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STUDY OUTLINE CHART – BIOLOGY 205
UNIT 1
Chapter 1 – Microbiology:
Then and Now
 Today, several important challenges are
MEMBRANE that separates environment

from cell interior and regulates
transport of materials into or out of the
cell.
 Leeuwenhoek observes living bacteria and
other microbes (ANIMALCULES).
 Semmelweis and Snow pioneer
investigations into the source, cause, and
transmission of disease (EPIDEMIOLOGY).
 Jenner demonstrates that VACCINATION can
provide disease resistance.
 Experimentation puts an end to the idea of
MIASMAS.
 PASTEUR proposes the GERM THEORY OF
facing microbiology.
Infectious diseases can be reported as
MORTALITY/MORBIDITY NUMBERS and
MORTALITY/MORBIDITY RATES.
Chapter 3 – Concepts and Tools for
Studying Microorganisms
 Prokaryotic cells exhibit HOMEOSTASIS.
 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells share

DISEASE; KOCH proves the theory (KOCH’S
POSTULATES).
many similarities yet still have important
differences in cell organization.
Today, all organisms are assigned to one
of three DOMAINS, which are separated by
physical and biochemical characteristics,
and especially by nucleotide sequences.
 PILI are protein fibers allowing cells to
attach to surfaces.
 The GLYCOCALYX (CAPSULE or SLIME LAYER)
is a carbohydrate-rich layer to prevent
desiccation, allow attachment, or evade
immune system defenses.
 FLAGELLA are protein appendages used
for motility and CHEMOTAXIS.
 Bacterial cells also have internal
 Microorganisms are names using the
BINOMIAL SYSTEM.
 Microbes and viruses are very small and
are measured in MICROMETERS and
NANOMETERS, respectively.
 The LIGHT MICROSCOPE magnifies and
 Microorganisms consist of one group of
PROKARYOTES and two groups of
EUKARYOTES; and the viruses.

resolves specimens using visible light.
Staining specimens provides cellular
detail through CONTRAST.
 The ELECTRON MICROSCOPE provides
detailed images of cell structure using the
TRANSMISSION or SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE.
Chapter 4 – Cell Structure and
Function in the Bacteria
and Archaea
 Bacterial species vary in cell shape
(MORPHOLOGY) and cell arrangements.
 Bacterial species contain a variety of
surface cell structures. These include:
 The CELL ENVELOPE consists of the CELL
WALL, which maintains cell shape and
prevents cell rupture; and the CELL
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structures. These include:
 The CYTOPLASM in which most cell
metabolism occurs.
 The NUCLEOID that contains the genetic
information in the form of a circular
BACTERIAL CHROMOSOME.
 Small cytoplasmic loops of DNA, called
PLASMIDS, which carry nonessential
genetic information.
 The cytoplasm also contains RIBOSOMES
for protein synthesis and INCLUSIONS to
store nutrients.
Unit 1 Exam
UNIT 2
MEDIA can be used, respectively, to select
Chapter 5 – Microbial Growth
and Nutrition
 Most bacterial and archaeal cells
reproduce asexually by BINARY FISSION,
which is part of the CELL CYCLE.


for or differentiate between species, or to
grow fastidious microbes.
Some 99% of all microbes cannot be
grown in a known culture medium; they
represent VIABLE BUT NOT CULTURED
(VBNC) species.
Population growth can be measured
directly (DIRECT MICROSCOPIC COUNT, MOST
PROBABLE NUMBER, STANDARD PLATE COUNT)
or indirectly (TURBIDITY).
Chapter 6 – Metabolism of
Microorganisms
 METABOLISM consists of two biochemical
 The GENERATION (doubling) TIME depends

on physical and chemical factors in the
environment.
A BACTERIAL GROWTH CURVE goes through
LAG, LOG, STATIONARY, and DECLINE phases.
Chapter 8 – The Genetics of
Microorganisms
 SELECTIVE, DIFFERENTIAL, and ENRICHED
processes (ANABOLISM and CATABOLISM),
many of which require or release energy
(ENDERGONIC and EXERGONIC).
 ENZYMES are protein catalysts that speed
up chemical reactions by interacting with
a SUBSTRATE.
 Bacterial and archaeal chromosomes are
located within the NUCLEOID where the
DNA is SUPERCOILED.
 Circular PLASMIDS may be present in the

cytoplasm where they replicate
independently of the chromosome.
The CENTRAL DOGMA summarizes the flow
of genetic information from DNA to RNA
(TRANSCRIPTION) and RNA to protein
(TRANSLATION).
 MUTATIONS are permanent changes in the
DNA sequence caused by unrepaired
replication errors, physical or chemical
MUTAGENS.
Chapter 9 – Gene Transfer, Genetic
Engineering, and Genomics
 Genes can be transferred between mature
bacterial cells through HORIZONTAL GENE
TRANSFER.
 A few gram-positive bacterial species can

produce ENDOSPORES in response to
nutrient limitation.
Physical factors controlling cell growth
include temperature, oxygen, pH, and
osmotic pressure.
 METABOLIC PATHWAYS often are regulated
by enzyme function.
 Microbes demonstrate four metabolic


