of ribosomes based on where they are found and the destination of the protein product made. Complete this chart to demonstrate this concept. Type of Ribosome Location Product Free ribosomes Bound ribosomes Concept 6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell 17. List all the structures of the endomembrane system. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell 18. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) makes up more than half the total membrane system in many eukaryotic cells. Use this sketch to explain the lumen, transport vesicles, and the difference between smooth and rough ER. 19. List and describe three major functions of the smooth ER. 20. Why does alcohol abuse increase tolerance to other drugs such as barbiturates? 21. The rough ER is studded with ribosomes. As proteins are synthesized, they are threaded into the lumen of the rough ER. Some of these proteins have carbohydrates attached to them in the ER to form glycoproteins. What does the ER then do with these secretory proteins? 22. Besides packaging secretory proteins into transport vesicles, what is another major function of the rough ER? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell 23. The transport vesicles formed from the rough ER fuse with the Golgi apparatus. Use this sketch to label the cisterna of the Golgi apparatus, and its cis and trans faces. Describe what happens to a transport vesicle and its contents when it arrives at the Golgi. 24. What is a lysosome? What do they contain? What is their pH? 25. One function of lysosomes is intracellular digestion of particles engulfed by phagocytosis. Describe this process of digestion. What human cells carry out phagocytosis? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -5- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell 26. A second function of lysosomes is to recycle cellular components in a process called autophagy. Describe this process. 27. What happens in Tay-Sachs disease? Explain the role of the lysosomes in Tay-Sachs. 28. There are many types of vacuoles. Briefly describe: food vacuoles contractile vacuoles central vacuoles in plants (give at least three functions/materials stored here) 29. Use this figure to explain how the elements of the endomembrane system function together to secrete a protein and to digest a cellular component. Label as you explain. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -6- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell Concept 6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another 30. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not considered part of the endomembrane system, although they are enclosed by membranes. Sketch a mitochondrion here and label its outer membrane, inner membrane, inner membrane space, cristae, matrix, and ribosomes. 31. Now sketch a chloroplast and label its outer membrane, inner membrane, inner membrane space, thylakoids, granum, and stroma. Notice that the mitochondrion had two membrane compartments, while the chloroplast has three compartments. 32. What is the function of the mitochondria? 33. What is the function of the chloroplasts? 34. Recall the relationship of structure to function. Why is the inner membrane of the mitochondria highly folded? What role do all the individual thylakoid membranes serve? (Same answer for both questions.) Chloroplasts and mitochondria both have ribosomes and their own DNA. You will learn later about their evolution, but for now hold onto these facts. They are semiautonomous organelles that grow and reproduce within the cell. And you’re lucky today— there is not a question here! Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -7- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell 35. Explain the important role played by peroxisomes. SUMMARY On these diagrams of plant and animal cells, label each organelle and give a brief statement of its function. Concept 6.6 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell 36. What is the cytoskeleton? 37. What are the three roles of the cytoskeleton? 38. There are three main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton. Name them. 39. Microtubules are hollow rods made of a globular protein called tubulin. Each tubulin protein is a dimer made of two subunits. These are easily assembled and disassembled. What are four functions of microtubules? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -8- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell 40. Animal cells have a centrosome that contains a pair of centrioles. Plant cells do not have centrioles. What is another name for centrosomes? What is believed to be the role of centrioles? 41. Describe the organization of microtubules in a centriole. Make a sketch here that shows this arrangement in cross section. 42. Cilia and flagella are also composed of microtubules. The arrangement of microtubules is said to be “9 + 2.” Make a sketch of a cross section here. 43. Compare and contrast cilia and flagella. (This is a specific instruction that means you are to tell how they are alike—compare—and tell how they are different—contrast. Remember this hint when you see a similar phrase on an exam.) 44. How do motor proteins called dyneins cause movement of cilia? What is the role of ATP in this movement? This figure might help you explain. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -9- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell 45. Microfilaments are solid, and they are built from a double chain of actin. What are four functions of microfilaments? What are the motor proteins that move the microfilaments? 46. Intermediate filaments are bigger than microfilaments but smaller than microtubules. They are more permanent fixtures of cells. Give two functions of intermediate filaments. Concept 6.7 Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities 47 What are three functions of the cell wall? 48. What is the composition of the cell wall? 49. What is the relatively thin and flexible wall secreted first by a plant cell? 50. What is the middle lamella? Where is it found? What material is it made of? 51. Explain the deposition of a secondary cell wall. 52. On the sketch, label the primary cell wall, secondary cell wall, middle lamella, cytosol, plasma membrane, central vacuole, and plasmodesmata. