Download Introduction to Linguistics Sound System and Word Formation

Introduction to Linguistics
Sound System and Word Formation
Class 6
Dylan Glynn
www.dsglynn.univ-paris8.fr
[email protected]
Morphology
Revision
morph, from Greek morphe = form
ology, from Green logia =
discourse, doctrine, field of science
çaliştirilmamaliymiş
(Turkish, Turkic)
‘apparently, they say he ought not to be made to work’
(English, Indo-European)
çaliştirilmamaliymiş
çaliş - tir –
work - cause
il –
ma
– maliy
passive negation obligation
– miş
inference
Revision - Morpheme!
The smallest unit of meaning
Cat is a morpheme
But so it the s, in cats
Free and Bound Morphemes
A bound morpheme is a morpheme whose meaning is dependent on other morphemes
e.g.: -s in cats
A free morpheme is one who can stand alone
e.g.: cat in cats
Revision
Bound Morphemes
Suffix – cat-s (English – Indo-European)
Prefix – pre-voir (French – Indo-European)
Infix – me-het-tem (Hungarian – Finno-Ugric)
Morphs and Allomorphs
bus = > buses
/əәz/
walk => walked /t/
ship = > ships
/s/
ground => grounded /d/
Revision
Grammatical Categories - Number
(English, Germanic)
frog vs. frogs
(Romanian, Latin)
cânt
cânți
Arabic (Semitic)
cântă
cântăm
cântați
cântă
Revision
Grammatical Categories – Gender
Masculine and Feminine in Latin
casa (Ca.) / casă (Ro.) / casa (Es.) / casa (Pt.) / casa (It.) / chambre (Fr.)
suono (It.) / som (Pt.) / son (Fr.) / so nido (Es.) / sunet (Ro.) / so (Ca.)
Masculine, Feminine and Neuter in Slavic
dom (Pl.) / дом (Rus.) / dům (Cz.) / дім (Uk.) / dom (Hr.) / dom (Sl.)
kawa (Pl.) / кофе (Rus.)/ káva (Cz. ) / кави (Uk.) / kava (Hr.) / káva (Sl.)
mleko (Pl.) / молоко (Rus.) / mléko (Cz.) / молоко (Uk.) / mlijeko (Hr.) / mlieko (Sk.)
Revision - Derivation
vs. Inflection !
Revision
Morpheme
Morphs and allomorphs
Derivation and inflection
Grammatical Categories
number
gender
Grammatical Categories cont.
We have looked at two grammatical categories associated with nouns
but there are many more!
Today we will look at CASE!
We already spoke of it a few times, we can’t hide from it anymore....
But we will start with something easy
Definiteness
In English and French it is easy.
We say it is periphrastic, that is, it is done with lexemes, not with morphemes
Definate
vs.
Indefinite
the cat
vs.
a cat
But many languages, such as Swedish and Arabic do it morphologically
In Arabic it is difficult, because it interacts with CASE, so let’s look at Swedish
Definiteness
It’s easy – A Swedish example
Swedish is easy, it has ½ a case and little gender
But look at how it interacts with Number
In Arabic it is the same,
except it interacts with Number, Gender and Case
CASE!!
It’s mean, it’s nasty, it’s boring and it’s why you should never complain about
English grammar ever again....
Grammatical Case
The grammatical function of a pronoun, noun or an adjective in a sentence
IndoEuropean had 8 cases
Today – French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Swedish, Danish have 0,
English has 1/2, German has 3 or 3.5
but Romanian, Croatian and Russian (indeed, most European languages) have 6
Polish has 7...
Grammatical Case
Although 6 cases is pretty typical for European languages, it varies a great deal around
the world
Arabic (Semitic) has 3
Turkish (Turkic) has 16
Estonian (Finno-Ugric) has 14
Finnish (Finno-Ugric) has 15
Hungarian (Finno-Ugric) has 18
Tesz (Caucasian) has 64!
I expect, most languages have cases....
Revision - Grammatical Case
English (Indo-European) lost it’s cases a long time ago, but we still have a little in the pronouns
Nominative - subject: We went to the store.
Accusative - direct object: The clerk remembered us.
Dative - indirect object: The clerk gave a discount to us.
Ablative - movement from something or cause:
The victim went from us to see the doctor / He was unhappy because of
depression.
Genitive - possessive: John's book was on the table / The pages of the book.
