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PROPAGANDA: HISTORY, TECHNIQUES AND EFFECTS
Antoinette N. Lopez
The University of the Incarnate Word
ABSTRACT
In a democratic society, the right to an opinion is invaluable. It is public
opinion that shapes our nation through popular culture, politics, and
morals. Propaganda is a force used to sway popular opinion in a direction
beneficial to its source. It is through propaganda that selective facts are
presented to spark a highly emotional, rather than rational response, the
desired outcome being to change the present attitudes of a target group to
support or further a specific agenda. Propaganda is usually biased and
presents itself in many forms. First, this paper will explore the history of
propaganda and its roots, researching the birth of opinion changing
techniques and the major influence of World War II. Second, the paper
will review the seven main techniques of propaganda and thirdly, the case
studies used to exemplify their effects on society’s mass opinion.
Keywords: public opinion, history of propaganda, seven main
techniques, effects on society’s mass opinion
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Antoinette N. Lopez
Dr. Perry
Research and Writing Techniques 6300
27 February 2012
Propaganda: History, Techniques and Effects
In a democratic society, the right to an opinion proves invaluable. Public
opinion shapes our nation through popular culture, politics, and morals.
Propaganda defines a force used to sway popular opinion in a direction beneficial
to its source. In propaganda selective facts are presented to spark a highly
emotional, rather than rational response, the desired outcome being to change
the present attitudes of a target group to support or further a specific agenda.
Propaganda presents itself in many forms and usually exhibits a biased
message. First, this paper will explore the history of propaganda and its roots,
researching the birth of opinion-changing philosophies and the major influences
of World War II. Second, the paper will review the seven main techniques of
propaganda and last, examine the case studies used to exemplify their effects on
society’s mass opinion. The Journal of Advertising Research estimates that the
average American perceives over 2,000 propagandistic ads everyday (3-9). This
demonstrates the necessity for society to fully understand mass media’s
propagandist agendas penetrating everyday life.
Although the use has existed since the beginning of history, the actual
term propaganda originated during the Reformation period. The Catholic
Church’s, Pope Gregory XV coined the term with the establishment of his Sacred
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Congregation for Propagating the Faith in 1622 (Severin and Tankard 108). The
congregation commissioned cardinals to spread the word and regulations of their
faith, in hopes of winning back the recent followers of the Protestant faith
movement. The congregation took major advantage of the recent boom in
printing presses. The new invention of presses made new ideas and information
easier to access than ever before. In these times, the term propaganda was
considered honorable and respected by society.
It was not until 1933 that Nazi Germany’s Joseph Goebbels took the term
into a whole new light. Goebbels took the position as Minister of Public
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Enlightenment of Propaganda. The Nazi’s
pervasive use of the term secured the
negative connotations that exist today
(Shah 41). Germany obtained the most
advanced forms of propaganda at the time,
implementing regulations, policies, a goal of
a Total War, and support of the
extermination of millions in the Holocaust.
Germany pumped its message into the
veins of society using every channel of
media, utilizing newspapers, posters, films, books, educational textbooks,
comics, magazines, radio, and even fine art. Adolf Hitler provided two chapters of
his work of Mein Kampf to the study and practice of propaganda. Hitler claimed
to have experienced the importance of propaganda as a World War I infantryman
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exposed to the successful British propaganda (Welch 23). An argument took
place stating that Germany lost the war mainly because of British propaganda
efforts. This started Hitler’s obsession with the power of manipulation through
propaganda in World War II. Hitler and Goebbels took over the propaganda field
of study, pushing forward extensive research. These actions began the war on
Nazi propaganda, causing the opposing nations to fight back with their own forms
of propaganda in hopes to reduce the Nazi’s effect on society’s mass opinion.
America and other opposing nations used propaganda as a soft power.
Soft power in contrast to hard power, describes the use of a second option to
violence or intense action in warfare. During World War II, American utilized
propaganda to increase support for the war and loyalty to an Allied victory. With a
vast selection of media, propagandists built hatred for the enemy and support for
America's allies. American World War II propaganda urged greater public effort
for war production and persuaded people to
limit their rations of products in order to
provide more material for the war effort.
Most propaganda channels pitched and
sold war bonds used as debt securities for
the purpose of financing military operations
in times of war. “The War Finance
Committee was in charge of supervising the
sale of all bonds, and the War Advertising
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Council promoted voluntary compliance with bond buying. The work of those two
organizations produced the greatest volume of advertising in U.S. history. In the
name of defense of American liberty and democracy, and as safe havens for
investment, the public was continually urged to buy bonds” (US War Bonds 1). In
1936, America established the Institute for Propaganda Analysis (IPA) to help
educate Americans to study and recognize the techniques of propaganda.
