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Introduction to Linguistics Sound System and Word Formation Class 6 Dylan Glynn www.dsglynn.univ-paris8.fr [email protected] Morphology Revision morph, from Greek morphe = form ology, from Green logia = discourse, doctrine, field of science çaliştirilmamaliymiş (Turkish, Turkic) ‘apparently, they say he ought not to be made to work’ (English, Indo-European) çaliştirilmamaliymiş çaliş - tir – work - cause il – ma – maliy passive negation obligation – miş inference Revision - Morpheme! The smallest unit of meaning Cat is a morpheme But so it the s, in cats Free and Bound Morphemes A bound morpheme is a morpheme whose meaning is dependent on other morphemes e.g.: -s in cats A free morpheme is one who can stand alone e.g.: cat in cats Revision Bound Morphemes Suffix – cat-s (English – Indo-European) Prefix – pre-voir (French – Indo-European) Infix – me-het-tem (Hungarian – Finno-Ugric) Morphs and Allomorphs bus = > buses /əәz/ walk => walked /t/ ship = > ships /s/ ground => grounded /d/ Revision Grammatical Categories - Number (English, Germanic) frog vs. frogs (Romanian, Latin) cânt cânți Arabic (Semitic) cântă cântăm cântați cântă Revision Grammatical Categories – Gender Masculine and Feminine in Latin casa (Ca.) / casă (Ro.) / casa (Es.) / casa (Pt.) / casa (It.) / chambre (Fr.) suono (It.) / som (Pt.) / son (Fr.) / so nido (Es.) / sunet (Ro.) / so (Ca.) Masculine, Feminine and Neuter in Slavic dom (Pl.) / дом (Rus.) / dům (Cz.) / дім (Uk.) / dom (Hr.) / dom (Sl.) kawa (Pl.) / кофе (Rus.)/ káva (Cz. ) / кави (Uk.) / kava (Hr.) / káva (Sl.) mleko (Pl.) / молоко (Rus.) / mléko (Cz.) / молоко (Uk.) / mlijeko (Hr.) / mlieko (Sk.) Revision - Derivation vs. Inflection ! Revision Morpheme Morphs and allomorphs Derivation and inflection Grammatical Categories number gender Grammatical Categories cont. We have looked at two grammatical categories associated with nouns but there are many more! Today we will look at CASE! We already spoke of it a few times, we can’t hide from it anymore.... But we will start with something easy Definiteness In English and French it is easy. We say it is periphrastic, that is, it is done with lexemes, not with morphemes Definate vs. Indefinite the cat vs. a cat But many languages, such as Swedish and Arabic do it morphologically In Arabic it is difficult, because it interacts with CASE, so let’s look at Swedish Definiteness It’s easy – A Swedish example Swedish is easy, it has ½ a case and little gender But look at how it interacts with Number In Arabic it is the same, except it interacts with Number, Gender and Case CASE!! It’s mean, it’s nasty, it’s boring and it’s why you should never complain about English grammar ever again.... Grammatical Case The grammatical function of a pronoun, noun or an adjective in a sentence IndoEuropean had 8 cases Today – French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Swedish, Danish have 0, English has 1/2, German has 3 or 3.5 but Romanian, Croatian and Russian (indeed, most European languages) have 6 Polish has 7... Grammatical Case Although 6 cases is pretty typical for European languages, it varies a great deal around the world Arabic (Semitic) has 3 Turkish (Turkic) has 16 Estonian (Finno-Ugric) has 14 Finnish (Finno-Ugric) has 15 Hungarian (Finno-Ugric) has 18 Tesz (Caucasian) has 64! I expect, most languages have cases.... Revision - Grammatical Case English (Indo-European) lost it’s cases a long time ago, but we still have a little in the pronouns Nominative - subject: We went to the store. Accusative - direct object: The clerk remembered us. Dative - indirect object: The clerk gave a discount to us. Ablative - movement from something or cause: The victim went from us to see the doctor / He was unhappy because of depression. Genitive - possessive: John's book was on the table / The pages of the book. Vocative - addressee: John, are you all right? Hello, John! Locative - location: We live in China. Instrumental - instrument: We wiped the