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 10 - AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell 53. Animal cells do not have cell walls, but they do have an extracellular matrix (ECM). On this figure, label the elements indicated, and give the role of each. 54. What are the intercellular junctions between plant cells? What can pass through them? 55. Animals cells do not have plasmodesmata. This figure shows the three types of intercellular junctions seen in animal cells. Label each type and summarize its role. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 11 - AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell Here’s a great chart to summarize three concepts—study it! Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 12 - AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1._______ 2._______ 3._______ 4._______ 5._______ 6._______ 7._______ 8._______ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 13 - AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function Name_______________________Period___________ Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function Concept 7.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins 1. The large molecules of all living things fall into just four main classes. Name them. 2. Explain what is meant when we say a molecule is amphipathic. 3. In the 1960s, the Davson-Danielli model of membrane structure was widely accepted. Describe this model and then cite two lines of evidence that were inconsistent with it. 4. Who proposed the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure? When? Describe this model. 5. What is meant by membrane fluidity? Describe the movements seen in the fluid membrane. 6. Describe how each of the following can affect membrane fluidity: a. decreasing temperature b. phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon chains c. cholesterol Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 7. Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function Membrane proteins are the mosaic part of the model. Describe each of the two main categories: integral proteins peripheral proteins 8. Use Figure 7.9 to briefly describe major functions of membrane proteins. Function Description Transport Enzymatic activity Signal transduction Cell-cell recognition Intercellular joining Attachment to cytoskeleton and ECM 9. Membrane carbohydrates are important in cell-cell recognition. What are two examples of this? 10. Distinguish between glycolipids and glycoproteins. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function 11. Label the following structures: glycolipid glycoprotein integral protein peripheral protein cholesterol phospholipid ECM fibers cytoskeleton microfilaments integrins (go back to Chapter 6) Concept 7.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability 12. Distinguish between channel proteins and carrier proteins. 13. Are transport proteins specific? Cite an example that supports your response. 14. Peter Agre received the Nobel Prize in 2003 for the discovery of aquaporins. What are they? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function 15. Consider the following materials that must cross the membrane. For each, tell how it is accomplished. Material Method CO2 glucose H+ O2 H2O Concept 7.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment 16. Define the following terms: diffusion concentration gradient passive transport osmosis isotonic hypertonic hypotonic turgid flaccid plasmolysis 17. Use as many words from the list above to describe why a carrot left on the counter overnight would become limp. Underline each word you use. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 18. Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function What is facilitated diffusion? Is it active or passive? Cite two examples. 19. Label the hypotonic solution, isotonic solution, and hypertonic solution. What is indicated by the blue arrows? Label them. Which cell is lysed? Turgid? Flaccid? Plasmolyzed? Apply all these labels. 20. Why doesn’t the plant cell burst? Concept 7.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients 21. Describe active transport. What type of transport proteins are involved, and what is the role of ATP in the process? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -5- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 22. Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function The sodium-potassium pump is an important system for you to know. Use the following diagram to understand how it works. Use the following terms to label these figures, and briefly summarize what is occurring in each figure: extracellular fluid, cytoplasm, Na+, K+, ATP, ADP, P, transport protein. Summary 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 23. On the diagram below, add these labels: facilitated diffusion with a carrier protein, facilitated diffusion with a channel protein, active transport with a carrier protein, simple diffusion. For each type of transport, give an example of a material that is moved in this manner. 24. What is membrane potential? Which side of the membrane is positive? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -6- AP Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function 25. What are the two forces that drive the diffusion of ions across the membrane? What is the combination of these forces called? 26. What is cotransport? Explain how understanding it is used in our treatment of diarrhea. Concept 7.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis 27. Define each of the following, and give a specific cellular example. endocytosis phagocytosis pinocytosis exocytosis receptor-mediated endocytosis 28. What is a ligand? What do ligands have to do with receptor-mediated endocytosis? 29. Are the processes you described in question 23 active or passive transport? Explain your response. Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1._______ 2._______ 3._______ 4._______ 5._______ Reproduce the diagram for question 6, and draw arrows as instructed. 6b.______ 6c.______ 6d.______ 6e.______ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -7- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 12: Cell Cycle Name_______________________Period___________ Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle Overview: 1. What are the three key roles of cell division? State each role, and give an example. Key Role 2. Example What is meant by the cell cycle? Concept 12.1 Cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells 3. What is the meaning of genome? Compare your genome to that of a prokaryotic cell. 4. How many chromosomes are in a human somatic cell? 5. Name two types of somatic cells in your body. 6. What is a gamete? 7. Name the two types of gametes. