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© SUPPLEMENT TO JAPI • JANUARY 2011 • VOL. 59 11 Clinical Approach to Thyroid Disease RV Jayakumar* Introduction O nce diabetes is excluded, thyroid diseases constitute the main bulk of endocrine problems that the practicing physician has to sort out during the clinical practice. As with all endocrine diseases, thyroid diseases mainly presents with either excess hormonal activity, or with symptoms due to under production of the hormone or with a swelling due to a neoplastic process or due to the pressure effects on surrounding structures. A correct etiological, anatomical and functional diagnosis of the thyroid problem is absolutely essential for the proper treatment and well being of the patient (Table 1, 2). As with any branch of medicine, this can be achieved by careful history, thorough physical examination and by well-planned investigations. Table 1 : Classification of hypothyroidism Type Primary hypothyroidism Secondary hypothyroidism Secondary hypothyroidism Origin Thyroid gland Description The most common forms include Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (an autoimmune disease) and radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. Thyroid gland itself fails to produce T3 and T4 Pituitary gland Pituitary gland does not create enough thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH) to induce the thyroid gland to produce enough thyroxine and triiodothyronine Hypothalamus Results when the hypothalamus fails to produce sufficient thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH prompts the pituitary gland to produce thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH). Table 2 : Some causes of hypothyroidism Primary hypothyroidism Secondary hypothyroidism (95% of cases) Idiopathic hypothyroidism (5% of cases) Pituitary or hypothalamic neoplasms Hashimoto’s thyroiditis Other causes Drug therapy (e.g., amiodarone , lithium, interferon) Infiltrative diseases (e.g., sarcoidosis, amyloidosis, Pituitary necrosis scleroderma, (Sheehan’s syndrome) subsequent to Graves’ hemochromatosis) disease Irradiation of the thyroid Congenital hypopituitarism Advances in diagnostic techniques seem to have pushed physical examination of thyroid to a less significant role and this may lead some people to conclude that examination of thyroid may be an unlearned or lost art for many physicians.1 However all the guidelines regarding thyroid diseases give emphasis on the clinical assessment of thyroid disease (Table 3). As with any clinical decision making, the clinical approach to the thyroid patient begins, from the time he enters the physician’s chamber. A thyrotoxic patient will be showing signs of tension and anxiety, with a staring look, while getting to the room and being seated. As the interview starts the patient’s voice may give some clues, the hoarseness of hypothyroidism or the hoarseness due to recurrent nerve compression from the compression from a benign or malignant goiter.2 Patient complaints which will make the physician consider a thyroid problem include many, but the common ones are weight loss , palpitation, tremor, alteration of bowel problems, sweating disorders, sleep problems and menstrual irregularities. There are some situations where the patient may present with only one symptom due to thyroid disease and the Physician should not miss such ones. The single symptoms which may be due to a thyroid problem include growth problems, delays in sexual maturation, infertility, atrial fibrillation and constipation. The physical examination for a thyroid related problem starts with general examination. The weight and height are important markers, loss of weight recently may be due to thyrotoxicosis and gain of weight may be due to fluid retention of hypothyroidism. The height of the growing child can be defective due to hypothyroidism in which case the extremities Table 3 : Common Signs and Symptoms of Hypothyroidism Sign or symptom Weakness Skin changes (dry or coarse skin) Lethargy Slow speech Eyelid edema Cold sensation Decreased sweating Cold skin Thick tongue Facial edema Coarse hair Skin pallor Forgetfulness Constipation Surgical removal of the thyroid Late-stage invasive fibrous Thyroiditis Iodine deficiency Professor of Endocrinology, AIMS School of Medicine, Cochin-682041 * Fig 1: Grave’s disease Affected patients (%) 99 97 91 91 90 89 89 83 82 79 76 67 66 61 12 © SUPPLEMENT TO JAPI • JANUARY 2011 • VOL. 59 Table 4 : Laboratory Values in Hypothyroidism TSH level High High (>10μU/ mL [10mU/L]) High (6-10μU/ mL [6-100mU/L]) Fig 2: Myxedema facies High High