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Argumentation and
Rhetoric
Mrs. Conley
Spring 2016
What is Argumentation?
› Argumentation is a process of reasoning that asserts
the soundness of a debatable position, belief, or
conclusion.
› Argumentation takes a stand
› It urges people to take the writer’s perspective and
insights – you are the writer!!
Persuasion and Argumentation
› Persuasion is a general term that refers to how a writer
influences an audience to adopt a belief or follow a
course of action.
– To persuade an audience writers rely on certain kinds of
appeals
› Argumentation is the appeal to reason (logos). In
argument, a writer connects a series of statements so
they lead logically to a conclusion
Arguments
› Effective arguments consider all three points on the
rhetorical triangle
› Each point on the triangle corresponds to one the three
kinds of persuasive appeals – logos, ethos, and pathos
– Logos refers to the consistency and clarity of the message and to
the logic of its reasons and support
– Ethos refers to the credibility of the writer/speaker
› Ethos is often conveyed through the tone and style of the
message
– Pathos is associated with emotional appeal - specifically to the
audiences capacity to feel and see what the writer feels and
sees.
Rhetorical Triangle
Message
LOGOS: how can I find the best
reasons and support them with the
best evidence?
Audience
PATHOS: How an I make the reader
open to my message? Appeal to
values, interests, and emotions?
Writer or Speaker
ETHOS: How can I present myself
as credible and trustworthy
Choosing an Issue
› Choose an issue that is important and interesting to
you. It should be one you have a strong belief or
curiosity about.
› Make sure it’s a real issue, not just your personal
preference.
› Be sure that your issue is arguable and that many
people can and will disagree about it.
A Claim supported by Reasons
› When you write an argument, your task is to take a
position on the issue and to support it with reasons
and evidence
› The CLAIM of your essay is the position you want your
audience to accept – your opinion
› The CLAIM in your essay’s thesis statement
› The thesis for this essay is called a proposition or
position statement.
› The thesis must take a stand – it must be debatable.
Developing your idea
› You must read, research your topic to
find support for your argument.
› Think about purpose, tone, and your
audience as you begin to plan your
outline.
› Who are you trying to convince?
What tone will be most effective?
Why is it important to convince
them?
Sample position/thesis
› Women should be allowed to join combat units in the
military.
– Reason one: millions of women are stronger and more
physically fit than some men; women selected for combat duty
would have the strength and endurance to do the job.
– Reason Two: the image of women as combat soldiers would
help society over-come gender stereotyping.
- Reason Three: the justice of equal
rights for women demands that
women be allowed to serve in
combat units.
Using Logical Appeals
› Supporting information can be given using logical
appeals or logos.
› Logical appeal can be used in your essay by giving
facts or statistics.
› Anecdotes, or brief stories based on personal
experiences, also may be used as factual evidence.
Using Emotional Appeal - Pathos
› Since people tend to make decisions with their hearts
as well as their minds, writers should use logical
appeal mixed with emotional appeal or pathos.
› Anecdotes, or personal experience can also
represent emotional appeal.
› Writers should also look at use of language and word
choice which have connotative meanings and evoke
feelings and attitudes.
› However, writers need to be careful not rely solely on
emotion. This can make the argument weak.
Using Ethical Appeals
› Establishing credibility and character is also important
when trying to make an effective argument. These
are ethical appeals or ethos.
› You should back up your opinion with those who are
considered experts in their field.
› Remember: Effective argumentation will use all three
of these appeals.
Identifying opposition - counterargument
› In addition to using these appeals for your position,
argumentation must also have the opposition’s points
mentioned.
› You then must be able to counterpoint or refute their
side.
› Remember: Ignoring that there is another side will
weaken your argument. You must be able to show or
prove that your position is stronger.
How to organize the essay
Basic Elements
› Introduction: Presents background
necessary for understanding the issue and
presents opinion or position.
› Body: Uses logical, emotional and ethical
appeals to support position and presents
opposing position with refutation.
› Conclusion: Reemphasizes opinion by
summing up important ideas and gives a
call to action – something you want your
audience to do.
Avoiding Fallacies
› Sometimes when writing argumentation, writers will
using examples that look like reasoning but are not.
Your reasoning must be sound. Critical readers will
see through opinions that are not supported well.
Here are a few fallacies you will want to avoid when
writing your argumentative essay.
Hasty Generalization
› This is a conclusion based on insufficient evidence or
one that ignores exceptions.
› For example:
›
Hasty generalization: Television game shows
exploit contestants by appealing to greed.
›
Acceptable: Many television shows exploit
contestants by appealing to greed.
Slippery Slope
› Slippery Slope: This is a conclusion based on the
premise that if A happens, then eventually through a
series of small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will
happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if we
don't want Z to occur, A must not be allowed to
occur either. Example:
› If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the
environment eventually the government will ban all
cars, so we should not ban Hummers.
Attacking the person
› The latin word is ad hominem which is also known as
“name-calling.”
› Attacking the Person: The only people who want
television cameras in the courtroom are thrill-seeking
busybodies.
› Facing the Issue: Some people support cameras in
the courtroom because they believe that the public
has a right to view all public trials.
False Authority
› Expert testimony is valuable only when it comes from
someone who is knowledgeable about the topic in
question.
› Michelle Van, president of the Downtown Merchants
Association, says the proposed museum will not
interfere with traffic flow.
› City traffic engineers report that traffic surrounding the
proposed site is below maximum levels set in the city
plan.
Circular Reasoning
› This occurs when the reason offered for an
opinion is merely the opinion stated in
different words.
› Circular Reasoning: No one should control
the world’s oceans because the oceans
belong to all countries.
› Acceptable: International treaties
guarantee all nations their fair share of the
oceans’ resources.
Straw Man
› Straw Man: This move oversimplifies an opponent's
viewpoint and then attacks that hollow argument.
› People who don't support the proposed state minimum
wage increase hate the poor.
› In this example, the author attributes the worst possible
motive to an opponent's position. In reality, however, the
opposition probably has more complex and sympathetic
arguments to support their point. By not addressing those
arguments, the author is not treating the opposition with
respect or refuting their position.
Non Sequitur
› In Latin, non sequitur means “it does not
follow.”
› Non Sequitur: Our increasingly mobile
society demands a higher speed limit.
› Acceptable: A higher speed limit will aid
commerce by allowing truckers to shorten
delivery times and increase total
deliveries.
Red Herring
› Drawing its name from a method of
throwing a bloodhound off the
scent, the red herring fallacy
consists of introducing an element
into an argument that has nothing
to do with the issue. An example of
a red herring is when a lawyer
blames a guilty verdict on the
“media circus.”
Begging the Questions
› An argument begs the question when it
assumes that a statement is true when it
actually requires proof.
› For example, if a politician claims that
she could not have given contracts to
her friends because she is honest, she
may need to prove her record of
honesty.