Although the institute did not last very long, its list of seven propaganda methods
became a national standard and continues to carry on throughout history.
The first and most commonly used technique described in the IPA list titles
as name calling. This technique, used to give an idea or individual a bad
reputation, hopes to sway society towards rejecting and condemning one or
one’s idea without considering the evidence. In America, the label “Communist”
is a very common example of the name calling technique. In the early 1950s, a
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major fruit company was faced with the
expulsion of their large amount of land
holdings in Guatemala, in order to make
room for land-less natives. The major fruit
company started a chain of rumors labeling
the expulsion as “Communist-related,”
targeting the newly elected government that
ordered the expulsion. The company went so
far as to stage Communist demonstrations at
the site of the press coverage. Due to the
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coverage of the “Communist-related” issues, the US State Department and the
CIA got involved. The US government was convinced that the expulsion was a
“Communist threat.” This resulted in the overthrow of the justifiably elected
Guatemalan government. As said by Severin and Tankard in their book
Communication Theories, “Sometimes name calling can affect the destinies of
nations and millions of people”(14). The extraordinary power of labeling can bring
about extraordinary outcomes, whether they are justified or not.
The next technique often referred to as glittering generality, compares an
idea or object with a virtuous word to gain society’s approval without studying the
evidence. Glittering generality is mostly seen on food and products. Items like the
cereal Lucky Charms or Wonder Bread are titled to persuade you to buy them for
how “lucky” or “wonderful” they are. Some foods titled as “natural” or “light” are
also considered glittering generality because of the dependence on the title to
sell itself. Politics takes advantage of this technique as well, using words like trust
or freedom to title a new law or campaign. Even wars are titled to gain approval.
George W. Bush’s, “War on Terrorism” was attached to a powerful emotion. The
simple use of words can affect a lasting impression on the public, causing
predetermined judgment without rational thinking. The American nation still
mourning from September 11 was vulnerable. A nation full of anger and
mourning was faced with a decision too soon to rationally comprehend it. Who
could possibly disagree with a battle against “terrorism?” The way something is
titled can subconsciously penetrate your first impression, creating immediate
judgment without consideration of its true reality.
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When one watches television commercials one will notice theme music
backing the advertisement. This theme music is known as a technique called
transfer. Music often associates a product or idea with a feeling, like a rock band
playing in the background of a truck commercial. Transfer propaganda, in
contrast to glittering generality, does not usually use words to associate its
products with the positive. Transfer usually utilizes scenes or situations along
with music to persuade an audience. The goal is to link an idea or product with
an idea or situation that people admire. Sometimes manufactured personalities
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are used as well. For example,
General Mill’s has a line of products
that have been represented by a
manufactured woman who takes the
title of Betty Crocker herself. In 1936, a
face was given to Betty Crocker
products. Originally a grandmotherly
figure, Betty Crocker’s face changes
drastically as she gets surprisingly younger and more attractive every few years.
Betty Crocker’s products are associated with family, motherhood, home, beauty
and youth to gain the targeted audience appeal. Transfer associates not only
words, but lifestyles.
Similar to transfer techniques the testimonial technique associates ideas
or products with the admirable. In this case the admirable is a spokesperson.
Magazine ads are fully adorned with the famous faces of actors, singers, models,
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and athletes. Testimonials are usually represented by a respected or hated
person to give something a good or bad association. One should consider the
“Got Milk” ads as an example, all represented by a different celebrity showcasing
their famous milk mustache. The association with celebrities, leading figures, and
any other being of the admired elite has proved to boost success in sales and
marketing.
One of the most interesting of techniques describes the method by which
a source attempts to convince its target that its ideas are good because they are
a part of the average society. This technique is called the plain folks approach.
Often used in ads and politics, the plain folks technique steers the audience to
feel associated with a person or thing. One could consider Blue Bell
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“Homemade” Ice Cream as an example. The word
homemade proves a usual word used in the plain
folks approach attempting to associate itself with the
idea of home. In politics one might be familiar with
the term “baby kissing,” used to describe
propaganda utilized by politicians through publicity.
A politician can walk through a middle class
neighborhood, talk to normal people, hold and kiss
babies, often dressing casually. Often creating a
feeling of closeness between the politician and the
voters, baby kissing is a very resourceful plain folks technique in politics. The
association between an authority figure and the honest acts of a humble being
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can have major effects on the public. It is a strong personal feeling that embodies
that plain folks approach.