Vocative - addressee: John, are you all right? Hello, John!
Locative - location: We live in China.
Instrumental - instrument: We wiped the floor with a mop / Written by hand.
Grammatical Case - Turkish case is alive and kicking!
Nominative
Accusative
Dative
Locative
Ablative
Genitive
Essive
Instrumental
Inclusive
Qualitative
Possessive
etc... etc... etc...
araba
arabayı
arabaya
arabada
arabadan
arabanın
arabaca
arabayla
arabalı
arabasal
arabam
"car (Subject)"
"car (Object)”
"to car"
"on car"
"from car"
"car's"
"as a car"
"with/by car"
"with/having a car"
"of a car"
"my car"
Grammatical Case
High German (Indo-European)
1. Nominative: der Seemann
"[the] sailor" [as a subject] (e.g. Der Seemann steht da - the sailor is standing
there)
2. Accusative: den Seemann
"[the] sailor" [as a direct object] (e.g. Ich sah den Seemann" - I saw the sailor)
3. Dative: dem Seemann
"to/for [the] sailor" [as an indirect object] (e.g. Ich gab dem Seemann ein
Geschenk - I gave a present to the sailor)
4. Genitive: des Seemannes
"the sailor's / of [the] sailor" (e.g. Der Name des Seemann ist Otto - the sailor's
name is Otto)
Polish (Indo-Euopean)
‘cat’ (singular) Sing.
Pl.
Nominative
Kot
the cat (subject)
Koty
the cats (subject)
Accusative
Kota
the cat (object)
Kotom
the cats (object)
Dative
Kotu
to the cat
Koty
to the cats
Instrumental
Kotem
with the cat
Kotami
with the cats
Genitive
Kota
of the cat
Kotów
of the cats
Locative
Kocie
on the cat
Kotach
on the cat
Vocative
Kocie
Oh, Cat!
Koty
Oh, Cats!
have similar functions as locative prepositions in languages with less elaborated case systems such as Latin. In addition to the local cases, there
are also cases such as the abessive with the meaning “without”, and the
Finnish (Finno-Ugric)
comitative, with the meaning “accompanied by”.
(12) Case label
allative
illative
ablative
elative
inessive
adessive
Meaning
Example
to(wards) (the exterior) of
into
from (the exterior of)
from (the inside of)
in(side)
at
pöydä-lle “onto the table”
laitokse-en “to the institute”
kadu-lta “out of the street”
kaupa-sta “out of the shop”
talo-ssa “in the house”
roof-ade “on the roof”
The elative and the partitive case are both used in quantifying expressions. Consider the following examples from Finnish (Sulkala and Karjalainen 1992: 234):
(13) kaksi poji-sta
two
boy.-
“two of the boys”
kaksi poika-a
two
boy-
“two boys”
Lezgian (East Caucasian)
(a) sew ‘the bear’ (absolutive)
(j) sew-re-qh-di ‘to behind the bear’
(b) sew-re ‘the bear’ (ergative)
(k) sew-re-k ‘under the bear’
(c) sew-re-n ‘of the bear’ (genitive)
(l) sew-re-k-aj ‘from under the bear’
(d) sew-re-z ‘to the bear’ (dative)
(m) sew-re-k-di ‘to under the bear’
(e) sew-re-w ‘at the bear’
(n) sew-re-l ‘on the bear’
(f) sew-re-w-aj ‘from the bear’
(o) sew-re-l-aj ‘off the bear’
(g) sew-re-w-di ‘toward the bear’
(p) sew-re-ldi ‘onto the bear’
(h) sew-re-qh ‘behind the bear’
(q) sew-re ‘in the bear’
(i) sew-re-qh-aj ‘from behind the bear’
(r) sew-raj ‘out of the bear’
EARLY ROME
2
Morphology –Some Final Revision
ESSENTIAL LATIN
1 puell........equ........fugat.
Case
Nouns: subjects and objects
agricola taurum fugat
the farmer chases/is chasing the bull
The farmer is the active one, the person doing the chasing, and so is the subject. The bull is t
because he is on the receiving end, i.e. he is being chased.
Now the bull is the subject, while the farmer has become the object. To make this clear, the Engl
have been moved. The Latin words, however, have not changed their position, but their endings.
agricolam taurus fugat
the bull chases/is chasing the farmer
agricola
aqricolam
taurus
taurum
The Latin for farmer as subject is
and as object
The Latin for bull as subject is
and as object
English also has a few words which change according to whether they are subject or object: sh
him, I/me, we/us, they/them, who/whom. These words are all pronouns, words which are used in th
nouns.
