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Theory Comparison Table
CPSY 218
Foundations of Personality and Psychotherapy
Dr. Shapiro
by Audrey Fairchild
Sigmund Freud, 1856-1939
Psychoanalysis
Theory of Human Nature
Fundamentally believed that personality develops through psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) Sexuality is a basic
drive affecting human functioning. Most of personality
is formed by childhood experiences, in a triparate self: id, ego, superego
and to cope with anxiety, the ego has adaptive and maladaptive means
of dealing with reality that either accept, deny or distort reality.
Theory of Psychopathology
Unsuccessful attempts to have needs met at each stage results in
fixation (neurosis or hysteria). Defense mechanisms to control the
sexual and aggressive urges of the id from reaching consciousness:
repression; suppression; projection, reaction formation, etc,
believed that unconscious thoughts/emotion affect behavior, and
psychological disorders result form reactions to the unconscious;
phobias; mania; hysteria, hypomania, depression; anxiety
(bolstered defenses)
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
Coming to understand the hidden aspects of ourselves through
“talk therapy” and dream analysis, where hidden drives are expressed
in symbolism. Confrontation, clarification, interpretation and working
through the unconscious thought or emotion by direct observation of
the clients behavior; and identifying defenses (transference,
resistance, projection) to gain insight to client’s own behaviors/reactions
Key words
id, ego, super-ego, repression, suppression, projection, reaction formation,
introjection, regression, denial, displacement, sublimation, rationalization,
intellectualization; Oedipus complex, “penis-envy”, transference,
counter-transference; death-instinct; “drives”; oral, anal, phallic, libido
psychoanalysis, free-association; Narcissism; object cathexis, cartharsis
Goals of therapy
interpretation and analysis of unconscious processes and continuous
impact of psychosexual stages of development; access to feelings;
symptom remission; improved personal relationships, develop trust in the
therapeutic relationship via transference and counter-transference
Strengths and
limitations
Pros: Freud began the process of psychoanalysis, began the
elitist Vienna Analytic Society (8) ; published seminal works. Used
dream analysis and free association to unveil repressed emotions.
Cons: rigid theory, related all neuroses to sexual repression
Carl Gustav Jung, 1875-1961
Theory of Human Nature
“Neo-Freudian” combination of psychodynamic and humanistic psychology
JUNGIAN
Fundamentally agreed with Freud on many tenets: problems rooted
in the past (childhood traumas); a personal unconscious exists; but not
people are directed by their sexual drives. Rather, Jung deemphasized
libido and believed that hopes and aspirations were as important as past
“mystic vs. scientist”, (spirituality, synchronicity at work)
Theory of Psychopathology
When the mind is out of alignment with who the person truly is
and wishes to express, these repressed, unconscious feelings express
themselves in somatic and biological ways, such as hysteria, ticks,
depression, rage, graphic dreams, and other means of alerting the
conscious mind that the person needs to explore their inner world.
Jung coined an expression, “complex”, to mean a collection of
negative or positive associations one makes about an archetype,
such as “the good mother”, or “the critical father”.
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
Coming to understand the hidden aspects of ourselves (shadow self)
is the goal of therapy. Techniques explored included dream analysis,
word association, personality typing (extroversion vs. introversion)
archetype identification, sand play therapy, art and drama therapy,
and other modes of bringing awareness to the unconscious forces
(dreams, fantasies, visions and symbols) at work in the life of client
Key words
unconscious, collective unconscious (of humanity, or “our psychic
inheritance), persona (our public image), shadow (or hidden image),
psyche (ego/self), (anima and animus, our roles of male or female we
must play) archetypes, symbolism, introversion/extroversion, (sensing vs.