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 12: Cell Cycle 8. How many chromosomes in a human gamete? 9. Define chromatin. 10. Think carefully, now. How many DNA molecules are in each of your somatic cells? 11. You are going to have to learn the difference between a number of similar-sounding terms. The sketch that looks like an X represents a replicated chromosome that has two sister chromatids. The narrow “waist” represents the location of the centromere. Students often get all these terms confused, so take time now to label the indicated areas of the figure and then define each of the terms below. chromosome chromatid centromere chromatin 12. Study Figure 12.4. Label the figure below, and summarize what occurs at the DNA level in each stage. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 12: Cell Cycle 13. What is mitosis? How is it different from cytokinesis? 14. What occurs in meiosis? How is the chromosome number of daughter cells different? 15. Select either mitosis or meiosis to answer the following questions. ___________________ By what process are the damaged cells in a wound replaced? ___________________ By what process are eggs formed? ___________________ By what process does a zygote develop into a multicellular organism? ___________________ In which process are identical daughter cells produced? ___________________ Which process reduces chromosome number of daughter cells? 16. Don’t skip the Concept Check Questions! They are a good way to verify your understanding. Here is a variation of question 3. Answer it here: A hedgehog has 90 chromosomes in its somatic cells. a. How many chromosomes did the hedgehog inherit from each parent? b. How many chromosomes are in each of the hedgehog’s gametes? c. How many chromosomes will be in each somatic cell of the hedgehog’s offspring? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 12: Cell Cycle Concept 12.2 The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle 17. Label each of the parts of the cell cycle listed below, and give a brief explanation of what happens in each phase. G1 S G2 M 18. What are the components of the mitotic spindle? What is the source of these components? 19. In animal cells, the assembly of spindle microtubules starts at the centrosome. What is another name for the centrosome? 20. Sketch and label a centrosome with two centrioles. 21. Describe what happens to the centrosome during interphase and then prophase. 22. What is a kinetochore? Read your text carefully, and then make a labeled sketch that shows a replicated chromosome with two kinetechores and some attached spindle fibers. Figure 12.7 may help. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 23. Chapter 12: Cell Cycle You will need to spend some serious time with Figure 12.6. Use it to help you label this figure. Label each phase by name; then label the smaller structures. Finally, make 2 or 3 summary statements that indicate important features to note about the phase. Phase Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Important Feature of Phase -5- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 12: Cell Cycle 24. Explain the difference between kinetochore and nonkinetechore microtubules. What is the function of each? 25. What are the components of the mitotic spindle? 26. At which end do kinetochore microtubules shorten during anaphase? Explain the data that supports where this shortening occurs. 27. Describe cytokinesis in an animal cell. Use a labeled sketch that shows the cleavage furrow. 28. Describe cytokinesis in a plant cell. Use a labeled sketch that shows the cell plate. 29. How is the cell plate formed? What is the source of the material for the cell plate? 30. Prokaryote reproduction does not involve mitosis, but instead occurs by binary fission. This process involves an origin of replication. Describe binary fission. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -6- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 31. Chapter 12: Cell Cycle Notice that now you are learning a number of differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Besides the fact that prokaryotes lack a membrane-bounded nucleus, describe the following differences: Mode of reproduction? Number of chromosomes? Shape of the bacterial chromosome? Concept 12.3 The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system 32. What controls the cell cycle? Study the Inquiry Figure 12.13 to help you answer this question. 33. What is a cell cycle checkpoint? 34. Summarize what happens at each checkpoint. You may add to this chart as you study this section. Checkpoint What happens? How is it controlled? G1 G2 M 35. What is the Go phase? Describe this phase. 36. What is a protein kinase? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -7- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 37. Chapter 12: Cell Cycle Kinases drive the cell cycle, but they must be activated by attachment of a _________________. 38. The activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDks) rises and falls. Why? 39. What does MPF trigger? What are some specific activities that it triggers? 40. What happens if all the chromosome kinetochores are not attached to spindle fibers? When this occurs, which checkpoint is not passed? 41. What are growth factors? How does PDGF stimulate fibroblast division? 42. Cancer cells exhibit different behaviors than normal cells. Here are two normal behaviors they no longer show. Explain each behavior. density-dependent inhibition anchorage dependence 43. Cancer cells also show loss of cell cycle controls and may divide without being checked. The story of HeLa cells is worth noting. What is their source? How old are they? Note that, unlike normal cells, HeLa cells are immortal! 44. What is transformation? metastasis? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -8- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 45. Distinguish between a benign tumor and a malignant tumor. 46. List two specific cancer treatments, and tell how each treatment works. 47. Identify each phase of the cell cycle. Chapter 12: Cell Cycle Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1._______ 2._______ 3._______ 4.________ 5.________ 6.________ 7._______ 8.________ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -9- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Name__________________________Period___________ Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Concept 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes 1. Let’s begin with a review of several terms that you may already know. Define: gene locus gamete male gamete female gamete asexual reproduction sexual reproduction 2. How many chromosomes are in human cells? What is a chromosome? 