Mostly used in movie trailers and product advertisements, card stacking is
“the selection and use of facts or falsehoods, illustrations or distractions, and
logical or illogical statements in order to give the best or worst possible case for
an idea, program, person, or product” (Lee 95). Card stacking infamously stamps
DVD covers with complementing quotes of movie critics. These quotes are often
chopped to say exactly what the source wishes. One nationally respected movie
critic accused a movie production company of chopping his statements in
reference to Francis Ford Coppola’s new film The Rainmaker. “She went on to
stress how print-media movie ads take phrases from reviews out of context.
“Sometimes ad designers will even seek out a critic willing to say a certain word
that they want to include in a [movie ad]” (Severin and Tankard 120). Card
Stacking proves useful to politicians, usually when it comes to ads bashing the
opponent. It is resourceful to a politician to showcase all the negative facts of
their opponent, leaving out all possible good or positive views. Viewers must
usually disregard these bashing ads, as most of them are manufactured to
persuade society based on irrational impulse.
When it comes to group or peer pressure, advertisers hold the expertise.
The bandwagon technique pushes the “everyone is doing it” pressure upon the
audience. Often used in cigarette and alcohol ads, the bandwagon technique
displays a group of appealing people doing appealing things showcasing a
product the advertiser wants to sell. Showing a group of beautiful women holding
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Virginia Slim cigarettes, a campfire barbeque with a group of attractive middle
aged men drinking Miller Lite, or even a group of diverse children riding the new
edition Razor scooters are all examples of bandwagon ads. Bandwagon ads
create the illusion that one can connect personally with others through the
represented product, convincing one to buy in order to join the crowd.
In the book Age of Propaganda, Pratkanis and Aronson note, “Every time
we turn on the radio or television, every time we open a book, magazine, or
newspaper, someone is trying to educate us, to convince us to buy a product, to
persuade us to vote for a candidate or to subscribe to some version of what is
right, true, or beautiful” (5). It is up to one as a member of society to educate
one’s self, not only on the techniques propagandists force upon society but on
what one personally agrees with. What makes one an individual? Individuality
brings a freedom to express a new idea. New ideas award society with
knowledge, making society less vulnerable to persuasion. Whether in culture,
politics, or morals, knowledge is power.
Words: 2,607
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Works Cited
"A Breif History on Propaganda." Changing Minds and Persuasion. Web. 28 Jan. 2012.
<http://changingminds.org/techniques/propaganda/propaganda_history.htm>.
Britt, Steuart Henderson, Stephen C. Adams and Allan S. Miller, “How Many Advertising
Exposures per Day?” Journal of Advertising Research, Dec. 1972, pp.3-9.
Edelstein, Alex S. Total Propaganda: From Mass Culture to Popular Culture. Mahwah, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997. Print.
Frohardt, Mark, and Jonathan Temin. Use and Abuse of Media in Vulnerable Societies.
Washington, DC: USIP, 2003. Print.
Goldstein, Patrick. "Propaganda Is Hard to Prove." Los Angeles Times 13 June 2011. 31 June
2011. Web. <http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jun/13/news/sns-lat-propaganda-hard-toprove-20110613>.
Lee, Alfred McClung. "The Analysis of Propaganda: A Clinical Summary." American Journal of
Sociology 51.2 (1945): 126. Print.
Pratkanis, Anthony, and Elliot Aronson. Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of
Persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman and, 1991. Print.
Rampton, Sheldon, and John C. Stauber. Trust Us, We're Experts!: How Industry Manipulates
Science and Gambles with Your Future. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 2002.
Print.
Scott, Cord. "Written in Red, White, and Blue: A Comparison of Comic Book Propaganda from
World War II and September 11." The Journal of Popular Culture 40.2 (2007): 325-43.
Print.
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Severin, Werner J., and James W. Tankard. Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and
Uses in the Mass Media. 5th ed. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 2000. Print.
Shah, Anup. "War, Propaganda and the Media — Global Issues." Global Issues : Social,
Political, Economic and Environmental Issues That Affect Us All — Global Issues. 31
Mar. 2005. Web. 29 Jan. 2012. <http://www.globalissues.org/article/157/warpropaganda-and-the-media>.
Smith, Ted J., ed. Propaganda: A Pluralistic Perspective. New York: Praeger, 1989. Print.
"U.S. War Bonds." United States American History. Web. 28 Feb. 2012. <http://www.u-shistory.com/pages/h1682.html>
Welch, David. The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda. London: Routledge, 1993. Print.
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