thinking, and intuition vs. feeling, and judging vs. feeling) complex, (a
cluster of complex thoughts and feelings) hysteria, synchronicity- there
is no coincidence, mandala (drawing used to focus us back to center/self)
Goals of therapy
individuation, exploration of the “inner space” of the psyche, including
disowned or denied parts of ourselves, our shadow archetype (dark side)
Strengths and
Limitations
Carl Rogers
1902-1987
Pros: Freud believed “if you want to understand the jungle, you’ve got to get
into it; worked as “Wounded Healer”, teleological view, creative, spiritual
Less rigid than Freud, particularly around sexual/libido diagnoses;
Cons: reverse of mainstream psychology, difficult to scientifically assess
client progress; “free-wheeling”; rift with Freud led to separate “camps”,
lack of coherent thought definitions, mystical, supernatural lent skepticism
Client-Centered Therapy/
ROGERIAN
Humanistic, non -directive
Theory of Human Nature
A fully functioning person is not defensive, but open
to new experiences without controlling them;
relationships improve when the person being listened to
feels understood, empathically, and not judged.
Theory of Psychopathology
The greater the incongruence between a person’s
experiences and their self-concept, the more disorganized
the behavior is likely to be. When view of self is in
extreme conflict, psychosis may result, along a continuum
of severity, depending on the strength of the distortion.
Common defenses: rationalization, fantasy, projection,
paranoid thinking.
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
therapist available to supply positive and supportive
relationship with the client; 1) psychological contact;
2.) incongruence (fearful state); 3.) congruence and
genuineness; 4.) unconditional positive regard; 5) empathy
in which, the therapeutic relationship offers clients an
opportunity to express the fears, anxieties, guilt, anger or
shame they have not been able to accept in themselves.
so that they can come to trust their own experience, feel
a sense of richness in their lives, become more relaxed, and
experience life more fully, realizing how they have
contributed to their own problems,
Key Words
unconditional positive regard, empathy, encounter groups,
genuineness, “organismic sensing”, self-worth, self-regard
global strife/conflict, CIA, acceptance, facilitating
Goals of Therapy
To help individuals to become more congruent;
self-accepting person, goals come from client,
not therapist, deeply understand facets of themselves.
Strengths and
Limitations
Cons: Rogers did not endorse assessment in client growth,
so progress is difficult to assess; he used assessment
tools only to measure clients’ satisfaction with therapist,
and in comparing this theoretical approach to others
Pros: popular in US and abroad, 100 training centers,
blends well with other modalities (existential, gestalt)
Particularly helpful for clients who are resistance/reactive
high on dominance and low on submissiveness
Behavior Therapy
1904-1990 *
Pavlov, Watson, Skinner*, Bandura,
Meichenbaum, Wolpe, Hull, Rotttner, Eysenck
Behaviorist
Theory of Human Nature
2 psychological learning processes are at work
which mold our behaviors and thoughts: our tendency to
find a solution to a problem; and learning based on
expectations and beliefs; these solutions may not always
be helpful or conscious and may need to be altered/shaped
(phobias, anxiety disorders, obsessive/compulsive;
depression,
Theory of Psychopathology
Does not have a comprehensive personality theory, does
not require analysis or focus on the past. Therapy is
focused on the present and desired goals/target behaviors
Roots are in experimental psychology and learning process.
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
focus on overt behavior, physiological responses such
as blood pressure, muscle tensions through relaxation
and exposure to a stimulus repeatedly over time to render
the stimulus desensitized (extinction). Generalization,
discrimination, shaping. observational learning,
through specifying a goal to change a “target” behavior.
Methods can include a functional analysis, behavioral
interview, observations or reports, anxiety hierarchies,
imaginal flooding, in vivo therapy, virtual reality
therapy, modeling techniques, and self-instructional
training. Tend to be relatively brief therapies.