Vocabulary
Words like agricola:
nauta
sailor
puella
The Latin word for chases, fugat, appears at the end of the sentence. The farmer, agricola, comes first,girl
and
dea
goddess
the bull, taurum, is second.
f mina
woman
po ta
poet
Words like taurus:
servus
dominus
deus
equus
slave
master
god
horse
Nominative et Accusative
2
ESSENTIAL
LATIN 3
1 EARLY ROME
1 puell........equ........fugat.
2 serv........domin........fugat.
3 naut........femin........fugat.
The farmer is the active one, the person doing the chasing, and so is the subject. Th
because he is on the receiving end, i.e. he is being chased.
dominus
– master
Now the bull is the subject, while the farmer has become
the object.
To make this clea
have been moved. The Latin words, however, have not changed their position, but their
servus – slave
The Latin for farmer as subject is
and as object
The Latin for bull as subject is
and as object
The cases
taurus
puella – girl taurum
– woman
English also has a few words which change accordingfemina
to whether
they are subject or
him, I/me, we/us, they/them, who/whom. These words are all pronouns, words which are
equus - horse
nouns.
The technical name for these different endings of a noun is ‘case’. Each case has a particular function: it
may be to show that the noun is the subject or object. The subject ending is called the nominative case, and
the object ending is called the accusative case. There are other cases too:
Words like agricola:
The genitive case
agricola
nauta – sailor aqricola
nauta
puella
Vocabulary
sailor
girl
Words like taurus:
servus
dominus
sla
ma
The technical name for these different endings of a noun is ‘case’. Each case has a particular function: it
may be to show that the noun is the subject or object. The subject ending is called the nominative case, and
Genitive
Dative
the object ending is called the accusative
case. Thereand
are other
cases too:
The genitive case
The English preposition of is used to translate the genitive case:
e.g. taurus agricolae
the bull of the farmer
We might leave out of and use an apostrophe instead: ‘the farmer’s bull’. Centuries ago, before the Norman
Conquest,
had a genitive
endingbull)
too. The ‘e’ of the genitive ending ‘-es’ has since given way to the
the bull English
of the farmer
(the farmer’s
apostrophe.
oculus tauri
the eye of the bull (the bull’s eye)
tauruspuellae
agricolae
equus
the horse of the girl (the girl’s horse)
The dative case
The dative case is used for the indirect object. The English preposition to is commonly used (and sometimes
for):
agricola tauro faenum dat
the farmer gives/is giving hay to the bull
femina equum puellae ostentat
the woman shows/is showing the horse to the girl
Note that in each of the above two examples there are two objects, one direct (accusative), the other indirect
(dative).
The ablative case
The most common use of the ablative is instrumental (by, with) or with a preposition (e.g. in). English
the farmer gives/is giving hay to the bull
femina equum puellae ostentat
the woman shows/is showing the horse to the girl
The Ablative
Note that in each of the above two examples there are two objects, one direct (accusative), the other indirect
(dative).
1 agricol.....cum taur..... ambulat.
The ablative case
The most common use of the ablative is instrumental (by, with) or with a preposition (e.g. in). English
prepositions used to translate this case are: by, with, from, in, on.
agricola cum equo ambulat
the farmer walks/is walking with the horse
agricola a tauro videtur
the farmer is seen by the bull
2 equus in vill.....est.
agricola in equo est
the farmer is on the horse
1 EARLY R
Grammatical categories
We have been focusing on nouns....
there is lot more to noun inflections than this, but it’s a good start
What about verbs?
Verb carry just as much information, if not more!!!
Tense
Tense is easy...
there are three tenses...
Germanic!
Does English have a future tense?
Periphrastic Tense
Eng.
I will drink
I shall drink
I am going to drink
Dutch. Ik zull drinken
I shall drink
Ik ga drinken
I go drink
Norwegian Jeg vil drikke
I will drink
Jeg skal drikke
I shall drink
German Ich werde trinken
I become drink
Swedish
How is the future expressed in other langauges?
Jag skall dricka
I shall drink
Mood
Indicative, Imperative, Conditional, Subjunctive etc. etc. etc.
Again pretty easy, because French does have some grammar here....