floor with a mop / Written by hand. Grammatical Case - Turkish case is alive and kicking! Nominative Accusative Dative Locative Ablative Genitive Essive Instrumental Inclusive Qualitative Possessive etc... etc... etc... araba arabayı arabaya arabada arabadan arabanın arabaca arabayla arabalı arabasal arabam "car (Subject)" "car (Object)” "to car" "on car" "from car" "car's" "as a car" "with/by car" "with/having a car" "of a car" "my car" Grammatical Case High German (Indo-European) 1. Nominative: der Seemann "[the] sailor" [as a subject] (e.g. Der Seemann steht da - the sailor is standing there) 2. Accusative: den Seemann "[the] sailor" [as a direct object] (e.g. Ich sah den Seemann" - I saw the sailor) 3. Dative: dem Seemann "to/for [the] sailor" [as an indirect object] (e.g. Ich gab dem Seemann ein Geschenk - I gave a present to the sailor) 4. Genitive: des Seemannes "the sailor's / of [the] sailor" (e.g. Der Name des Seemann ist Otto - the sailor's name is Otto) Polish (Indo-Euopean) ‘cat’ (singular) Sing. Pl. Nominative Kot the cat (subject) Koty the cats (subject) Accusative Kota the cat (object) Kotom the cats (object) Dative Kotu to the cat Koty to the cats Instrumental Kotem with the cat Kotami with the cats Genitive Kota of the cat Kotów of the cats Locative Kocie on the cat Kotach on the cat Vocative Kocie Oh, Cat! Koty Oh, Cats! have similar functions as locative prepositions in languages with less elaborated case systems such as Latin. In addition to the local cases, there are also cases such as the abessive with the meaning “without”, and the Finnish (Finno-Ugric) comitative, with the meaning “accompanied by”. (12) Case label allative illative ablative elative inessive adessive Meaning Example to(wards) (the exterior) of into from (the exterior of) from (the inside of) in(side) at pöydä-lle “onto the table” laitokse-en “to the institute” kadu-lta “out of the street” kaupa-sta “out of the shop” talo-ssa “in the house” roof-ade “on the roof” The elative and the partitive case are both used in quantifying expressions. Consider the following examples from Finnish (Sulkala and Karjalainen 1992: 234): (13) kaksi poji-sta two boy.- “two of the boys” kaksi poika-a two boy- “two boys” Lezgian (East Caucasian) (a) sew ‘the bear’ (absolutive) (j) sew-re-qh-di ‘to behind the bear’ (b) sew-re ‘the bear’ (ergative) (k) sew-re-k ‘under the bear’ (c) sew-re-n ‘of the bear’ (genitive) (l) sew-re-k-aj ‘from under the bear’ (d) sew-re-z ‘to the bear’ (dative) (m) sew-re-k-di ‘to under the bear’ (e) sew-re-w ‘at the bear’ (n) sew-re-l ‘on the bear’ (f) sew-re-w-aj ‘from the bear’ (o) sew-re-l-aj ‘off the bear’ (g) sew-re-w-di ‘toward the bear’ (p) sew-re-ldi ‘onto the bear’ (h) sew-re-qh ‘behind the bear’ (q) sew-re ‘in the bear’ (i) sew-re-qh-aj ‘from behind the bear’ (r) sew-raj ‘out of the bear’ EARLY ROME 2 Morphology –Some Final Revision ESSENTIAL LATIN 1 puell........equ........fugat. Case Nouns: subjects and objects agricola taurum fugat the farmer chases/is chasing the bull The farmer is the active one, the person doing the chasing, and so is the subject. The bull is t because he is on the receiving end, i.e. he is being chased. Now the bull is the subject, while the farmer has become the object. To make this clear, the Engl have been moved. The Latin words, however, have not changed their position, but their endings. agricolam taurus fugat the bull chases/is chasing the farmer agricola aqricolam taurus taurum The Latin for farmer as subject is and as object The Latin for bull as subject is and as object English also has a few words which change according to whether they are subject or object: sh him, I/me, we/us, they/them, who/whom. These words are all pronouns, words which are used in th nouns. Vocabulary Words like agricola: nauta sailor puella The Latin word for chases, fugat, appears at the end of the sentence. The farmer, agricola, comes first,girl and dea goddess the bull, taurum, is second. f mina woman po ta poet Words like taurus: servus dominus deus equus slave master god horse Nominative et Accusative 2 ESSENTIAL LATIN 3 1 EARLY ROME 1 puell........equ........fugat. 