Key Words
positive reinforcement, reward, stimulus, operant
conditioning, Skinner box, conditioned response;
classical conditioning, antecedents, consequences,
“Social Cognitive theory” , self-regulating systems,
eye movement desensitization (EMDR) acceptance and
commitment therapy, target behaviors, modeling
Goals of Therapy
To affect changes in behavior and thinking through
control of emotional responses (anxiety, phobias,
repetitive action OCD) “desensitization”; or through
cognitive therapy with reinforcement and rewards. To
increase self-efficacy (imaginal coding reflects success)
Strengths and
Limitations
Cons: Focuses mostly on observable behaviors, not
thoughts or underlying causes of childhood trauma;
Pros: works well with children, institutionalized
persons, and those with severe intellectual disabilities
who could not otherwise give assent; lends itself well
to group therapy settings. An abundance of data exists,
strong scientific base.
Existential
(Kierkegard, Frankl, Camus, Kafka,
Boss, Rollo May, Irvin Yalom)
EXISTENTIALISM
Theory of Human Nature
Freedom to live our lives carries with it the
responsibility to do so; we live with a certainty of dying,
and this awareness is inescapable; which can create dread
or stimulate creativity; we must find a meaningfulness
in life, to live more fully rather than to fear and dread.
To be truly free, people must confront limits of destiny
Theory of Psychopathology
Interpersonal, intrapersonal and existential isolation
When people make choices, they may experience panic.
Defense mechanisms evoke isolation.
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
Help client make meaning of their life; develop
authenticity and values; loving friendship; resistance,
transference, dreams (as assessment); delineate choice,
freedom, and responsibility
Key Words
I-am, umwelt, mitwelt, eigenwelt, uberwelt, living
and dying, freedom, responsibility, choice, isolation,
loving, being-in-the-world, meaninglessness, authentic
Goals of Therapy
Clients must find a purpose to their existence and pursue it
Individuals must develop an awareness of having a task to
pursue in life, and live an authentic life; therapy should
help client understand their beliefs and values, have
confidence in them, and make choices based on them,
through which, a sense of aliveness occurs (interest
imagination, creativity, hope, and joy) vs. dread, hate,
boredom, and bigotry; to bridge the gulf of isolation
Strengths and
Limitations
No distinction between psychotherapy and counseling;
attuned to existential themes rather than DSM diagnoses
so it is very difficult to study its effectiveness; also,
theory does not represent all sociocultural factors.
Pros: group counseling is excellent format for this theory,
uses universal themes present in all societies, and can
transcend all genders, cultures, and self- identifications.
Fritz Perls
1893-1970
GESTALT
Theory of Human Nature
Concerned with whole person, more than the
sum of his behaviors; values human experience;
health is achieved with awareness of oneself and
contact with their boundaries.
Theory of Psychopathology
Anxiety can lead to the separation of parts of the
personality, could cause splitting of personality
When figures are incomplete or unclear, they are
forced into a background of distraction, thwarted
or blocked through interferences (poor perceptual
contact with others; expression of needs blocked;
repressing feelings or perceptions)
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
Client experiences things in the present by
talking it out, re-enacting it, playing out a dream,
moment-to-moment observation of the client;
chair exercise, responsibility for oneself, to
become aware of inner self, patients are able to
resolve internal issues and make positive changes
Attuning to one’s language, nonverbal behaviors,
emotions and conflicts through creative experiments
homework, over-acting a reaction or emotion, client
client develops a sense of peace,
gestalt, focusing, body armor, Kaffka, “impasse”
“Ziegarnik effect (remember unfinished tasks better
“field and figure” , “contact” (phony layer, phobic
layer, impasse, implosive, explosive) I-boundaries
(body-, value-, familiarity-, expressive-boundaries)
Disturbance patterns: introjection; projection, attune
retroflection; deflection; confluence. “Unfinished
business”, unfinished pleasures. Mindfulness, Aha”
discovery, accommodation, assimiliation, hot-seat
Deep awareness of the senses and body;
awareness of self and others/boundaries
Key Words
Goals of Therapy
Affected by Perls’ association with Freud,
and holocaust /Nazism, medical doctor in army
Influenced by Reich, Kaffka, Frankl, Friedlander
Not lend itself to reproducible scientific research;
Good for clients who are inhibited, phobic,
depressed, perfectionistic, overly socialized
Strengths and
Limitations
Rational Emotive
Albert Ellis.