 Chemical factors are based on the
nutrients found in culture media (solid
agar and nutrient broth), which can
consist of a COMPLEX MEDIUM or SYNTHETIC
MEDIUM.

patterns (AUTOTROPHY and HETEROTROPHY)
depending on the energy source (light or
chemical) and carbon source (CO2 or
organic compounds) required.
Energy coupling through ATP is used to
drive endergonic reactions. In microbes,
CELLULAR RESPIRATION produces ATP
through an AEROBIC (+O2) or ANAEROBIC
(−O2) process.
Some microbes can carry out
FERMENTATION if no inorganic final end
product is present. The process allows for
the generation of two ATP molecules per
glucose consumed.
Microbial fermentation pathways vary
depending on the enzyme system they
possess.
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Unit 2 Exam
UNIT 3
Chapter 18 - Eukaryotic
Microorganisms: The Parasites
Chapter 14 – The Viruses and
Virus-Like Agents
 The PROTISTS are a very heterogeneous
 Viruses consist of a genome packaged in a
protein coat (CAPSID); some viruses have
an ENVELOPE surrounding the
NUCLEOCAPSID and SPIKES extending from
the surface.

group, some of which are PARASITES in
humans.
Many of the protist parasites have a
DEFINITIVE and INTERMEDIATE host.
 MALARIA is caused by any of four species
of Plasmodium and the parasite requires
both definitve (mosquito) and
intermediate (human) hosts.
 Several emerging viruses have appeared
in human populations as the result of viral
recombination and mutation.
 Viruses are placed into one of three
shapes (HELICAL, ICOSAHEDRAL, or COMPLEX)
and exhibit a HOST RANGE and, for
animal/plant viruses, a TISSUE TROPISM.
 Viruses can be classified based on nucleic


Chapter 17 - Eukaryotic
Microorganisms: The Fungi
 Fungi, including the MOLDS and YEASTS and
grow as filaments called HYPHAE that form
a thick masses (MYCELIUM).
acid type (DNA or RNA and as + or −
strand).
All viruses go through five phases of
replication.
BACTERIOPHAGES replicate within the
bacterial cell cytoplasm.
Unit 3 Exam
 Reproduction involves formation of

asexual and sexual SPORES that are often
carried in the air.
Several fungi can act as pathogens and
cause human disease.
 Animal (human) viruses have similar but
unique replicative cycles.
Some viruses remain in a state of LATENCY.

 Antiviral drugs can treat a few human
viral diseases.
 About 20 percent of human tumors have a
viral association and can contain
ONCOGENES that trigger uncontrolled cell
growth.
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UNIT 4
Chapter 19 – Infection
and Disease
 INFECTION, the competition between host

and microbe or virus, precedes DISEASE,
which refers to a change from the healthy
state.
The HUMAN MICROBIOTA helps protect the
host from pathogen colonization, as most
microbiota represent symbiotic
relationships that are examples of
MUTUALISM or COMMENSALISM.
 Bacterial toxins include the EXOTOXINS and
 INFLUENZA, caused by influenza viruses
ENDOTOXINS.
 Those areas where a microbe “lives” and
multiplies are called RESERVOIRS.

 Infectious diseases can be COMMUNICABLE
or NONCOMMUNICABLE and transmitted by
DIRECT or INDIRECT CONTACT.