Low Free T4 level Free T3 level Likely diagnosis Low Low Primary hypothyroidism Normal Normal Subclinical hypothyroidism with high risk for future development of overt hypothyroidism Normal Normal Subclinical hypothyroidism with low risk for future development of overt hypothyroidism High Low Congenital absence of T4-T3–converting enzyme; amiodarone (Cordarone) effect on T4-T3 conversion High High Peripheral thyroid hormone resistance Low Low Pituitary thyroid deficiency or recent withdrawal of thyroxine after excessive replacement therapy TSH = thyroid-stimulating hormone; T4 = thyroxine; T3 = triiodothyronine. Fig 3: Palpation of thyroid will be disproportionately shorter than trunk. Examination of the skin and appendages will give important clues like the warm and moist extremities of thyrotoxicosis and the dry, rough non-sweaty skin of hypothyroidism. Facial appearance will be very informative as the spot diagnosis of Graves’s disease and classical Myxoedema are often made by the physician by just a look at the face (Figs. 1, 2). The local examination, which is mainly confined to the neck, starts with inspection. One should look for the scars, asymmetry and any neck swelling. Erythema overlying a tender swelling may be due to suppurative thyroiditis or infected thyroglossal cyst or brachial cleft cyst.3 Slightly extend the neck and inspect the area from the thyroid cartilage to the sternal notch and also instruct the patient to do a swallowing act. A thyroid enlargement is usually made out by its movement on swallowing which will be lost only by a large impacted goiter or by a rare case of invasive carcinoma or Riedel’s thyroiditis.4 The term Pseudogoitre is coined to describe apparent thyroidal enlargement when no true goiter is present.5 Thin patients may appear to have a prominent appearing thyroid, especially when the gland is located higher in the neck, overlying the thyroid cartilage. By palpation and ultrasonography these glands have been shown to be of normal size. The Modigliani Syndrome denotes the illusion of a goitre, seen when patients with long, curved necks have exaggerated cervical spine lordosis.6 A midline mass visible superior to the isthmus, may be due to a thyroglossal duct cyst. This is the commonest congenital neck mass and may present at any age, can be tender due to infection or due to hemorrhage and can very rarely harbour a papillary thyroid cancer. The movement upwards as the tongue is extended is the diagnostic clue for thyroglossal cyst. There is no consensus as to the best way to examine the thyroid gland, whether to palpate from the front, facing the patient, or do the palpation standing from the back of the seated patient.7 The examination from the front begins with the examiner first identifying the cricoid cartilage and then identifies the isthmus of the thyroid directly below this. Then from the right, the left lobe is palpated with two or three fingers of the right hand, lateral to the trachea and medial to sterno clavicular muscle, with thumb placed to the right of trachea. The fingers are kept stationary at various levels of interest and also while the patient is asked to swallow. The exercise is then repeated for the other side. While examining from the back, the examiner uses the fingers of both hands simultaneously (Fig. 3). If a nodule is identified the upper and lower borders can be trapped between two examining fingers so as to allow a gross determination of the size. During palpation vascular thrill may be felt suggesting increased thyroidal blood flow, which will be confirmed by the presence of a bruit on auscultation. Each lobe of the thyroid gland is about the size of distal phalanx of the individual’s thumb and roughly weighs from 10 to 20gms.8 The consistency of the normal gland is described as rubbery, while that of Hashimotos is firm and stony hard is suggestive of infiltrating malignancy. Painful thyroid gland is usually due to subacute thyroiditis, but very rarely can be due to hemorrhage in a nodule or due to malignant thyroid lesion.9 Examination of the thyroid gland is not complete without looking for the cervical lymph nodes, which may give important clues to the underlying problem. Lastly as thyroid hormone acts on all the tissues of the body, complete examination of all systems is a must for making a full diagnosis. Goitre can be classified as per WHO classification • Grade 0 – no goitre presence is found (the thyroid impalpable and invisible); • Grade 1 – neck thickening is present in result of enlarged thyroid, palpable, however, not visible in normal position © SUPPLEMENT TO JAPI • JANUARY 