Behavior Therapy
REBT
“Men are disturbed not by things, but the views which they take of things.” Epictetus
Theory of Human Nature
Responsible hedonism, humanism, rationality, unconditional
self acceptance. Individuals vary as to how vulnerable they are
to psychological disturbances, based on social and biological
factors. We are happiest when we establish important goals
and purposefully and actively move to attain them. We have
tendencies to be rational, constructive and problem solving.
Theory of Psychopathology
when negative emotion becomes too intense, we feel unhappy
and we often become irrational (self defeating) and lose perspective,
we take things too personally. What we THINK about something
determines what we FEEL about it.
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
Attempts to convince clients to think more rationally. Disputing
irrational beliefs, giving homework, role playing, keeping records,
assess thoughts and behaviors using interviews and specific
questionnaires, use A-B-C theory to identify problems.
Operant conditioning, modeling, rehearsal applied to internal
dialogue. Grow to accept life as it is, because it already exists.
Key words
rational, humanism, unconditional self-acceptance, A-B-C-D-E
Activating event, “I ought…” “I should…” “I must….”
Goals of therapy
a combination of philosophical change with cognitive, behavioral,
and emotive strategies to bring about both short-term and longrange change. The emphasis on cognition and individual’s
beliefs to assist people in minimizing emotional disturbances,
decreasing self-defeating self-behaviors, and becoming more
self-actualized so they can lead a happier existence. minimize
emotional disturbances, decrease self-defeating behaviors,
Learn a philosophy that will reduce the chances of being
disturbed by overwhelming irrational thoughts about love and
approval, competence and success, safety and comfort, .
Strengths and
Limitations
Strengths include work with phobias, anxiety, depression,
Ignores behavioral and affective strategies and focuses on thoughts
Relatively short term, compared with lengthy analysis.
Cognitive Therapy
COGNITIVE
(Aaron Beck)
Theory of Human Nature
Cognitive distortions made during childhood affect individuals’
feelings, thoughts and beliefs, of which, many clients are
unaware or do not question. These schemas affect the world of
the client in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, often maladaptively.
Theory of Psychopathology
early maladaptive schemas are activated by a loss or change
in one’s world; they are resistant to change and cause
difficulties in individual’s lives. Individuals react with strong
negative emotions classified in five domains: disconnection
and rejection, impaired autonomy and performance, impaired
limits, other directedness and over-vigilance and inhibitions.
They can be active or inactive; compelling vs. non-compelling,
and changeable vs. unchangeable (religious)
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
Stresses the importance of belief systems and thinking in
determining behavior; understanding distorted beliefs through
educational role of the therapist; by using specific and direct
dialogue with patient to bring about change; client is given
homework, termination is planned, client discusses what they
have learned and insight is established for transferability of skills
Key words
negative cognitive shift, exaggerating negative aspects,
maladaptive schemas; over vigilance and inhibition, otherdirectedness, impaired autonomy and performance, impaired
limits, disconnection and rejection, self monitoring, DTR,
all-or-nothing thinking; catastrophizing, mind reading, predicting,
labeling, personalization, and overgeneralization.
Goals of therapy
to remove biases or distortions in thinking so that individuals
may function more effectively. Attention is paid to the way
individual processes information, which may maintain feelings
and behaivors that are not adaptive. Distortions are challenged,
tested and discussed to bring about more positive feelings,
behaviors and thinking. Therapist establishes specific goals.
Strengths and
Limitations
Effective, measurable, structured in its approach.
great approach for phobias, anxiety, obsessive disorders;
draws on other theories, like REBT. Lends itself to group work.