2 serv........domin........fugat. 3 naut........femin........fugat. The farmer is the active one, the person doing the chasing, and so is the subject. Th because he is on the receiving end, i.e. he is being chased. dominus – master Now the bull is the subject, while the farmer has become the object. To make this clea have been moved. The Latin words, however, have not changed their position, but their servus – slave The Latin for farmer as subject is and as object The Latin for bull as subject is and as object The cases taurus puella – girl taurum – woman English also has a few words which change accordingfemina to whether they are subject or him, I/me, we/us, they/them, who/whom. These words are all pronouns, words which are equus - horse nouns. The technical name for these different endings of a noun is ‘case’. Each case has a particular function: it may be to show that the noun is the subject or object. The subject ending is called the nominative case, and the object ending is called the accusative case. There are other cases too: Words like agricola: The genitive case agricola nauta – sailor aqricola nauta puella Vocabulary sailor girl Words like taurus: servus dominus sla ma The technical name for these different endings of a noun is ‘case’. Each case has a particular function: it may be to show that the noun is the subject or object. The subject ending is called the nominative case, and Genitive Dative the object ending is called the accusative case. Thereand are other cases too: The genitive case The English preposition of is used to translate the genitive case: e.g. taurus agricolae the bull of the farmer We might leave out of and use an apostrophe instead: ‘the farmer’s bull’. Centuries ago, before the Norman Conquest, had a genitive endingbull) too. The ‘e’ of the genitive ending ‘-es’ has since given way to the the bull English of the farmer (the farmer’s apostrophe. oculus tauri the eye of the bull (the bull’s eye) tauruspuellae agricolae equus the horse of the girl (the girl’s horse) The dative case The dative case is used for the indirect object. The English preposition to is commonly used (and sometimes for): agricola tauro faenum dat the farmer gives/is giving hay to the bull femina equum puellae ostentat the woman shows/is showing the horse to the girl Note that in each of the above two examples there are two objects, one direct (accusative), the other indirect (dative). The ablative case The most common use of the ablative is instrumental (by, with) or with a preposition (e.g. in). English the farmer gives/is giving hay to the bull femina equum puellae ostentat the woman shows/is showing the horse to the girl The Ablative Note that in each of the above two examples there are two objects, one direct (accusative), the other indirect (dative). 1 agricol.....cum taur..... ambulat. The ablative case The most common use of the ablative is instrumental (by, with) or with a preposition (e.g. in). English prepositions used to translate this case are: by, with, from, in, on. agricola cum equo ambulat the farmer walks/is walking with the horse agricola a tauro videtur the farmer is seen by the bull 2 equus in vill.....est. agricola in equo est the farmer is on the horse 1 EARLY R Grammatical categories We have been focusing on nouns.... there is lot more to noun inflections than this, but it’s a good start What about verbs? Verb carry just as much information, if not more!!! Tense Tense is easy... there are three tenses... Germanic! Does English have a future tense? Periphrastic Tense Eng. I will drink I shall drink I am going to drink Dutch. Ik zull drinken I shall drink Ik ga drinken I go drink Norwegian Jeg vil drikke I will drink Jeg skal drikke I shall drink German Ich werde trinken I become drink Swedish How is the future expressed in other langauges? Jag skall dricka I shall drink Mood Indicative, Imperative, Conditional, Subjunctive