Download The Water-Soluble Vitamins: B Vitamins and Vitamin C

The Water-Soluble
Vitamins: B
Vitamins and
Vitamin C
Chapter 10
©2016CengageLearning.AllRightsReserved.
The Vitamins – An Overview
• Support nutritional health
• Differences from energy-yielding nutrients
• Structure
• Individual units
• Function
• No energy yielded
• Food contents
• Similarities with energy-yielding nutrients
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Bioavailability
• Amount absorbed and used by body
• Differs from amount in food
• Factors influencing bioavailability
•
•
•
•
•
Efficiency of digestion
Nutrition status
Method of food preparation
Source of nutrient
Other foods consumed at same time
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Precursors (Provitamins)
• Inactive forms of vitamins
• Converted to active form in body
• Organic
• Can be destroyed during storage or cooking
• Solubility
• Affects absorption, transport, and excretion
• Toxicity
• More is not necessarily better
• Levels higher than UL
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Dose Levels and Effects
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The B Vitamins
• Without B vitamins, the body would lack
energy
• Help body use macronutrients for fuel
• Coenzymes
• Assist enzymes with energy release
• Without coenzyme, enzyme cannot function
• RDAs
• AIs
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Coenzyme Action
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Thiamin
• Part of coenzyme thiamin pyrophosphate
(TPP)
• Assists in energy metabolism
• Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA
• TCA cycle
• Nerve activity and muscle activity
• Average intake meets or exceeds
recommendations
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Thiamin Deficiency and
Toxicity
• Malnourished and alcoholics
• Beriberi
• Dry – affects nervous system
• Wet – affects cardiovascular system
• Toxicity
• No adverse effects
• No UL
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Thiamin in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
Approximate Amount
of Thiamin (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
0.10
Cornflakes, fortified
1 oz (110 kcal)
Grains
0.35
Spaghetti pasta
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
Grains
0.12
Tortilla, flour
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains
0.35
Broccoli
Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal)
½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables
Vegetables
0.05
0.06
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
0.15
Tomato juice
¾ c (31 kcal)
Vegetables
0.10
Banana
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Fruits
0.07
Orange
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
Fruits
0.12
Strawberries
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits
0.01
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Fruits
0.23
Milk
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.12
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.13
Cheddar cheese
1½ oz (171 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.01
Cottage cheese
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.03
Pinto beans
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.18
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.05
Sunflower seeds
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.04
Tofu (soybean curd)
½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.07
Ground beef, lean
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.04
Chicken breast
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.07
Tuna, canned in water
3 oz (99 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.04
Egg
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.04
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Pork chop, lean
3 oz broiled (169 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.96
Soy milk
1 c (81 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.40
Squash, acorn
½ c baked (69 kcal)
Vegetables
0.20
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Riboflavin
• Serves as coenzyme in energy metabolism
• Flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
• Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
• Recommendations
• Deficiency
• Inflammation of membranes
• Destroyed by ultraviolet light and irradiation
• Toxicity
• No UL
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Riboflavin Coenzyme
Illustrated
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Riboflavin in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
Approximate Amount
of Riboflavin
(milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
0.05
Cornflakes, fortified
1 oz (110 kcal)
Grains
0.43
Spaghetti pasta
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
Grains
0.06
Tortilla, flour
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains
0.21
Broccoli
Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal)
½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables
Vegetables
0.09
0.03
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
0.04
Tomato juice
¾ c (31 kcal)
Vegetables
0.05
Banana
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Fruits
0.12
Orange
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
Fruits
0.06
Strawberries
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits
0.06
Watermelon
Milk
1 slice (92 kcal)
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Fruits
Milk and milk products
0.07
0.40
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.53
Cheddar cheese
1½ oz (171 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.18
Cottage cheese
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.21
Pinto beans
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.09
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.08
Sunflower seeds
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.06
Tofu (soybean curd)
½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.03
Ground beef, lean
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.15
Chicken breast
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.12
Tuna, canned in water
3 oz (99 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.07
Egg
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.26
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Liver
3 oz fried (184 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
1.70+
Clams, canned
3 oz (126 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.34
Mushrooms
½ c cooked (21 kcal)
Vegetables
0.23
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Niacin
• Two chemical structures
• Nicotinic acid
• Nicotinamide
• Major form of niacin in blood
• Two coenzyme forms – metabolic reactions
• Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
• Carries hydrogens and their electrons
• NADP (the phosphate form)
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Niacin Needs and Results of
Deficiency
• Recommendations
• RDA stated in niacin equivalents (NE)
• Body manufactures from tryptophan
• Only occurs after protein synthesis needs have
been met
• Deficiency
• Pellagra
• Symptoms
• Caused deaths in the U.S. south in the early 1900s
