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Understanding
The
Human Body
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QA INTERNATIONAL
The human
body
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The human
body
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Table of
41
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
27
26
24
22
20
18
6 | The body’s
building blocks
8
10
12
14
The human cell
Chromosomes and DNA
Cellular activity
Body tissues
The movements of the hand
The action of the skeletal
muscles
The muscles of the head
Muscle tissue
The skeletal muscles
The joints
The hand and the foot
The spine
The head
Types of bones
The human skeleton
Bone growth
Bone structure
The skin
16 | The architecture
of the body
42 | The nervous system
44
46
48
50
52
54
4
72
70
68
67
66
64
62
60
58
Neurons
The central nervous system
The brain
The cerebrum
The peripheral
nervous system
The motor functions
of the nervous system
Smell
Taste receptors
Taste
Balance
Perception of sound
The organ of hearing
Sight
The eye
Touch
56 | The five senses
contents
110 The liver, pancreas,
and gallbladder
109 The intestines
108 The stomach
106 The teeth
104 The digestive system
102 Speech
100 Respiration
98 The respiratory system
74 | Blood circulation
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
Blood
The cardiovascular system
Arteries and veins
The heart
The cardiac cycle
The lymphatic system
Immunity
The endocrine system
The hypothalamus and
the pituitary gland
94 The urinary system
96 |Respiration and
nutrition
112 | Reproduction
114
116
118
120
122
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The male genital organs
The female genital organs
Fertilization
The life of the embryo
Maternity
124 | Glossary
126 | Index
5
What is the human body made of? Although our bodies are very complex, they are composed of fundamental units
that are very similar to each other. These
microscopic basic components are
assembled to form the different tissues that form all the body’s organs. Cells are also the sites of intense and
constant activity: they
manufacture living matter, consume energy, and continually reproduce
themselves.
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The body’s building blocks
8
The human cell
The body’s basic component
10
Chromosomes and DNA
The code of life deep within cells
12
Cellular activity
Cell division and protein synthesis
14
Body tissues
Groupings of cells
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The human cell
The body’s building blocks
The body’s basic component
The human body contains about 60 billion human cells. These cells, the basic
components of the human body, are invisible to the naked eye, as their diameter
generally is less than a few hundredths of a millimeter. Although they take many
forms, depending on their location and their function, they always have a welldefined structure: an exterior membrane, a nucleus, and a number of internal
elements floating in a gelatinous medium, the cytoplasm.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS
The human body contains a great many types of cells, which are differentiated
according to their function. Despite their different sizes and shapes, all have the
same general structure.
Cytoplasm, which fills the
intracellular space, is a jellylike substance composed of
water, proteins, lipids, ions,
and glucose.
The rods of the retina contain
light-sensitive pigments.
Lysosomes contain enzymes
that perform intracellular
digestion.
The nucleus of the neutrophil
has several lobes.
Microtubules, which form the
skeleton of the cell, make it
easier for organelles to move
within the cytoplasm.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
color the blood red.
Made mainly of lipid molecules,
the cell membrane forms a
selective water-insoluble barrier.
The ovum is the largest cell in
the human body.
Spermatozoids have a long
flagellum.
Enveloped in a double
membrane, mitochondria
produce and store energy.
Enzymes enclosed in
peroxisomes perform
oxidization.
Neurons (neural cells) can be up
to 1 meter in length.
The irregular shape of osteocytes
(bone cells) enables them to lodge in
very narrow cavities of bony tissue.
8
Cilia, formed of a group of microtubules
covered by the cellular membrane, can propel
the cell or move a substance outside the cell.
Large cilia are called flagella.
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THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN CELLS
The body’s building blocks
Human cells (like those of all higher orders of life) are called eukaryotes – that is, their genetic material is
enclosed in a nucleus defined by a nuclear membrane. The rest of the cell is composed of cytoplasm, a semiliquid medium structured by a network of microtubules and microfilaments. The organelles that float in the
cytoplasm (mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome) perform different cellular
functions, such as storing energy, synthesis and transportation of proteins, and digestion of foreign bodies.
Chromatin, the main component of the nucleus,
is a filament formed of DNA and proteins.