etc. etc. etc. Again pretty easy, because French does have some grammar here.... French (Indo-European) Indicative Je bois / Il buvait / nous aurons bu / vous eûtes bu / vous aviez bu Imperative Buvez!!! Conditional Je boirais / tu eusses bu Subjuntive nous eussions bu / j'aie bu / je busse Aspect Progressive and simple English (Indo-European) Simple: I eat Progressive: I am eating Dutch (Indo-European) Simple: ik eet I eat Progressive: Ik ben aan het eten I am to the eat Aspect What is the difference in meaning between close and close up, write and write out, eat and eating? She closed the shop vs. she closed up the shop She wrote the book vs. she wrote up the book.... She eats a cake vs. she is eating a cake Elle mange le gâteau vs. elle mangea le gâteau Aspect Perfective and Imperfective These grammatical categories are crucial in many of the world languages how, it is difficult to this to an English speaker and even more difficult for a French speaker Czech (Indo-European) prohlédnout si – perfective browse Chcete si prohlédnout ten časopis? – Would you like to take a look at the magazine? (one-time, finished action) prohlížet si – imperfective browse Chcete si prohlížet časopisy? – Would you like to be looking at magazines (e.g. while you wait)? (unspecified duration) koupit – perfective buy Eva si koupila šaty. – Eva bought herself a dress. (she went out and came back with a dress) nakupovat – imperfective buy Eva šla nakupovat. - Eva went shopping. (not sure for how long, she is still out) Causative English (Indo-European) Get dressed Have your hair done etc... Amharic (Semitic) prefix gǝbba 'enter' agǝbba 'insert' Kashimir (Indo-European) vowel change mar ma:r 'die' 'kill' K'iche' (Mayan) suffix -kam- -kam-isa'die' 'kill' Voice In English (Indo-European) I close the door - active The door closed - middle The door was closed by me - passive but in Kimaragang Dusun (Austronesian) root passive meaning patay pinatay was killed by nakaw ninakaw was stolen by garas was butchered by ginaras Where is the passive morpheme??? 114 Latin (Indo-European) Voice, Aspect, Tense of and the perfective 3rd Person3 singular laudare Table 5.2. Imperfective forms of laudāre– ‘praise’ laudat laudābat laudābit laudātur laudābātur laudābitur laudāvit laudāverat laudāverit laudātus/a/um est laudātus/a/um erat laudātus/a/um erat filling paradigm cells is the following. Latin has a number of so-called deponent verbs, verbs with a passive form but an active meaning. For instance, the verb loquor “to speak” is such a deponent verb. The crucial bumasa (“Read!”) Tagalog babasa (“will read”) tumawag (“Call!”) tatawag (“will call”) sumulat (“Write!”) susulat (“will write”) Here are some other examples from language spoken in the If we assume that the firstintriguing form in each column can beTagalog, treated asanother a stem, then it appears Exercise - Tagalog Philippines. that, in the second(Austronesian) item in each column, an element -um- has been inserted after the first consonant, or more precisely, after the syllable onset. It is an example of an infix (described in Chapter 5). In thetawag third example that the change in basa (“read”) (“call”) in each column, sulat note (“write”) form involves, in each case, a tumawag repetition of the first syllable. So, the(“Write!”) marking of future bumasa (“Read!”) (“Call!”) sumulat reference in Tagalog appears to be accomplished via reduplication. Using this infor- babasa (“will read”) tatawag (“will call”) mation, you should be able to complete these examples: susulat (“will write”) If we assume that the first form in each column can be treated as a stem, then it appears lakad (“walk”) _________ (“Walk!”) _________ (“will walk”) lapit (“come here”) _________ (“Come here!”) _________ (“will come here”) that, in the second item in each column, an element -um- has been inserted after the first consonant, or more precisely, after the syllable onset. It is an example of an infix (described in Chapter the third in each column, note that In the