French (Indo-European)
Indicative
Je bois / Il buvait / nous aurons bu / vous eûtes bu / vous aviez bu
Imperative
Buvez!!!
Conditional
Je boirais / tu eusses bu
Subjuntive
nous eussions bu / j'aie bu / je busse
Aspect
Progressive and simple
English (Indo-European)
Simple:
I eat
Progressive:
I am eating
Dutch (Indo-European)
Simple:
ik eet
I eat
Progressive:
Ik ben aan het eten
I am to the eat
Aspect
What is the difference in meaning between
close and close up, write and write out, eat and eating?
She closed the shop vs. she closed up the shop
She wrote the book vs. she wrote up the book....
She eats a cake vs. she is eating a cake
Elle mange le gâteau vs. elle mangea le gâteau
Aspect
Perfective and Imperfective
These grammatical categories are crucial in many of the world languages
how, it is difficult to this to an English speaker and even more difficult for a French
speaker
Czech (Indo-European)
prohlédnout si
– perfective browse
Chcete si prohlédnout ten časopis? –
Would you like to take a look at the magazine? (one-time, finished action)
prohlížet si
– imperfective browse
Chcete si prohlížet časopisy? –
Would you like to be looking at magazines (e.g. while you wait)? (unspecified
duration)
koupit
– perfective buy
Eva si koupila šaty. –
Eva bought herself a dress. (she went out and came back with a dress)
nakupovat
– imperfective buy
Eva šla nakupovat. - Eva went shopping. (not sure for how long, she is still out)
Causative
English (Indo-European)
Get dressed
Have your hair done
etc...
Amharic (Semitic)
prefix
gǝbba
'enter'
agǝbba
'insert'
Kashimir (Indo-European)
vowel change
mar
ma:r
'die'
'kill'
K'iche' (Mayan)
suffix -kam- -kam-isa'die'
'kill'
Voice
In English (Indo-European)
I close the door - active
The door closed - middle
The door was closed by me - passive
but in Kimaragang Dusun (Austronesian)
root
passive
meaning
patay
pinatay
was killed by
nakaw ninakaw
was stolen by
garas
was butchered by
ginaras
Where is the passive morpheme???
114 
Latin (Indo-European)
Voice,
Aspect,
Tense of and
the perfective
3rd Person3
singular
laudare
Table 5.2.
Imperfective
forms of
laudāre– ‘praise’






laudat
laudābat
laudābit
laudātur
laudābātur
laudābitur






laudāvit
laudāverat
laudāverit
laudātus/a/um est
laudātus/a/um erat
laudātus/a/um erat
filling paradigm cells is the following. Latin has a number of so-called
deponent verbs, verbs with a passive form but an active meaning. For
instance, the verb loquor “to speak” is such a deponent verb. The crucial
bumasa (“Read!”)
Tagalog
babasa (“will read”)
tumawag (“Call!”)
tatawag (“will call”)
sumulat (“Write!”)
susulat (“will write”)
Here
are some
other
examples
from
language
spoken in the
If we
assume
that the
firstintriguing
form in each
column can
beTagalog,
treated asanother
a stem, then
it appears
Exercise
- Tagalog
Philippines.
that,
in the
second(Austronesian)
item in each column, an element -um- has been inserted after the
first consonant, or more precisely, after the syllable onset. It is an example of an infix
(described
in Chapter 5). In thetawag
third example
that the change in
basa (“read”)
(“call”) in each column,
sulat note
(“write”)
form
involves,
in each case, a tumawag
repetition of
the first syllable.
So, the(“Write!”)
marking of future
bumasa
(“Read!”)
(“Call!”)
sumulat
reference in Tagalog appears to be accomplished via reduplication. Using this infor-
babasa (“will read”)
tatawag (“will call”)
mation, you should be able to complete these examples:
susulat (“will write”)
If we assume that the first form in each column can be treated as a stem, then it appears
lakad (“walk”)
_________ (“Walk!”)
_________ (“will walk”)
lapit (“come here”)
_________ (“Come here!”)
_________ (“will come here”)
that, in the second item in each column, an element -um- has been inserted after the
first consonant, or more precisely, after the syllable onset. It is an example of an infix
(described
in Chapter
the third
in each
column,
note
that
In the
second column,
with5).
anIn
infix,
you’llexample
have lumakad
and
lumapit,
while
inthe
the change in
form
involves,
in each case, you’ll
a repetition
of the and
firstlalapit.
syllable. So, the marking of future
third
column,
with reduplication,
have lalakad
reference
Tagalog
appears
to bedifferent
accomplished
via reduplication.