The nuclear membrane has
a large number of pores.
Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus,
in the center of the nucleus.
free ribosome
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), located near
the nucleus, consists of a network of membranous
pockets and canals. The rough ER is covered with
ribosomes that synthesize proteins, while the
smooth ER does not have ribosomes and produces
other types of substances.
The Golgi apparatus resembles a series
of membranous sacs attached to the
rough ER. It collects the proteins
synthesized by the ribosomes, sometimes
changes them by adding carbohydrates,
then releases them into vacuoles.
Microfilaments are made of a protein,
actin. With the microtubules, they
form the cytoskeleton, which gives
the cell its shape.
Vacuoles, small liquid-filled vesicles,
move from the Golgi apparatus
to the cellular membrane, where
they release the proteins that
they contain.
TRANSPORT OF PROTEINS IN THE CELL
Each cell has two centrioles, formed
of bundles of microtubules placed at
a right angle to each other. They play
a role in cell division.
Protein synthesis, one of the main functions of the cells,
is performed in small particles called ribosomes. There are
two types of ribosomes: free ribosomes, which secrete
their products directly into the cytoplasm, and ribosomes
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, which release
their proteins outside the cell. Proteins move through
the network of membranous sacs in the endoplasmic
reticulum, are processed by the Golgi apparatus, and then
migrate toward the cellular membrane inside a vacuole.
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9
Chromosomes and DNA
The body’s building blocks
The code of life deep within cells
Each cell in our body has a nucleus. Although nuclei are only a few microns
in diameter, they are the site of fundamental mechanisms, such as cell division
and protein synthesis. The substance responsible for these phenomena,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is in the form of very long helicoidal molecules in
constant motion. During the process of cell division, these filaments twist around
on themselves to form chromosomes.
DNA molecules are unique in that they are formed of two strands linked by several
billion successive bonds. The sequence of these components constitutes a code
that is capable of commanding the production of a large number of specific
proteins and also replicating itself.
nucleolus
The nucleus is separated from
the cytoplasm by a porous
nuclear membrane.
sister chromatids
centromere
The chromosomes float in a gelatinous
substance, the nucleoplasm.
Human cells have 46 chromosomes, except for sexual cells,
which have only half this number. Chromosomes cannot be
observed except during cell division. At that time, they divide
into two sister chromatids that remain attached to each other
for a short time by a central zone, the centromere.
INSIDE THE NUCLEUS
With the exception of red blood cells, all cells in the body contain a nucleus. Some, like the muscle cells,
even have several. The nucleus of a cell contains one or several nucleoli and filaments of chromatin floating
in the nucleoplasm. Chromatin, which generally looks like a string of beads, is composed of long DNA
molecules wound around proteins called histones. When cells divide, this filament rolls up into a spiral,
becomes condensed, and is organized to form characteristic small rods, the chromosomes.
10
THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF DNA
The nucleotide is the basic component of the
DNA molecule. It is composed of a phosphate
group and a sugar, deoxyribose, to which one
of the four bases attaches.
The body’s building blocks
DNA is a polymer – that is, its molecule is formed by the grouping together of a large
number of simpler molecules. It can be visualized as a very long, twisted ladder whose
two uprights are linked by billions of rungs, each of which is composed of two smaller
molecules, nitrogenous bases. There are only four different nitrogenous bases in DNA:
adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. These molecules are linked up not at
random but according to a strict rule resulting from their molecular structure: adenine
can link only with thymine, and cytosine only with guanine. These bases are called
complementary.
Adenine can link up
only with thymine.
deoxyribose
phosphate group
thymine
The nitrogenous base, linked to deoxyribose,
links up with its complementary base to form
a rung in the DNA molecule.
guanine
Cytosine is the
complementary base
for guanine.
chromatin
Each chromosome has a single
DNA molecule, 2 millionths of
a millimeter wide but several
centimeters long.
THE GENETIC HERITAGE AND HEREDITY
All of the cells in an individual’s body have resulted from
the division of a single initial cell, and so they all contain
absolutely identical DNA filaments. The sequence of
nitrogenous bases is always different from one human
being to another; the DNA composition of each human
being is therefore unique.