3. Which type of reproduction will result in genetically identical offspring? Concept 13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles 4. What is a somatic cell? Give examples of two human somatic cell types. 5. How does a somatic cell compare to a gamete in terms of chromosome number? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 6. Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Distinguish between sex chromosomes and autosomes. How many of each are found in human cells? Explanation # in Human Cells Sex chromosome Autosome 7. What is a karyotype? How is it prepared? What are three things that can be determined from a karyotype? 8. Explain what is meant by homologous chromosomes. 9. Cells that have only one of each homologous pair are said to be haploid, a condition that is represented by n. Cells that have two of each homologous pair are said to be diploid or 2n. For each of the following, is the cell haploid or diploid? liver cell____________________________ gamete________________________________ egg_________________________________ zygote________________________________ skin cell_____________________________ sperm ________________________________ somatic cell__________________________ sex cell_______________________________ 10. The muscle cells of a dog have 78 chromosomes. Fill in the correct chromosome number in a: bone cell_______ sperm_______ haploid cell_______ somatic cell_______ zygote_______ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 11. Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles In the cell at right, the chromosomes are shaded in two colors to represent the parent of origin. On this sketch, label the following: a. sister chromatids b. homologous chromosomes c. centromere d. replicated chromosome e. maternal chromosomes 12. How many chromosomes does the cell above have? How many homologous pairs? How many chromatids? Is this cell haploid or diploid? 13. Where are the gametes of an animal produced? Be specific as to male and female gametes. 14. By what process are gametes produced? 15. What is another term for a fertilized egg? __________________What is the chromosome number of the fertilized egg? (Answer this in general terms, haploid, n, or diploid, 2n.) 16. What is the purpose of meiosis? 17. Study Figure 13.6. You will see that plants have a life cycle that involves spores, which form as a result of meiosis, so these spores are haploid. Notice also that both haploid and diploid cells can divide by mitosis. However, meiosis always begins with cells that are _________________, and as a result of meiosis, daughter cells are formed that are always _________________. These cells can be gametes (in animals) or spores (in plants). Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 18. Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Your study of plants this year will include knowing that they exhibit alternation of generations. What does this mean? What are the two generations? Which is haploid, and which is diploid? Use this information to label the moss life cycle here. Concept 13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid 19. What are alleles? Give an example. 20. In meiosis, the DNA is replicated during interphase, followed by two divisions. The first division is meiosis I. Study the events of prophase I as they are significant. Explain each of these events: synapsis crossing over PROPHASE I chiasmata 21. The figure at the right shows metaphase I. How is the arrangement of chromosomes different from metaphase of mitosis? METAPHASE I Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles 22. There will be two divisions in meiosis. What will separate in the first division in meiosis I? 23. Now study the chromosomes in anaphase I and telophase I carefully. How many chromosomes are in each cell at the end of the first meiotic division? Are the resultant daughter cells haploid, or diploid? ANAPHASE I TELOPHASE I 24. From this figure, you should see that chromosome number is reduced in meiosis I and that the daughter cells at the end of meiosis I are haploid. Remember this! 25. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate. What separates during meiosis II? 26. To check that you have the big picture, here are some quick review questions. a. What happens to chromosome number in meiosis? b. During which division is the chromosome number reduced? c. What is the purpose of meiosis? d. How many times does the cell divide in meiosis? e. How many times do the chromosomes duplicate? f. How many daughter cells are formed? g. What is the chromosome number? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -5- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles h. What are homologs (homologous chromosomes)? i. What occurs in synapsis? j. What is crossing over? 27. Use Figure 13.9 to compare of mitosis and meiosis. Add these labels: Parent cell, Mitosis, Meiosis, Synapsis, Homologous chromosomes, Replicated chromosomes, Sister chromatids, Daughter cells, Meiosis I, Meiosis II, Crossing over As you label the drawing, carefully think about each process and review its important features. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -6- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 28. Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Students often get confused about the differences between mitosis and meiosis. To help with this, work through the following chart: Mitosis Meiosis Role in the animal body Number of DNA replications Number of divisions Number of daughter cells Chromosome number of daughter cells 29. Synapsis and crossing over are unique to meiosis. During what specific phase do these occur? 30. Explain the physical events of crossing over. You may wish to make a sketch of the event. Include these terms: synaptonemal complex, chiasmata, homologs, sister chromatids. Concept 13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution 31. An important idea for you to understand is that new alleles arise by changes in the DNA or mutation, but genetic diversity occurs when the deck that is dealt is simply reshuffled. So, there are three ways that sexually reproducing organisms “shuffle the deck.” They are listed below. Explain what occurs in each, and how this increases diversity. independent assortment of chromosomes crossing over random fertilization Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -7- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 32. Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Here is a fun exercise to drive this point home. Pull out your calculator, and try your hand at this: When you were conceived, what were the odds that of the many possibilities, your parents would come up with you? a. The number of different gametes that can be formed because of independent assortment is 2n, where n = the number of homologous pairs Therefore, since humans have 46 chromosomes or 23 homologous pairs, what is the number of possible gametes that can be formed due to independent assortment of chromosomes? b. Now, this is the number of unique gametes your mom could have made. Your father could have made the same number. To see the effect of random fertilization, multiply the number of gametes one parent could make by the number of unique gametes the other parent could make. Your answer should be in the trillions, and all of this is without crossing over. See how special you are? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -8- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1.________2.________3.________4._________5._________6.__________7._________ Follow the directions for Self-Quiz question 10, DRAW IT by labeling the appropriate structures with these terms, drawing lines or brackets as needed: chromosome (label as replicated or unreplicated), centromere, kinetochore, sister chromatids, nonsister chromatids, homologous pair, homologs, chiasma, sister chromatid cohesion, and then answer questions 8 and 9. 8. _________________________________ 9. _________________________________ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -9- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter14: Mendel and the Gene Idea Name__________________________Period___________ Chapter 14: Mendel and the Gene Idea If you have completed a first-year high school biology course, some of this chapter will serve as a review for the basic concepts of Mendelian genetics. For other students, this may be your first exposure to genetics. In either case, this is a chapter that should be carefully mastered. Spending some time with this chapter, especially working genetics problems, will give you a solid foundation for the extensive genetics unit in the chapters to come. Overview: 1. In the 1800s the most widely favored explanation of genetics was blending. Explain the concept of blending, and then describe how Mendel’s particulate (gene) theory was different. Concept 14.1 Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance 2. One of the keys to success for Mendel was using pea plants. Explain how using pea plants allowed Mendel to control mating; that is, how did this approach let Mendel be positive about the exact characteristics of each parent? 3. Define the following terms. Then, consider your own family. Which generation would your Mom’s grandparents be? Your Mom? You? P generation F1 generation F2 generation Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 4. Chapter14: Mendel and the Gene Idea Explain how Mendel’s simple cross of purple and white flowers did the following: refuted blending determined dominant and recessive characteristics demonstrated the merit of experiments that covered multiple generations 5. Alternate versions of the same gene, like purple and white flower color, are termed _____________. 6. On the figure at below, label the allele for both purple and white flower color, a homologous pair, and the locus of the flower color gene. 7. In sexually reproducing organisms, why are there exactly two chromosomes in each homologue? 8. Mendel’s model consists of four concepts. Describe each concept in the appropriate space below. Indicate which of the concepts can be observed during meiosis by placing an asterisk by the concept. Mendel’s Four Concepts Description of Concept 1st concept 2nd concept 3rd concept 4th concept (law of segregation) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 9. Chapter14: Mendel and the Gene Idea Using Figure 14.5 as your guide, provide the missing notations for the figure below. (P, F1, F2). a. What is the F2 phenotypic and genotypic ratio? b. Which generation is completely heterozygous? c. Which generation has both heterozygous and homozygous offspring? 10. In pea plants, T is the allele for tall plants, while t is the allele for dwarf plants. If you have a tall plant, demonstrate with a test cross how it could be determined if the plant is homozygous tall or heterozygous tall. 11. Explain the difference between a monohybrid cross and a dihybrid cross. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 12. Chapter14: Mendel and the Gene Idea As you start to work word problems in genetics, two things are critical: the parent’s genotype must be correct, and the gametes must be formed correctly. Using Figure 14.8 as your guide, explain how the gametes are derived for the following cross. (You should have four different gametes). YyRr × YyRr 13. Complete the cross given in questions 12 by placing the gametes in a Punnett square. Then provide the phenotypic ratio of the offspring. Phenotypes/Phenotypic Ratio 14. Explain Mendel’s law of independent assortment. Before leaving this concept, it would be helpful to complete the three problems in the 14.1 Concept Check on page 269 of your textbook. The problems are worked and explained in the Answer section on page A-10 at the back of the book. Concept 14.2 The laws of probability govern Mendelian inheritance 15. An event that is certain to occur has a probability of _______, while an event that is certain not to occur has a probability of ________. 16. In probability, what is an independent event? 17. State the multiplication rule and give an original example. 18. State the addition rule and give an original example. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 19. Chapter14: Mendel and the Gene Idea What is the probability that a couple will have a girl, a boy, a girl, and a boy in this specific order? Concept 14.3 Inheritance patterns are often more complex than those predicted by simple Mendelian genetics 20. Explain how incomplete dominance is different from complete dominance, and give an example of incomplete dominance. 21. Compare and contrast codominance with incomplete dominance. 22. Dominant alleles are not necessarily more common than recessive alleles in the gene pool. Explain why this is true. 23. Explain what is meant when a gene is said to have multiple alleles. 