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Niacin-Deficiency Symptom –
The Dermatitis of Pellagra
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Niacin Toxicity
• Naturally occurring sources
• No harm
• Supplements or drugs
• “Niacin flush”
• Potential health benefits of large doses of
nicotinic acid
• Food sources
• Less vulnerable to food preparation losses than
other vitamins
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Niacin in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
Approximate Amount
of Niacin (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
1.1
Cornflakes, fortified
1 oz (110 kcal)
Grains
5.1
Spaghetti pasta
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
Grains
1.9
Tortilla, flour
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains
3.9
Broccoli
Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal)
½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables
Vegetables
0.8
0.5
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
2.8
Tomato juice
¾ c (31 kcal)
Vegetables
1.3
Banana
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Fruits
0.9
Orange
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
Fruits
0.5
Strawberries
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits
0.2
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Fruits
1.0
Milk
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Milk and milk products
2.0
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
1.4
Cheddar cheese
1½ oz (171 kcal)
Milk and milk products
2.1
Cottage cheese
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
Milk and milk products
2.8
Pinto beans
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
1.8
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
5.7
Sunflower seeds
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
3.2
Tofu (soybean curd)
½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
2.8
Ground beef, lean
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
7.6
Chicken breast
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
16.7
Tuna, canned in water
3 oz (99 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
15.4
Egg
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
1.3
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Liver
3 oz fried (184 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
12.2
Peanuts
1 oz roasted (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
4.0
Mushrooms
½ c cooked (21 kcal)
Vegetables
3.5
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Biotin
• Coenzyme that carries activated carbon
dioxide
• Critical in TCA cycle
• Delivers carbon to pyruvate to form oxaloacetate
• Gluconeogenesis and fatty acid synthesis
• Breakdown of fatty acids and amino acids
• Widespread in food sources
• Toxicity
• No UL
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Pantothenic Acid
• Part of chemical structure of coenzyme A
• Roles in body
• Recommendations
• AI has been established
• Widespread in foods
• Readily destroyed by freezing, canning, and
refining processes
• Deficiency
• Rare
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Vitamin B6
• Three forms
• Pyridoxal, pyridoxine, and pyridoxamine
• Conversion to coenzyme PLP
•
•
•
•
Amino acid metabolism
Carbohydrate and fatty acid metabolism
Conversion of tryptophan to niacin or serotonin
Synthesis of heme, nucleic acids, and lecithin
• Stored exclusively in muscle tissue
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More Facts About B6
• Deficiency
• Symptoms
• Alcohol and isoniazid function as B6 antagonists
• Toxicity
• Neurological damage
• Food sources
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Vitamin B6 in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
Approximate Amount
of Vitamin B6
(milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
0.05
Cornflakes, fortified
1 oz (110 kcal)
Grains
0.51
Spaghetti pasta
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
Grains
0.01
Tortilla, flour
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains
0.03
Broccoli
Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal)
½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables
Vegetables
0.10
0.08
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
0.42
Tomato juice
¾ c (31 kcal)
Vegetables
0.20
Banana
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Fruits
0.70
Orange
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
Fruits
0.08
Strawberries
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits
0.04
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Fruits
0.41
Milk
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.10
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.12
Cheddar cheese
1½ oz (171 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.03
Cottage cheese
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.09
Pinto beans
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.14
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.15
Sunflower seeds
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.24
Tofu (soybean curd)
½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.07
Ground beef, lean
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.21
Chicken breast
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.52
Tuna, canned in water
3 oz (99 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.30
Egg
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.05
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Prune juice
¾ c (137 kcal)
Bluefish
3 o z baked (135 kcal)
Squash, acorn
½ c baked (69 kcal)
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Fruits
0.42
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.41
Vegetables
0.25
Folate
• Also known as folacin or folic acid
• Primary coenzyme form – THF
(tetrahydrofolate)
• Transfers 1-carbon compounds during
metabolism
• Converts vitamin B12 to coenzyme form
• Synthesizes DNA
• Regenerates methionine from homocysteine
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Folate’s Absorption and
Activation
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More Facts About Folate
• Bioavailability ranges from 50 to 100 percent
• Differences between food sources and
supplements
• Increased need during pregnancy
• Folate disposal
• Secretion by liver into bile
• Enterohepatic circulation
• GI tract injuries hinder absorption
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Effects of Folate Deficiency
• Neural tube defects
• Supplement use during pregnancy
• One month before conception
• Through first trimester
• Fortified grain products
• Congenital birth defects
• Folate plays a role in protecting against heart
disease
• Some cancers
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Spina Bifida – a Neural Tube
Defect
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Decreasing Prevalence of
NTDs since Folate Fortification
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Other Facts About Folate
• Anemia: symptom of deficiency
• Most susceptible to drug interactions
• Toxicity
• Naturally occurring from food sources
• Fortified foods or supplements
• UL has been established
• Food sources
• Heat and oxidation destroy folate
©2016CengageLearning.AllRightsReserved.