When the DNA molecule wraps around
eight histone molecules, it forms a mass,
the nucleosome, which supports it.
Much of our genetic heritage is linked to our belonging to
the human race: all humans, for instance, have the same
organs. However, other, more specific, genetic characteristics
(physical features, predisposition to certain diseases) are
transmitted from one generation to the next at the time
the sexual cells merge. This mode of transmission is called
heredity.
11
Cellular activity
The body’s building blocks
Cell division and protein synthesis
Like more complex living organisms, the cells in our bodies are born and die.
Different cells have very different life spans: a few hours for white blood cells,
four months for red blood cells. When they die, most cells are replaced by
identical cells. Their life can thus be described as a cycle during which they
prepare for and complete their reproduction by cellular division.
phase M
phase G2
phase S
The cell cycle comprises four successive stages: the three phases of the
interphase (phases G1, S, and G2) and phase M. Phases G1 and G2 are
phases of growth and intense metabolic activity. G1 is the longest and
most variable phase (from 10 hours to several months, depending on
the cell; even an entire life for neurons). Phase G2 lasts one to two
hours. Phase S, which can last from four to eight hours, is the period
during which replication of DNA takes place. Phase M corresponds to
cell division itself and lasts only a few minutes.
phase G1
REPLICATION OF DNA
nucleotide
DNA
molecule
matrix
An essential step in cell division consists of
copying the cell’s genetic material, its DNA.
To do this, the two strands of the double
helix separate and become matrices for the
synthesis of two new strands according to
the principle of base pairing. When the DNA
molecule has completely replicated, the cell
has two absolutely identical molecules.
newly synthesized
strand
cytoplasm
chromosome
Q
pair of
centrioles
nucleus
CELL DIVISION
W
Cell division, or mitosis, comprises several distinct steps. The DNA
molecules, deployed as chromatin during the interphase, coil and
thicken during the prophase Q, which makes the chromosomes
visible. The nucleolus disappears and the two pairs of centrioles
move apart and migrate to opposite ends of the cell, while a system
of microfilaments, the mitotic spindle, forms between these two
poles. Gradually, the nuclear membrane disintegrates and the
chromosomes move along the filaments of the mitotic spindle.
During the metaphase W, the chromosomes line up at the center
of the cell. When their centromeres divide, the anaphase begins E:
the chromatids, which have become complete chromosomes, are
drawn to one or the other end of the cell. In the telophase R a
new nucleus forms at each end of the cell. The chromosomes uncoil
to become chromatin once more, while a new nuclear membrane is
formed. The mitotic spindle disappears and the cytoplasm begins
to separate during a phase called cytocinesis T. At the end of the
process, the original cell is replaced by two new identical cells Y.
12
Extrait de la publication
mitotic
spindle
E
R
new
nucleus
T
Y
SYNTHESIS OF PROTEINS
Proteins are large molecules formed by the grouping together of several amino acids. Some proteins play
specific roles in the body’s functioning (hormones, antibodies, enzymes), while others constitute its living
material. The synthesis of proteins, which is one of the cell’s main functions, is performed according to
instructions coded in genes, segments of various lengths of the DNA molecule. Each gene is distinguished
by a particular sequence of nitrogenous bases. The synthesis of a protein consists of transcribing this
sequence onto a messenger molecule, then translating it into the sequence of amino acids that form the
protein.
The bases of the messenger RNA molecule
are complementary to those of the gene
that produces it.
nucleotide
The messenger RNA molecule is
composed of the same bases as
DNA, except that uracil replaces
thymine.
DNA
molecule
W
0
E
0
Q
0
pore
codon
matrix
ribosome
R
0
nuclear membrane
T
0
amino acid
Y
0
TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION
The first phase in the process of synthesis of proteins,
transcription, takes place in the cell nucleus. When
a gene is activated, its two strands separate, and one
of them serves as the matrix Q for a molecule of
messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA-m) W. Once formed,
this molecule leaves the nucleus through one of its
pores E and attaches itself to a ribosome R, where
it is translated.