24. Blood groups are so important medically that you should be able to solve genetics problems based on blood types. The first step in accomplishing that is to understand the genotypes of each blood type. Before working any problems, complete this ABO blood type chart. Genotype Red Blood Cell Appearance Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Phenotype (blood group) -5- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter14: Mendel and the Gene Idea 25. Question 2 in the 14.3 Concept Check is a blood type problem. Complete it here, and show your work. 26. What is pleiotropy? Explain why this is important in diseases like cystic fibrosis and sicklecell disease. 27. Explain epistasis. 28. Explain why the dihybrid cross detailed in Figure 14.12 has 4 white mice instead of the 3 that would have been predicted by Mendel’s work. 29. Why is height a good example of polygenic inheritance? 30. Quantitative variation usually indicates ______________________________. 31. Using the terms norm of reaction and multifactorial, explain the potential influence of the environment on phenotypic expression. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -6- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter14: Mendel and the Gene Idea Concept 14.4 Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance 32. Pedigree analysis is often used to determine the mode of inheritance (dominant or recessive, for example). Be sure to read the “Tips for pedigree analysis” in Figure 14.15; then complete the unlabeled pedigree by indicating the genotypes for all involved. What is the mode of inheritance for this pedigree? 33. Explain why you know the genotype of one female in the third generation, but are unsure of the other. 34. Describe what you think is important to know medically about the behavior of recessive alleles. 35. Students are expected to have a general knowledge of the pattern of inheritance and the common symptoms of a number of genetic disorders. Provide this information for the disorders listed below. a. cystic fibrosis b. sickle-cell disease Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -7- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter14: Mendel and the Gene Idea c. achondroplasia d. Huntington’s disease 36. Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling are the two most widely used methods for testing a fetus for genetic disorders. Use the unlabeled diagram below to explain the three main steps in amniocentesis and the two main steps of CVS. 37. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each fetal test? 38. Explain the symptoms of phenylketonuria, and describe how newborn screening is used to identify children with this disorder. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -8- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter14: Mendel and the Gene Idea Testing Your Knowledge: Genetics Problems (pg. 284) Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. This chapter does not have a Self-Quiz, but rather asks you to do a series of problems. One of the ways to determine your understanding of Mendelian genetics is to work many genetic problems. Complete the questions from the problems at the end of the chapter. Before starting, it would be productive to read the “Tips for Genetic Problems” on page 283. Work neatly, and show all work. As you know, you can check your solutions in your text. Questions 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 16, 17, 19 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -9- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 16: Molecular Basis of Inheritance Name_______________________ Period___________ Chapter 16: The Molecular Basis of Inheritance Concept 16.1 DNA is the genetic material 1. What are the two chemical components of chromosomes? 2. Why did researchers originally think that protein was the genetic material? 3. Distinguish between the virulent and nonvirulent strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae studied by Frederick Griffith. 4. What was the purpose of Griffith’s studies? 5. Use this figure to summarize the experiment in which Griffith became aware that hereditary information could be transmitted between two organisms in an unusual manner. 6. Define transformation. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 16: Molecular Basis of Inheritance 7. What did Oswald Avery determine to be the transforming factor? ___________ Explain his experimental approach. 8. Sketch a T2 bacteriophage and label its head, tail sheath, tail fiber, and DNA. 9. How does a bacteriophage destroy a bacterial cell? Look ahead to Chapter 19, Figure 19.5, to explain this. 10. How did Hershey and Chase “label” viral DNA and viral protein so that they could be distinguished? Explain why they chose each radioactive tag in light of the chemical composition of DNA and protein. 11. Describe the means by which Hershey and Chase established that only the DNA of a phage enters an E. coli cell. What conclusions did these scientists draw based on these observations? 12. What are Chargaff’s rules? How did he arrive at them? 13. List the three components of a nucleotide. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 16: Molecular Basis of Inheritance 14. Who built the first model of DNA and shared the 1962 Nobel Prize for discovery of its structure? 15. What was the role of Rosalind Franklin in the discovery of the double helix? 16. Distinguish between the structure of pyrimidines and purines. Explain why adenine bonds only to thymine. 17. How did Watson and Crick’s model explain the basis for Chargaff’s rules? 18. Given that the DNA of a certain fly species consists of 27.3% adenine and 22.5% guanine, use Chargaff’s rules to deduce the percentages of thymine and cytosine. 19. Name the five nitrogenous bases, and put a checkmark in the correct column for each base. Also indicate if the base is found in DNA (D), RNA (R), or both (B). Nitrogenous Base Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Purine Pyrimidine D, R or B -3- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 16: Molecular Basis of Inheritance 20. Explain the base-pairing rule. 21. Describe the structure of DNA relative to each of the following: a. distance across molecule _______________________ b. distance between nucleotides ____________________ c. distance between turns _________________________ d. components of the backbone ____________________ e. components of the “rungs”_____________________ 22. Explain what is meant by 5' and 3' ends of the nucleotide. 