Using
As
we haveinbeen
exploring
all these
morphological
processes, we
havethis information,
should
be able
to complete
these examples:
moved
from you
the basic
structure
of words
to a consideration
of some topics traditionally
associated with grammar. We will focus more fully on issues relating to grammar in the
next chapter.
lakad (“walk”)
lapit (“come here”)
_________ (“Walk!”)
_________ (“will walk”)
_________ (“Come here!”)
_________ (“will come here”)
C What are enclitics and proclitics? Does English have both? What are some typical
English examples? Why aren’t they just called affixes?
D Look over the following examples from Hungarian (based on Frommer and
Exercise
Hungarian
(Finno-Ugric)
Finegan, -2012:
3) and try
to answer the questions that follow.
(1) te szép vagy
(2) én beteg vagyok
“you’re beautiful” (singular)
“I’m ill”
(3) te magas vagy
(4) mi lankadtak vagyunk
“you’re tall” (singular)
“we’re tired”
(5) ti kedvesek vagytok
“you’re nice” (plural)
(6) ti betegek vagytok
(7) mi magasak vagyunk
“you’re ill” (plural)
“we’re tall”
(8) te kedves vagy
(9) én lankadt vagyok
“you’re nice” (singular)
“I’m tired”
(10) __ ______ _____
“you’re beautiful” (plural)
(i)
Did you complete the example in (10)?
(ii) What are the five free (adjective) morphemes in the data?
(iii) What are the four pronouns? Are these lexical or functional morphemes?
(iv) What are the three verb suffixes? Are these derivational or inflectional suffixes?
(v) What are the two adjective suffixes? What do you think is the basis for
choosing one or the other?
E Using what you learned about Swahili and information provided in the set of
Morphology
Exercise Turkish (Turkic)
II In Turkish, there is some variation in the plural inflection.
Singular
(“man”)
adam
–
Plural
adamlar
(“men”)
(“gun”)
(“lesson”)
________
ders
–
–
toplar
________
(“guns”)
(“lessons”)
(“place”)
yer
–
yerler
(“places”)
(“road”)
(“lock”)
_______
_______
–
–
yollar
kilitler
(“roads”)
(“locks”)
(“arrow”)
(“hand”)
ok
el
–
–
________
________
(“arrows”)
(“hands”)
(“arm”)
kol
–
________
(“arms”)
(“bell”)
(“friend”)
________
________
–
–
ziller
dostlar
(“bells”)
(“friends”)
(“apple”)
elma
–
________
(“apples”)
(i)
Can you provide the missing forms?
(ii) What are the two plural morphs exemplified here?
(iii) Treat the written forms of a and o as representing back vowels and e and i as
representing front vowels. Using this information, can you state the
conditions under which each of the plural morphs is used?
(iv) On the basis of the following phrases, how would you describe the Turkish
translation equivalents of your and the conditions for their use?
77
translation equivalents of your and the conditions for their use?
dishin (“your tooth”)
okun (“your arrow”)
topun (“your gun”)
dersin (“your lesson”)
kushun (“your bird”)
kibritlerin (“your matches”)
Exercise Turkish (Turkic)
(v) While English usually marks location with prepositions (in a house or at a
place), Turkish has postpositions (house-in or place-at). After looking at the
following examples, try to identify the three versions of the “location” suffix
and the conditions for their use.
dy of Language
(“book”)
(“chair”)
kitap
koltuk
–
–
kitapta
koltukta
(“in a book”)
(“in a chair”)
(“room”)
oda
–
odada
(“in a room”)
(“restaurant”)
(“house”)
lokanta
ev
–
–
lokantada
evde
(“in a restaurant”)
(“in a house”)
(“place”)
(“hand”)
yer
el
–
–
yerlerde
ellerimde
(“in places”)
(“in my hands”)
(“road”)
yol
–
yollarda
(“in roads)
(vi) When Turkish speakers borrowed (from French) the word randevu,
meaning “an appointment,” how do you think they expressed “in an
appointment”?
(For more examples, see Gleason, 1955. For more on Turkish, see Lewis, 2000.)
FURTHER READING