Cons: client may prefer psychoanalysis to understand “why”
they are doing particular behaviors or thought patterns
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Anna Freud’s student – Ego psychology
Theory of Human Nature
Believed in psycho-social life stages and implications
for growth as the individual relates to the external world
includes 8 crises that must be negotiated at significant
points in life. Stages remain throughout life, and include:
Infancy (Trust vs. Mistrust)
Early Childhood (Autonomy vs. Shame)
Preschool Age (Initiative vs. Guilt)
School Age (Industry vs. Inferiority)
Adolescence: (Identify vs. Role Confusion)
Young Adulthood: (Intimacy vs. Isolation)
Middle Age: (Generativity vs. Stagnation)
Later Life: (Integrity vs. Despair)
Theory of Psychopathology
If these crises or developmental tasks are not mastered,
this failure can provide difficulty when other
developmental crises are encountered.
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
Talk therapy, analysis of unconscious challenges to
8 psychosocial crises; play therapy; establish
safety, security, attachment
Key words
life stages, play therapy, identity crisis, gerotranscendence
Goals of therapy
Discover unconscious barriers to achieving mastery
of stages of development, short term model of therapy
Strengths and
Limitations
Builds on Freud’s psychoanalysis, strengths include
Erikson’s work with children and adolescents;
Cons: some practitioners feel his therapy model was
too much affected by his own childhood experiences
and is therefore biased culturally and historically
Alfred Adler, 1870-1937
Theory of Human Nature
Neo-Freudian, in that he believed personalities mainly formed before
age of 6, but emphasized social nature of individual, that psychological
health can be measured by contributions made to community / society.
Individual is a creative and goal directed person responsible for own fate
Style of life refers to how a person adapts to obstacles in life, solutions
and means to achieving goals, was developed in early childhood.
Theory of Psychopathology
Strives for superiority or perfection conflicts with social nature of
individual and society as a whole. Minimization or denial of ones worth
“faulty values”, self-defeating aspects (over generalization, false goals of
security, misperceptions of life’s demands)
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
therapeutic relationship, uncover family dynamics and constellation,
analyze early recollections, dreams, basic mistakes, and assets of client
to gain insight and assistance with interpretation of past events;
homework assignments; push-button technique; creating images;
discussing and preparing for termination of the relationship; Brief
therapy (shortest time possible); action oriented/goal oriented; make
explicit goals, anticipation of success, encouragement process, confront
“guiding fictions” 9unreasonable expectations) Clarify, Confront, give
emotional support; ask questions; reassure, may give advice if ready
Key words
reorientation; immediacy; encouragement; acting “as if”; catching
oneself; creating images, “spitting in the clients’ soup (make behavior
seem less attractive)”, “avoiding the Tar Baby” (not fall into trap on
sensitive issue”, push-button technique (reminding pleasant incident
to show power to change own feelings); paradoxical intention; “fictions”,
task setting and commitment, homework, life tasks; will-to-power
style of life, inferiority/superiority complex, birth order, social interest.
Goals of therapy
emphasis on self-knowledge; equality of people, help individuals
change self defeating behaviors and solve problems more efficiently
and fostering an increase in the client’s social interest. 5 life tasks:
Love, Occupation, Society, Self Development, Spiritual Development
Strengths and
Limitations
Highly influenced by Socialism, Kant’s desire to find ways to help
individuals acquire practical knowledge of themselves; used concept
of “will to power” (attempts to attain competence).
Cons: influenced by Karl Marx, and WWI (war, famine, tragedies)
Vaguely interpreted differences between psychotherapy & counseling
(lifestyle changes vs. need for changes made within a lifestyle) overlap
Biased by personal childhood illnesses, brushes with death, brothers death
Multi Cultural Therapies
Theory of Human Nature
All clients belong to multiple groups, all of which influence
a client’s perceptions, beliefs, feelings, thoughts, behavior
A counselor must be aware of these influences and of their
unique blending/fusion in the client for successful therapy.
Modifying or adapting counseling to presumed needs or
desires of ethnic groups cannot lead to abandoning essential
elements of therapy, or for therapist to be a “chameleon”.