Translation consists of converting the molecule of
RNA-m into a sequence of amino acids. The bases of
the RNA-m are processed not one by one, but in
groups of three, called codons T, which serve as
matrices for specific amino acids. As the codons are
processed, the amino acids Y are assembled in the
order defined by the sequences of the gene’s bases.
When the RNA-m molecule has been completely
translated, the sequence of amino acids forms a
protein U.
Extrait de la publication
RNA-m
U
0
protein
13
Body tissues
The body’s building blocks
Groupings of cells
In the human body, cells do not function separately. They are grouped together in
different tissues that compose the organism’s organs. There are four types of tissues
in the human body: epithelial tissues, which form the covering of many parts of the
body; connective tissues, which play a support role; muscle tissues; and nerve
tissues. Aside from cells, the tissues contain extracellular liquid, in which
substances needed by the body to function (such as hormones, proteins, and
vitamins) circulate and dissolve.
microvilli
basement
membrane
nucleus of an
epithelial cell
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
The epithelium (or epithelial tissue) covers most
of the internal and external surfaces of the body,
including skin, mucus, blood vessels, glands, and
cavities of the digestive system. The epithelial cells
are cubical, columnar, or squamous (flat) and are
tightly packed against each other to form coverings
that can include one or more layers. They sit on a
basement membrane that connects them to the
underlying vascularized tissues. On the outside of
the body they are impermeable, but on the inside
they play a role of absorption and secretion within
the organism, due to the microvilli that cover certain
epithelial cells.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Unlike the epithelium, connective tissue has relatively few cells, floating in a very abundant intercellular matrix
composed mainly of fibers and a semi-liquid substance. Connective-tissue cells fall into two primary categories:
fibroblasts and macrophages. The intercellular matrix of connective tissue involves mainly three types of fibers
formed of proteins: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers. The density and positioning of these
fibers, as well as the presence of other, more specific cells, gives connective tissue very different aspects.
Cartilage, bone tissue, blood, and most of the tissues that make up the organs are connective tissues.
Reticular fibers form solid
branched networks.
Elastic fibers are able to return to their
original length after being stretched.
Collagen fibers, made of
bundles of fibrils, are very
strong. They make the
matrix flexible and rubbery.
Macrophages destroy
undesirable elements
(foreign bodies,
debris, dead cells).
Fibroblasts make
tissue fibers.
14
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Muscle cells are called fibers, but they
should not be confused with the protein
fibers present in connective tissue.
The tissues that form muscles are distinct because of
the way their cells are bundled. There are three types
of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and
smooth visceral muscle.
Skeletal muscle tissue is formed of very elongated
multinuclear fibers. These cells look striated due to
the alternation of the two types of filaments that
compose them.
cell nucleus
The body’s building blocks
MUSCLE TISSUE
The fibers of cardiac muscle tissue are also striated,
but they are differently organized, with numerous,
tight ramifications.
Smooth muscle tissue includes shorter, spindle-shaped
cells. These fibers have only one nucleus and are not
striated.
NERVE TISSUE
The brain, the spinal cord, and nerves are formed of nerve tissue, which consists of a dense tangle of cells.
There are two categories of cells in nerve tissue: neurons, which are the true nervous cells, and glial cells
(astrocytes, oligodentrocytes, microgliocytes, Schwann cells, etc.). Glial cells are ten times more numerous and
generally smaller than neurons. They do not play a direct role in nerve functions but support, protect, and
nourish the neurons. They are also capable of dividing by mitosis, which neurons cannot do.
Neurons are highly specialized cells that transport
and transmit nerve impulses by establishing
innumerable connections between each other.
Tiny microgliocytes rid nerve tissue
of foreign bodies and dead cells.
neuron
The axon is the main
extension of the neuron.
Oligodendrocytes are the
most common glial cells.
They have extensions that
coil around the axons of
the neurons of the central
nervous system.
The many extensions of the astrocytes
finish in “feet” that form barriers, called
hemato-encephalic barriers, between the
neurons and blood capillaries.