Folate in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Bread, whole wheat
Cornflakes, fortified
Spaghetti pasta
Tortilla, flour
Serving Size (kcalories)
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
1 oz (110 kcal)
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Broccoli
Carrots
Potato
Tomato juice
Banana
Orange
Strawberries
½ c cooked (22 kcal)
½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
½ c (31 kcal)
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Milk
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Cheddar cheese
1½ oz (171 kcal)
Cottage cheese
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
Pinto beans
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Sunflower seeds
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
Tofu (soybean curd)
½ c (76 kcal)
Ground beef, lean
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
Chicken breast
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal)
Egg
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Lentils
½ c cooked (115 kcal)
Asparagus
½ c cooked (22 kcal)
Orange juice
¾ c fresh (84 kcal)
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Food Group
Approximate Amount
of Folate (micrograms)
Grains
Grains
Grains
Grains
15
100
49
85
Vegetables
Vegetables
Vegetables
Vegetables
Fruits
Fruits
Fruits
40
10
15
38
23
40
15
Fruits
8
Milk and milk products
Milk and milk products
Milk and milk products
Milk and milk products
Legumes, nuts, seeds
Legumes, nuts, seeds
Legumes, nuts, seeds
Legumes, nuts, seeds
Meats, poultry, seafood
Meats, poultry, seafood
Meats, poultry, seafood
Meats, poultry, seafood
15
25
10
15
158
30
70
55
10
5
5
20
Legumes, nuts, seeds
Vegetables
Fruits
180
130
56
Vitamin B12
• Vitamin B12 and folate depend on each other
for activation
• Regeneration of methionine
• Synthesis of DNA and RNA
• Individual roles of vitamin B12
• Digestion and absorption
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Intrinsic factor
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Transportation of Vitamin B12
• Transported in blood by specific binding
proteins
• Enterohepatic pathway
• Deficiency common among elderly
•
•
•
•
•
Most due to inadequate absorption
Pernicious anemia
Added risk from vegetarian diets
Anemia of folate deficiency
Folate masks symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency
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Sources of Vitamin B12
• Food sources
• Found almost exclusively from animal products
• Bioavailability
• Fish and milk
• Toxicity
• No adverse effects
• No UL
• Destruction
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Choline
• Essential nutrient
• Commonly grouped with B vitamins
• Used to make lecithin and acetylcholine
• Manufactured from methionine in body
• Conditionally essential nutrient
• Adequate intake (AI)
• Common sources
• Impact of deficiency not fully understood
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Nonvitamins
• Inositol
• Part of cell membrane structures
• Carnitine
• Transports long-chain fatty acids for oxidation
• PABA
• Bioflavanoids
• Others
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B Vitamin Interactions
• Each B vitamin coenzyme is involved in
energy metabolism
• Directly
• Indirectly
• Deficiencies
• B vitamin deficiencies seldom show up in isolation
• Beriberi and pellagra
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The B Vitamins In Concert
• Toxicities
• Excess eliminated through urine excretion
• Homeostasis disruption
• Toxicities develop
• Food sources
• First choice should be foods rather than
supplements
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Vitamin C as an Antioxidant
• Defends against free radicals
• Loses electrons easily
• Vitamin C recycling
• Protects tissues from oxidative stress
• Disease prevention
• Enhances iron absorption
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Active Forms of Vitamin C
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Vitamin C as a Cofactor
• Cofactor in collagen formation
• Matrix for bone and tooth formation
• Conversion of proline to hydroxyproline
• Cofactor in other reactions
•
•
•
•
Hydroxylation of carnitine
Conversion of tryptophan to serotonin
Conversion of tyrosine to norepinephrine
Making hormones
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Other Roles of Vitamin C
• Prevention and treatment of common cold
• Slight but consistent shortening of cold duration
• Deactivates histamine
• Disease prevention and treatment roles
• Being studied
• Stress increases Vitamin C needs
• Adrenal glands release Vitamin C and hormones
into blood
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Vitamin C Intake
• 10 mg prevents overt
symptoms of scurvy
• Absorption maximum
• 200 mg
• Smoking increases
need
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Vitamin C Deficiency
• Notable signs of deficiency
• Gums bleed easily around teeth
• Capillaries under skin break spontaneously
• Scurvy
• Other physical signs
• Psychological signs
• Sudden death from massive internal bleeding