Theory of Psychopathology
Many cultures seeking therapy do not feel a sense of
trust with a therapist of a different culture/gender, often are
not self disclosing, feel unheard or condescended to, or
disrespected by the therapist because of therapist’s lack of
rapport, or misunderstanding of cultural taboos
or preferences (ie: eye contact, respect, distance, silence)
despite caring and concern on the part of the healer.
Some clients do not even seek out therapy because of this
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
Counselor training in awareness of cultural sensitivity
and humanizing of the counselor to create more affective
experiences with clients from other cultures. Carl Rogers
5 essential qualities (respect for client, genuineness,
empathic understanding, communication of respect,
empathy and genuineness, and structuring (and defining
therapists’ role to client)
Multicultural therapy takes into consideration racial and
ethnic diversity as well as diversity in spirituality, sexual
orientation, disabilities, and class, and the potential cultural
bias of practitioners. Although there is no single MC
therapy, multicultural theory has influenced many approaches
to be more sensitive to the history of the oppressed and
marginalized, acculturation issues, and the politics of power.
Key Words
white privilege: unconscious taking for granted of personal
choice, safety and inclusion in daily societal treatment;
cultural bias: limited understanding of groups’ needs
Goals of Therapy
To foster a growing sense by both therapist and client
to: cultural sensitivity (an awareness and appreciation
of human cultural diversity); cultural knowledge
(including factual information about cultural
variation); cultural empathy (the ability to connect
emotionally with the patient's cultural perspective)
Strengths and
Limitations
Eastern Therapies
Strengths: clients of varied cultures will feel more
comfortable and better served; Limitations: not all
counselors will be right for all clients.
(Maslow, Buddhism, Kornfield. Corsini, Vaughn, Walsh, Transpersonal)
Theory of Human Nature
People are born essentially good, we have our “true nature”
We need to remember who we truly are and trust in our
own goodness within. Transpersonal therapies (courage,
authenticity); a transformation of state of consciousness
Theory of Psychopathology
What you practice becomes stronger. What we resist, we
create more of, which leads to suffering. Evolutionarily,
we “have minds that are like Velcro for bad thoughts and
Teflon for good thoughts”. By redirecting attention out
the thought stream toward awareness of sensory experience
we develop concentration and avoid “hijacked”/disruptive
thoughts and show gentle compassion to ourselves.
Means of Intervention/
Techniques
Teaching quiet, relaxed observation of fleeting conscious
thoughts, and observe them with interest and detached
curiosity, such as “oh, now I’m thinking____, and oh, now
I’m feeling ___” and not be swept by the thought or the
meaning we come to associate with the thought. Guided
meditation/guided imagery; paying attention to the breath;
patients’ lives improved if the THERAPIST alone was
practicing mindfulness, but also improved significantly
if they were also taught mindfulness. Thoughts seem more
like passing clouds or cars, hypnosis, dissociation. YOGA
is the other of the 2 classic families of Asian psychotherapy
Key Words
Mindfulness: shifting ones attention to thoughts as
“my thoughts are not me..thoughts are not true”
Acceptance: what we resist, we create more of
Meditation: practice of quieting the active mind
“Beginners mind”: seeing things as if you have
never seen them before” ;
“Self actualization”: (Maslow term of self
satisfaction in achieving one’s goals of spirituality
Peak experience: one which feels transcendant
Hierarchy of needs: (Maslow defined 8 levels of
human need satisfaction, growing toward final
need for self- actualization (from basic to spiritual)
Goals of Therapy
Strengths and
Limitations
POSITIVE THERAPY
Attending to the content of our consciousness, moment
by moment, cultivating this practice of being mindful;
expanding the paradigm. Increase empathy, and affect
tolerance; increase attention; decreased medical symptoms
(fibromyalgia, stress, psoriasis, chronic pain, hypertension
Strengths: practice leads to improved immune/autoimmune
systems: lends itself to other therapies and approaches,
some meditation teachers have their own biases toward
psychotherapy, and psychotherapists often dismiss “hippie”
mindfulness as of little therapeutic value. Some
practitioners are still skeptical; not widely accepted yet.