2011 • VOL. 59 13 examination include weight loss/weight gain, palpitation, alteration of bowel habits (diarrhea/constipation), sweating, sleep problems, menstrual irregularities, growth problems, delays in sexual maturation, infertility, hoarseness of voice, exophthalmos, tremors, atrial fibrillation and thyroid gland enlargement of the neck; the thickened mass moves upwards during swallowing. Grade 1 includes also nodular goitre if thyroid enlargement remains invisible. • Grade 2 – neck swelling, visible when the neck is in normal position, corresponding to enlarged thyroid – found in palpation.10 Once the physical examination is complete, the physician must plan the necessary investigations to confirm the diagnosis and plan treatment. The fact that almost all the investigations related to thyroid diseases are easily available put an additional responsibility on the Physician to select the appropriate and cost effective tests in a given case. The measurement of thyroid hormones in the blood i.e. serum T3, T4 and TSH, is the most helpful test in confirming many of the thyroid diseases and for monitoring therapy of hypo and hyperthyroidism (Table 4). The isotope scan and uptake of thyroid is seldom needed in diagnosing and managing hypothyroidsim, where as they are very useful in diagnosing and managing thyroid malignancy. Ultrasonography of thyroid has almost become part of clinical examination in many endocrine centers, but for our patients it is still an investigation to be ordered, when you want to get to know more about the nodules, their size, contents and the pressure effects. So by properly selecting the blood tests and imaging procedures in a suspected case, the physician will be able to make a diagnosis in a given case It is important to remember that endocrine diseases evolve very slowly and they may often be missed by a person who is seeing the patient regularly and is picked up by a physician seeing the patient for the first time. Likewise, endocrine disease may have a more distant effect than local effects, and don’t expect the thyroid disease patient to present with neck problem always, except in subacute thyroiditis. So a combination of right thinking, good history, thorough physical examination and judicious use of investigations will sort out majority of thyroid problems in your practice. Conclusion • A correct etiological, anatomical and functional diagnosis of the thyroid problem can be achieved by careful history, thorough physical examination and by well-planned investigations • Pointers to thyroid disease on history and clinical • Investigations include serum T3, T4 and TSH for confirming many of the thyroid diseases and for monitoring therapy of hypo and hyperthyroidism, ultrasonography of thyroid and nuclear scan (hyperthyroidism). • A combination of right thinking, good history, thorough physical examination and judicious use of investigations will sort out majority of thyroid problems in clinical practice. 1. Daniel GH. Physical Examination of the Thyroid. In Braverman LE, Utiger RD eds Werner and Ingbar’s the Thyroid: Philadelphia: Lippincot William’s & Wilkins, 2000: 462-66 2. Dillman WH. The Thyroid. In Goldman L, Bennett JC, eds Cecil Text Book of Medicine. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2000: 12312-1249. 3. Leonhardt JM, Heyman WR. Thyroid disease and the skin. Dermatology Clinics 2002; 20: 471-81. 4. Larsen PR, Davies TF, Schlumberger MJ et al .Thyroid Physiology and diagnostic evaluation of patients with thyroid disorders. In: Larsen PR, Kronberg HM, Melmed S et al. Ed Williams’s text book of Endocrinology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2003: 364-5 5. Gwinup G, Morton E. The high lying Thyroid: a cause of pseudogoiter. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975; 40: 37-42 6. Mercer RD. Pseudogoter: the Modigliani syndrome. Cleve Clin J Med 1975: 42:319-26. 7. Siminoski K. The rational clinical examination: does this patient have a goiter? JAMA 1995; 273: 813-7 8. Bickley LS, Hoekelman RA. The head and neck. In: Physical Examination and history taking. Philadelphia: Lippincot, 1999:202206,211, 244 9. Wartofsky L. Approach to the patient with thyroid disease. In: Becker KL, Ed Principles and practise of endocrinology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001: 308 References 10. WHO/UNICEF/ICCIDD. Chapter 2: Selecting target groups and Chapter 5: Selecting appropriate indicators: Biochemical indicators. In: Indicators for Assessing Iodine Deficiency Disorders and their Control Through Salt Iodination. Geneva. World Health Organization, WHO/NUT/94.6, 1994.