second column, with5). anIn infix, you’llexample have lumakad and lumapit, while inthe the change in form involves, in each case, you’ll a repetition of the and firstlalapit. syllable. So, the marking of future third column, with reduplication, have lalakad reference Tagalog appears to bedifferent accomplished via reduplication. Using As we haveinbeen exploring all these morphological processes, we havethis information, should be able to complete these examples: moved from you the basic structure of words to a consideration of some topics traditionally associated with grammar. We will focus more fully on issues relating to grammar in the next chapter. lakad (“walk”) lapit (“come here”) _________ (“Walk!”) _________ (“will walk”) _________ (“Come here!”) _________ (“will come here”) C What are enclitics and proclitics? Does English have both? What are some typical English examples? Why aren’t they just called affixes? D Look over the following examples from Hungarian (based on Frommer and Exercise Hungarian (Finno-Ugric) Finegan, -2012: 3) and try to answer the questions that follow. (1) te szép vagy (2) én beteg vagyok “you’re beautiful” (singular) “I’m ill” (3) te magas vagy (4) mi lankadtak vagyunk “you’re tall” (singular) “we’re tired” (5) ti kedvesek vagytok “you’re nice” (plural) (6) ti betegek vagytok (7) mi magasak vagyunk “you’re ill” (plural) “we’re tall” (8) te kedves vagy (9) én lankadt vagyok “you’re nice” (singular) “I’m tired” (10) __ ______ _____ “you’re beautiful” (plural) (i) Did you complete the example in (10)? (ii) What are the five free (adjective) morphemes in the data? (iii) What are the four pronouns? Are these lexical or functional morphemes? (iv) What are the three verb suffixes? Are these derivational or inflectional suffixes? (v) What are the two adjective suffixes? What do you think is the basis for choosing one or the other? E Using what you learned about Swahili and information provided in the set of Morphology Exercise Turkish (Turkic) II In Turkish, there is some variation in the plural inflection. Singular (“man”) adam – Plural adamlar (“men”) (“gun”) (“lesson”) ________ ders – – toplar ________ (“guns”) (“lessons”) (“place”) yer – yerler (“places”) (“road”) (“lock”) _______ _______ – – yollar kilitler (“roads”) (“locks”) (“arrow”) (“hand”) ok el – – ________ ________ (“arrows”) (“hands”) (“arm”) kol – ________ (“arms”) (“bell”) (“friend”) ________ ________ – – ziller dostlar (“bells”) (“friends”) (“apple”) elma – ________ (“apples”) (i) Can you provide the missing forms? (ii) What are the two plural morphs exemplified here? (iii) Treat the written forms of a and o as representing back vowels and e and i as representing front vowels. Using this information, can you state the conditions under which each of the plural morphs is used? (iv) On the basis of the following phrases, how would you describe the Turkish translation equivalents of your and the conditions for their use? 77 translation equivalents of your and the conditions for their use? dishin (“your tooth”) okun (“your arrow”) topun (“your gun”) dersin (“your lesson”) kushun (“your bird”) kibritlerin (“your matches”) Exercise Turkish (Turkic) (v) While English usually marks location with prepositions (in a house or at a place), Turkish has postpositions (house-in or place-at). After looking at the following examples, try to identify the three versions of the “location” suffix and the conditions for their use. dy of Language (“book”) (“chair”) kitap koltuk – – kitapta koltukta (“in a book”) (“in a chair”) (“room”) oda – odada (“in a room”) (“restaurant”) (“house”) lokanta ev – – lokantada evde (“in a restaurant”) (“in a house”) (“place”) (“hand”) yer el – – yerlerde ellerimde (“in places”) (“in my hands”) (“road”) yol – yollarda (“in roads) (vi) When Turkish speakers borrowed (from French) the word randevu, meaning “an appointment,” how do you think they expressed “in an appointment”? (For more examples, see Gleason, 1955. For more on Turkish, see Lewis, 2000.) FURTHER READING