A and B, changes every year due to
ANTIGENIC DRIFT and ANTIGENIC SHIFT.
TUBERCULOSIS, caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, can result in a LATENT
INFECTION that can turn deadly in the
lungs or other parts of the body.
HIV DISEASE and AIDS are usually
caused by the human immunodeficiency
virus type 1 (HIV-1).
 Disease spread can have ENDEMIC,
 PATHOGENICITY and VIRULENCE are

important factors in the establishment of a
disease.
Many OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS are
SECONDARY INFECTIONS resulting from a
PRIMARY INFECTION.
EPIDEMIC, or PANDEMIC consequences.
 Nosocomial infections often result from a
CHAIN OF TRANSMISSION that can be broken
using STANDARD PRECAUTIONS.
 Microbes or viruses can be disseminated
through the blood.
Unit 4 Exam
 A disease progresses through a series of
five stages characterized by specific SIGNS
and SYMPTOMS.
 To become ill, the host must receive a
certain INFECTIOUS DOSE (characteristic of
the pathogen) through some PORTAL OF
ENTRY.
Three infectious pandemics are
among those of major concern
 Infection and disease is the result of a
pathogen overcoming host barriers, which
may require the possession of VIRULENCE
FACTORS.
 Virulence factors include structural
factors, proteins, and toxins.
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UNIT 5
Chapter 20 – Resistance and
the Immune System:
Innate Immunity
MEDIATED RESPONSE to pathogens infecting

 LEUKOCYTES, especially NEUTROPHILS,
MACROPHAGES, DENDRITIC CELLS, and
LYMPHOCYTES are blood cells important to



innate and acquired immunity.
The LYMPHATIC SYSTEM contains PRIMARY
and SECONDARY TISSUES important toward
fighting infection and disease.
Individuals are born with INNATE
IMMUNITY while ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY is a
form of specific resistance gained during
an individual’s life.
The first lines of defense include PHYSICAL,
CHEMICAL, and CELLULAR BARRIERS.
cells.
Lymphocyte activation involves only those
B and T cells recognizing an EPITOPE or
ANTIGEN PEPTIDE, respectively; the result is
activated EFFECTOR CELLS (B and T CELLS).
Chapter 22 – Immunity and Serology
 ACTIVE IMMUNITY involves the production

 The HUMORAL RESPONSE is mediated by
activated B cells that mature into MEMORY
B CELLS and antibody-secreting PLASMA
CELLS.
of T and B cells, and antibodies, as a result
of exposure to a pathogen or receiving a
vaccine.
PASSIVE IMMUNITY involves receiving
antibodies from another source (maternal
or external).
 ANTIBODIES are IMMUNOGLOBULINS;
proteins consisting of four polypeptide
chains, two identical HEAVY (H) CHAINS and
two identical LIGHT (L) CHAINS in the
monomer state.
 The second lines of defense (innate
immunity include:
 PHAGOCYTOSIS by PHAGOCYTES, which
engulf and clear microbes from the
body.
 A VACCINE is composed of a pathogen that
has been treated in some way:
 Whole agent vaccines represent
ATTENUATED, INACTIVATED, or TOXOID
vaccines.
 Other, more modern, vaccines include
SUBUNIT, CONJUGATE, and DNA vaccines.
 Epitopes bind at the ANTIGEN BINDING SITES
and phagocytes bind to the TAIL (FC)
FRAGMENT.
 There are five classes of immunoglobulins;
IGG, IGM, and IGA are the “disease fighters”
while IGE plays a role in allergies and IGD
is a receptor on B cells.
 INFLAMMATION heightens the immune
defenses.
 FEVER slows down pathogens while
speeding up immune defenses.
 COMPLEMENT enhances the processes of
phagocytosis and inflammation while
eliminating some pathogens.
 INTERFERON is a naturally-made human
protein that puts cells in an antiviral
state.
Chapter 21 – Resistance and
the Immune System:
Adaptive Immunity
 ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY requires the attributes
of specificity, tolerance of “self,” minimal
“self” damage, and IMMUNOLOGICAL
MEMORY. It has two responses: a HUMORAL
RESPONSE to pathogens in fluids and a CELL-
 A PRIMARY ANTIBODY RESPONSE occurs to



the first exposure to a pathogen (antigen)
while a SECONDARY ANTIBODY RESPONSE is a
much faster response mediated by
memory cells to an ensuing exposure to
the same antigen.
The ELISA TEST can identify antibodies to a
specific pathogen.
Pathogen (antigen) clearance is
dependent on phagocytosis by
macrophages.
The CELL-MEDIATED RESPONSE is controlled
by activated T cells:
 Immature T cells mature into T HELPER
(TH) CELLS; TH1 help activate cytotoxic T
cells; TH2 help activate antigenpresenting B cells.
 CYTOTOXIC T CELLS target and destroy
infected cells.
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 HERD IMMUNITY protects a population by

maintaining high vaccination levels within
the population (herd).
Although exceptionally rare, some
vaccines can have dangerous side effects.
Unit 5 (Final) Exam