23. What do we mean when we say the two strands of DNA are antiparallel? Concept 16.2 Many proteins work together in DNA replication and repair 24. What is the semiconservative model of replication? 25. Who performed the experiments that elucidated the correct mechanism of DNA replication? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 16: Molecular Basis of Inheritance 26. How did Meselson and Stahl create “heavy” DNA for their experiments? 27. Use Figure 16.11 to explain how Meselson and Stahl confirmed the semiconservative mechanism of DNA replication. 28. Define the origins of replication. 29. Distinguish between the leading and the lagging strands during DNA replication. 30. What is the direction of synthesis of the new strand? 31. What are Okazaki fragments? How are they welded together? 32. Which enzyme . . .? a. untwists and separates strands b. holds DNA strands apart Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -5- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 16: Molecular Basis of Inheritance c. synthesizes RNA primer d. adds DNA nucleotides to new strand e. relieves strain caused by unwinding f. joins DNA fragments together g. removes RNA primer and replaces with DNA 33. Label the following figures. Include 3' and 5' strands, RNA primer, primase, SSBP, topoisomerase, helicase, leading strand, lagging strand, DNA pol I, DNA pol III, DNA ligase, parental DNA, and new DNA. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -6- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 16: Molecular Basis of Inheritance 34. Put it all together! Make a detailed list of the steps that occur in the synthesis of a new strand. 35. Explain the roles of each of the following enzymes in DNA proofreading and repair. Enzyme Role DNA polymerase Nuclease Ligase Repair enzymes 36. What is a thymine dimer? How might it occur? How is it repaired? 37. Make a sketch of a chromosome and label the telomeres. 38. Explain telomere erosion and the role of telomerase. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -7- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 39. Chapter 16: Molecular Basis of Inheritance Why are cancer cells immortal, but most body cells have a limited life span? Concept 16.3 A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins 40. On the diagrams below, identify the following: 30-nm fiber, metaphase chromosome, double helix, histone proteins, nucleosomes, protein scaffold, and looped domains (300-nm fiber). 41. Distinguish between heterochromatin and euchromatin. Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1.______ 2.______ 3.______ 4.______ 5.______ 6.______ 7.______ 8.______ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -8- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life Name _______________________ Period ___________ Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life Overview 1. What is systematics? How is it used to develop phylogenetic trees? Concept 26.1 Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships 2. What is taxonomy? 3. Every organism on Earth may be referred to by a unique binomial, or a two-part name. These are in Latin, or latinized. What is your binomial? What does it mean? 4. What are the two components of every binomial? 5. Taxonomy uses hierarchical categories that nest within each other, like Russian dolls. The figure below shows the categories, each called a taxon. Label each taxonomic category, in the boxes, and then give the one that applies exclusively to this panther to the side of each box. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life You will notice that the most general category, domain, the one that encompasses the most organisms, is shown at the bottom of the figure. As you move up in the figure, the organisms show greater and greater degrees of relatedness. You are expected to memorize these taxonomic categories in order! Most students use a mnemonic device linked to the first letter of each taxon to remember them. Make up your own, or try ours: D K P C O F G S or Dear King Phillip Comes Over For Good Spaghetti (You may choose to have King Philip come over for something else—whatever you can remember best!) 6. So, which are more closely related, organisms in the same phylum, or those in the same order? _________ 7. Here is a phylogenetic tree. Recall that branch points represent common ancestors of the two lineages beyond the branch or node. Circle the common ancestor of badgers and otters, and label it as A. Circle the common ancestor of cats and dogs, and label it as B. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life Concept 26.2 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data Let’s look back at a Study Tip from Chapter 22. This idea is repeated in our current chapter. Study Tip Homologous structures show evidence of relatedness. (whale fin, bat wing) Analogous structures are similar solutions to similar problems but do not indicate close relatedness. (bird wing, butterfly wing) 8. Molecular systematics is a valuable tool used today to sort homology from analogy. What is it? Concept 26.3 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees 9. Below are three cladograms. What is a clade? Circle a clade that is not highlighted below. 10. Why is Group I monophyletic? 11. Explain why Group II is paraphyletic. 12. What is a polyphyletic group? 13. Clades are derived by using shared derived characters. What are these? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 14. Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life Explain why for mammals, hair is a shared derived character, but a backbone is not. Concept 26.4 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome Let’s summarize some important information from this section. The rate of evolution of DNA sequences varies from one part of the genome to another; therefore, comparing different sequences helps us to investigate relationships between groups of organisms that diverged a long time ago. For example, DNA that codes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA) changes relatively slowly and is useful for investigating relationships between taxa that diverged hundreds of millions of years ago. DNA that codes for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) evolves rapidly and can be used to explore recent evolutionary events. 15. 16. Which method reveals that fungi are more closely related to animals than to green plants? Which method reveals that the Pima of Arizona and Yanomami of Venezuela are descendants of the same Native Americans that crossed the Bering Land Bridge 13,000 years ago? Concept 26.5 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time 17. What are molecular clocks? 