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15
From the phalanges to the bones of the skull, the 206 bones that make up the human skeleton play
an essential supportive and protective role. But the architecture of the human body is not determined solely by its skeleton:
our organism also has more than 600 muscles with which we control our limbs and move around. This
strong,
efficient basic structure could not function without the protective envelope that covers it. The skin,
with 1.5 m2 of total surface area, is the largest organ of the human body.
Extrait de la publication
The architecture of the body
18
The skin
The body’s protective envelope
20
Bone structure
Flexible yet strong tissues
22
Bone growth
From cartilage to bone tissue
24
The human skeleton
The bony structure of the body
26
Types of bones
Form determined by function
27
The head
A grouping of flat and irregular bones
28
The spine
The central axis of the body
30
The hand and the foot
The extremities of the limbs
32
The joints
The junctions between the bones
34
The skeletal muscles
Motion generators
36
Muscle tissue
Bundles of contractile cells
38
The muscles of the head
An infinite variety of movements
40
The action of the skeletal muscles
From contraction to movement
41
The movements of the hand
Incredible dexterity
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The skin
The architecture of the body
The body’s protective envelope
We may not think of it this way, but the skin is the largest organ in the human
body: an adult’s skin covers an area of 1.75 m2 and represents 7% of total body
mass. This envelope is composed of a superficial layer, the epidermis, and a
deeper layer, the dermis. With the different types of cells that it contains
(keratinocytes, melanocytes, sensory receptors), the skin fulfills a number of
important functions that protect us against the external environment.
THE LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS
The epidermis is an epithelial tissue composed essentially of keratinocytes. These cells are formed in
the deepest layer of the epidermis (the basal layer) and then are pushed toward the spinous layer by
younger cells. As they migrate, the keratinocytes become impregnated with a fibrous protein,
keratin, which gradually replaces their cytoplasm. By the time the cells reach the outer layer (the
horny layer), their nuclei have completely disintegrated. These dead, flattened keratinous cells
make the skin impermeable.
The dead cells that make up the horny layer
are constantly sloughed off to make room
for new cells.
spinous
layer
pore
Although it is very thin (0.1 mm), the
epidermis plays a major role in body
defense, forming a physical barrier.
The cells of the basal layer are
constantly multiplying through mitosis.
Different types of tactile receptors
detect the stimuli of touch, pressure,
and temperature.
The dermis is composed of connective
tissue rich in blood vessels and nerves.
blood vessel
nerve
The hypodermis, located under the dermis,
contains mainly adipose (fatty) tissue.
The perspiration produced by the sweat glands
exits the skin via tiny orifices, the pores.
adipose tissue
THE SKIN’S DEFENSES
Human skin has many means of defending itself against various assaults. The epidermis contains two
proteins: keratin, which makes it impermeable, and melanin, which blocks ultraviolet rays. Perspiration
protects against certain bacteria, cools the skin, and evacuates certain substances. Sebum, released by
sebaceous glands attached to hair follicles, is a fatty substance that keeps the skin from drying out and
protects it from bacteria. When sensory receptors detect injuries, the central nervous system is able to react.
18
medulla
cuticle
Hairs, made by the hair follicles in the dermis, grow over
most of our skin. They have sebaceous glands, which coat
them with sebum; arrector muscles, which pull them
upright when necessary (cold or fright); and nerve receptors,
which detect the lightest touch.
PIGMENTS FOR SUN PROTECTION
The deepest layer of the epidermis contains specialized cells called
melanocytes. Activated by melanocyte-stimulating hormone produced
by the pituitary, melanocytes produce melanin, a dark-brown pigment.
Melanin molecules released by the cellular extensions of melanocytes
enter the keratinocytes and settle over cell nuclei to protect them
from potentially carcinogenic ultraviolet rays.
The architecture of the body
cortex
melanin
keratinocyte
Melanocytes comprise 8% of the epidermic
cells. The color of the skin depends not
on the number of melanocytes, but on
their size and degree of activity.