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Symptoms of Vitamin C
Deficiency
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Vitamin C Toxicity
• Supplementation side effects
• Diarrhea
• GI distress
• UL
• Interference with medical regimens
• High doses not recommended with certain
medical conditions
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Food Sources of Vitamin C
• Abundant in fruits and vegetables
• Potatoes
• Vulnerable to heat and oxygen
• Used as antioxidant by food manufacturers
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Vitamin C in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Bread, whole wheat
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
Approximate Amount
of Vitamin C
(milligrams)
0
Cornflakes, fortified
Spaghetti pasta
Tortilla, flour
1 oz (110 kcal)
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains
Grains
Grains
0
0
0
Broccoli
Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal)
½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables
Vegetables
58
5
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
15
Tomato juice
Banana
¾ c (31 kcal)
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Vegetables
Fruits
33
11
Orange
Strawberries
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits
Fruits
70
41
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Fruits
28
Milk
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Milk and milk products
3
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
2
Cheddar cheese
Cottage cheese
Pinto beans
1½ oz (171 kcal)
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Milk and milk products
Milk and milk products
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0
0
2
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.5
Sunflower seeds
Tofu (soybean curd)
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.5
0
Ground beef, lean
Chicken breast
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
Meats, poultry, seafood
0
0
Tuna, canned in water
Egg
3 oz (99 kcal)
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
Meats, poultry, seafood
0
0
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Red bell pepper
Kiwi
½ c raw chopped (20 kcal)
1 (46 kcal)
Vegetables
Fruits
90+
74
Brussels sprouts
½ c cooked (30 kcal)
Vegetables
47
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Vitamin and
Mineral
Supplements
Highlight 10
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Vitamin and Mineral
Supplements, continued
• $24 billion a year industry in United States
• Taken as dietary insurance
• Costly but harmless practice
• Costly and harmful to health practice
• Mostly self-prescribed
• Physician recommendation
• Improving food choices
• Preferred course of action
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Arguments for Supplements
• Correct overt deficiencies
• Support increased nutrient needs
• Certain life stages
• Improve nutrition status
• Improve body defenses
• Reduce disease risks
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Arguments Against
Supplements
• Toxicity
• Supplement users more likely to have excessive
intakes
• May be unrecognized and unreported
• Life-threatening misinformation
• No guarantee of supplement effectiveness
• Unknown needs
• False sense of security
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Arguments Against
Supplements, continued
• Other invalid reasons
• Today’s health problems
• Overnutrition
• Poor lifestyle choices
• Bioavailability and antagonistic actions
• Nutrients may interfere with one another’s action
• Make dietary modifications first
©2016CengageLearning.AllRightsReserved.
Selection of Supplements
• Follow directions carefully
• Single, balanced vitamin-mineral supplement
• U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP) logo
• Logo assurances
• Two basic questions
• Form
• Contents
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Misleading Claims
• Organic or natural
vitamins
• High potency claims
• Marketing strategy
• Fake vitamins
• “Green” pills
• Stress relief
• Enzymes
• Inactivated in the
stomach
• Cost
©2016CengageLearning.AllRightsReserved.
Regulation of Supplements
• Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
• Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act
of 1994
• Enable consumers to make informed choices
• Same general labeling requirements as foods
• Net effect: deregulation of supplement industry
©2016CengageLearning.AllRightsReserved.
An Example of a Supplement
Label
©2016CengageLearning.AllRightsReserved.
Product name
Statement of identity
Descriptive terms
if product meets
criteria
Contents or weight
Supplement facts
panel
The suggested dose
The name, quantity
per tablet, and “%
Daily Value” for all
nutrients listed;
nutrients without a
Daily Value may be
listed below.
All ingredients must be
listed on the label, but not
necessarily in the ingredient
list nor in descending order
of predominance; ingredients
named in the nutrition panel
need not be repeated here.
Name and address of
manufacturer
Stepped Art