18. If we use a molecular clock, approximately when did HIV emerge? Concept 26.6 New information continues to revise our understanding of the tree of life Taxonomy is in flux! When your authors were in high school, we were taught there were two kingdoms: plants and animals. Then in our college courses, we were introduced to five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia. Now biologists have adopted a three-domain system, which consists of the domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. This system arose from the finding that there are two distinct lineages of prokaryotes. ARCHAEA EUKARYA BACTERIA Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life 19. On the figure above, place an arrow at the point showing the common ancestor of all three domains. 20. What two domains include all prokaryotes? Which two domains are most closely related? 21. Which kingdom is made obsolete by the three-domain system? Why? 22. Which kingdom crumbled because it is polyphyletic? Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1. __________ 2.__________ 3. __________ 4. __________ 5. __________ 6. __________ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -5- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 52 An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere Name________________________________ Period___________ Chapter 52: An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere Overview 1. What is ecology? 2. Study Figure 52.2. It shows the different levels of the biological hierarchy studied by ecologists. Notice also the different types of questions that might be studied by an ecologist at each level of study. Use this figure to define or explain the following terms: organismal ecology population population ecology community community ecology ecosystem ecosystem ecology landscape ecology biosphere global ecology Concept 52.1 Ecology integrates all areas of biological research and informs environmental decision making 3. Contrast the terms ecology and environmentalism. How does ecology relate to environmentalism? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -1- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 4. Chapter 52 An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere What environmental issue was targeted in Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring? What was the outcome of her efforts? Concept 52.2 Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species 5. 6. What is biogeography? What factors determine the distribution of organisms? Read this section carefully to understand different types of experiments and observations that help explain the distribution of species. As you conclude this section, list and describe five examples of biotic factors. Biotic Factor 7. Example and Description List five abiotic factors. Include an example and description of each factor’s influence on living organisms. Abiotic Factor Example and Description Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -2- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 52 An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere 8. What is climate? What abiotic factors are its components? 9. Study Figure 52.10, which summarizes Earth’s climate patterns and how they are formed. Explain how Earth’s curvature and axis of rotation influence the amount of sunlight reaching a given area, and how these factors influence the temperature and precipitation in that area. 10. Let’s look at factors that affect climate on a smaller scale. Begin by studying Figure 52.11. Why is the Pacific Northwest so rainy? What causes the Mediterranean climate? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -3- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 52 An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere 11. Explain the “rain shadow” effect. 12. What effect does elevation have on climate? Why do we say that hiking from Gatlinburg, Tennessee, at 393 meters of elevation in the Smoky Mountains region, to the top of Mount LeConte, at 2010 meters, is like traveling to Canada? Concept 52.3 Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth 13. What is a biome? 14. What is the largest marine biome, and how much of Earth’s surface does it cover? 15. As you read this section and study Figure 52.18, you will encounter a number of new terms. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of terms: photic/aphotic benthic/pelagic oligotrophic/eutrophic littoral zone/limnetic zone zooplankton/phytoplankton neritic/abyssal Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -4- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw 16. Chapter 52 An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere The aquatic biomes are listed in the chart. Give a description of the biome below its name, and then complete the other parts of the chart. Aquatic Biome Typical Autotrophs Typical Heterotrophs Human Impact Lakes Wetlands Streams and rivers Estuaries Intertidal Oceanic pelagic Concept 52.4 The structure and distribution of terrestrial biomes are controlled by climate and disturbance 17. Figure 52.20 shows a climograph for some major biomes in North America. What two abiotic factors shown here are most important in determining the distribution of the biome? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -5- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 52 An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere 18. Label the axes of this figure, and identify each biome shown here. Try to do this based on your understanding of the figure, and then use the text to check your answers. You will use these biomes: temperate grassland, temperate broadleaf forest, tropical forest, northern coniferous forest, desert, tundra. 19. Describe each major terrestrial biome as to rainfall, temperature, location, and representative flora and fauna. tropical forest desert savanna Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -6- AP Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 52 An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere chaparral temperate grassland northern coniferous forest/taiga temperate broadleaf forest tundra Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1.______ 2.______ 3._______ 4.______ 5._______ 6._______ 7._______ 8.______ 9._______ Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. -7-