Sebaceous glands produce sebum, a substance
that coats the hairs and skin with oil.
arrector muscle of hair
hair follicle
HOW THE SKIN FORMS SCARS
When the skin sustains a deep injury Q, down to the dermis or even the
hypodermis, a substance generated by blood coagulation, fibrin W, rapidly
forms a clot at the bottom of the wound. When the clot dries up, it creates a
crust E, which has to be eliminated so that the cells of the epidermis can
migrate to form a new epidermis. At the same time, fibroblasts (young
cells) R and capillaries (small blood vessels) of the dermis multiply to
reconstruct the tissues T. As tissues grow, they push the crust toward the
normal surface of the epidermis, where a small swelling, or scar, may form Y.
epidermis
dermis
crust
fibrin
scar
Y
0
E
0
T
0
0
W
0
Q
R
0
deep wound
fibroblasts
reconstructed tissue
19
Index
quadriceps 35
rectum 109
red blood cell 77
red bone marrow 20, 77
reflex 55
reproduction 114, 116, 118, 120, 122
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 98, 100
retina 61, 62
rib 29
ribcage 29
ribonucleic acid 13
ribosome 9, 13
risorius 39
RNA 13
root of the tooth 107
sclera 60
scrotum 114
sebaceous gland 19
sebum [G] 18
semen 114
semicircular canals 67
senses 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72
sexual relations 118
shaft 20
short bone 26
shoulder 32
shoulder blade 26
SIGHT 60, 62
sinus [G] 100
SKELETAL MUSCLES 34, 36, 40
SKELETON 24
SKIN 18, 58
skull 27
small intestine 105, 109
SMELL 72
sneezing 101
somatosensory cortex 59
SPEECH 102
spermatozoid 115, 119
sphenoid bone 27
sphincter 39
spinal bulb 48
spinal cord 46
spinal ganglion 47
spinal nerves 46, 53
SPINE 28
spinothalamic tract 59
spleen 87
spongy bone tissue 20
stem cell [G] 77
sternocleidomastoid muscle 38
sternum 29
STOMACH 105, 108
swallowing 104
sweat gland 18
sympathetic ganglion 46, 54
sympathetic system 54
synapse 45
synaptic cleft 45
synovial fluid 32
systemic bloodstream 79
systole 84
S
T
saccule 67
sacrum 28
saliva 68, 105
salivary gland 68
sarcomere 36
sartorius 34
scar 19
Schwann cell 45
sciatic nerve 53
tactile receptor 18, 55
talus 26, 31
target cell 91
tarsus 31
TASTE 68, 70
taste bud 71
tear 61
TEETH 106
temporal bone 27
perichondrium 22
periosteum 20, 22
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 52
peritoneum 108
phagocytic cell 88
phagocytosis 88
phalanges 30
pharynx 98
phonation 102
photoreceptor [G] 60
PITUITARY GLAND 90, 92
placenta [G] 122
plasma 76
plasmocyte 89
pleura 99
precapillary sphincter 80
premolar 106
progesterone 119
prostate 114
protein synthesis 9, 12
pubis 116
pulmonary alveoli 101
pulmonary artery 79
pulmonary bloodstream 79
pulmonary vein 79
pulp 107
pulse 79
pupil 60, 63
pus 88
pylorus 108
QR
temporal muscle 39
tendon 35, 36, 41
testicle 115
thalamus 50
thumb 30, 41
thymine 11
thyroid gland 91, 92
TISSUES 14
toe 31
tongue 69, 70
tonsils 68, 87
TOUCH 58
trachea 98
trapezius 35
triceps 35
trophoblast 120
tympanum 65, 66
U
umbilical cord 121, 123
uracil 13
ureter 94
urethra 94
URINARY SYSTEM 94
urine 95
uterus 116, 120
utricle 67
V
vagina 116, 118
valve 80, 83
VEINS 78, 80
vena cava 78
vertebra 26, 28
vertebral foramen 29
vestibular nerve 65
visual cortex 63
vitreous body 60
vocal folds 103
vulva 116
W
white blood cell 76, 88
white matter 46, 50
wrist 30, 32
YZ
yellow bone marrow 21
zona pellucida 119
zygomatic muscle 38
zygote 120
Terms in CAPITAL LETTERS and page numbers in boldface type refer to a main entry. The symbol [G] indicates a Glossary listing.
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Extrait de la publication
Extrait de la publication