(Peseschkian, Seligman)
HUMANISTIC
Theory of Human Nature
Humans are basically good and healthy. People want to
lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is
best within themselves, to enhance their experiences of
love, work, and play . Focuses on mental health rather
than mental illness, helps individuals find happiness, not
just a relief from symptoms and disabling conditions.
Theory of Psychopathology
Illnesses have a symbolic function which have to be
recognized by the therapist and patient. The patient learns
that the symptoms and complaints of the illness are signals
to bring his or her four qualities of life into new balance.
We can get into conflict by stress or micro-trauma through
overcompensation or decompensation in any of the four:
-
achievement oriented mode - body oriented modes
relationship-oriented modes - fantasy oriented modes
The three main principles of positive psychotherapy
address the positive, content-wise and strategic approach
(Principle of Hope – Prin of Balance - Prin of Consultation.
Positive Psychology identifies three paths to happy lives:
- getting more pleasure out of life by savoring sensory exp’s
- becoming more engaged in what one does
- finding ways of making life feel more meaningful.
Means of Intervention/
Counselor helps client to identify signature strengths, and
to gain insight on these strengths, to feel grateful for the
positive aspects of their lives, perform acts of kindness,
recognize the things that went well at the end of each day.
Hope allows a person to stand back from his pessimistic
beliefs and verify their accuracy by asking: What is the
evidence for this belief? Which of the causes of this belief is
changeable? Even if this belief is true, what is the worst
case scenario?
Key Words
Positive: “the actual”, the “given” the reality
“Help to change” standpoint: situational encouragement to
mobilize the resources of the client through wisdom, stories
globalization: shift from monocultural to monocausal
Goals
Help patient to clear their view on the disturbances in their
life and recognize their meaning. We overcome suffering
not only by healing damage and repairing what is broken
within ourselves. More commonly we overcome troubles
by doing end-runs around them, by deploying our highest
strengths as buffers against the setbacks of life.
Strengths/Limitations
Widely accepted; can be integrated with other modalities
and self help. trans-cultural and positive approach.
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING (MI)
(William M. Miller)
Person-Centered Therapy
Theory of Human Nature
Human beings often desire change in behavior,
and seek guidance in overcoming ambivalence.
By exploring the person’s own arguments for
change through purposeful collaboration with
therapist, not preached at, advised, recommended or
forced, to find the motivation that is already there.
Theory of Psychopathology
Human beings know they need to make a change
but get stuck often, with a stigmatizing label,
such as with alcohol or drug abuse; ambivalence
is very common, and clients are often comfortable
doing what they’re doing; motivation arises out of
the interpersonal context.
Means of Intervention/
Counselor is attuned to client ambivalence through
aspects of client’s language, and client’s readiness
for change by specifically utilizing 4 principles:
1- express empathy
2 - support self-efficacy
3- roll with resistance 4 - develop discrepancies
until clients becomes aware of how current
behaviors lead them away from their goals, by using
OARS (Open-ended questions; Affirmations,
Reflections, and Summaries) by ENGAGING,
GUIDING, EVOKING, and PLANNING, by
Setting an agenda; Finding a Focus, Giving advice/
Information in collaborative conversational style
“Dancing, rather than “wrestling” with the client.”
Key Words
ambivalence: feeling two ways about change,
seen as natural part of change process;
evocation: drawing out of individuals thoughts
Change Talk: client’s statements of desire for
change (DARN: Desire, Ability, Reason, Need)
(CAT: Commitment; Activation, Taking Steps )
Autonomy: self determination, without “others”
Goals
MI is a conversation about change wherein the
client is engaged in solving the ambivalences,
without evoking common defenses: resistance,
defensiveness, evasiveness, anger, by asking the
client what their reason for change are, and how
important is this change. Client is then more
energized and motivated to make the change.
Strengths/Limitations
Particularly helpful with drug and alcohol
dependence; works well with other modalities;
Requires specific training; empathic listening