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1. Editing:
Editing news copy is one of the main jobs of the news desk. Mainly sub-editors
or copy-editors are rOsponsible for this job. lt includes the basic of trimming, adding,
expanding or rewriting news copies. lt also involves correction of copies too.
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Principles of editing
- There are certain principles of editing to be followed. Such as
use simple words and take out jargons and difficult words. The idea is to communicate
as much as possible in a simple way as it involves mass reading, Simple sentences are
also to be preferred, Easy language of writing makes a copy easy to read and thus
communicate more.
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Copy Testing - Copy testing is a process by which the news desk gets feedback on
how the copies are responding. This process involves market reseaich and readers,
opinion. A particular type of article or column may draw more readerships. The copy
testing confirms the readership behaviour pattern. The feedback can be in form of ietters
to the editor or any article coming from the readers.
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Processing Copies - This is the process of making a copy fit for publication. At times
reporters call in and brief the desk about a particular story which the desk processes"
Different portions of the same story can be covered by more than one reporter and the
desk collects and processes the whole story. Agency copies and creeds are also
changed into news copies in the desk. Trimming, subbing, correcting, editing, expanding
- all these and more are done in the news desk to make the news copies communicable.
2.
Headlines: Headline is the most crucial part of a report. lt hooks the attention of the
readers to the report. Headlines are a typical combination of the big, the brief, the bold,
and the dramatic, all aimed at attracting the attention of the readeri. A freaotine is an
abstract sentence with a complete thought. The headlines stand out visually thus
compelling people to pay attention to them first.
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Making Headlines of news stories - The words in a headline must represent
accurately what is in the story. Reading the whole story minutely is a task to be done
before giving it a headline. The most important point of the story will automatically come
out as the headline" ln case of follow up stories a hint from the previous headlinei can be
followed.
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lmportance - previously there were multiple headlines to a story but with time only the
important point of the story started becoming the headline. As tlre reader had lesser time
to decide which story to pick up the use of headlines became more and more important.
It gives the readers a gateway to the story. Even if the reader does not have the time or
the opportunity to read the whole story he would prefer to go through the headlines to
have an idea about what are the latest big news.
Rules to be followed - For writing a headline there are few basic rules that are to be
followed - i) the lines should be easy to read, crisp and short, ii) it should not have
unnecessary word even use of articles and prepositions are to be done when there is
absolute need, iii) the line should be written in present tense, iv) numerical should be
used instead of spellings in case of numbers, v) it should have a bold type phase, vi) in
case of double deckers the appearance should be different to establisn tfre two decks,
vii) it should be the most important point of the 5W1H to become the headline.
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Different types of Headlines - Division of headlines into three categories i) according
to the number of lines (single deck, double deck, multiple deck, deck shedding); ii)
according to the arrangement of words (flash left, flash right, center, banner, iicXer,
stepper, hanging indent, hammer, pyramid, invefted pyrimid, streamer, waist buiging
belly and skinny mid-riff), iii) according to the content (straight, suspense, interrogaiive,
excl a m atory, state m e nt, q uote)
3' Proof Reading: Proof reading is the main process to make a copy error free. lt is the job
of detecting and correcting the errors made in a copy. Any grammatical, punctuation,
typographic, spelling or factual errors are to be removed in this stage of the production. Usually
this process is heavily used in the print media. Though with the advent of modern computers the
grammar and spell check has become easier but the requirement is still there,
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Symbols of Proof reading - i) delet, ii) close up,
iii) delet and c/ose up, iv) insert, v)
space, vi) lower case, vii) capitalize, viii) new paragraph, ix) remove paragraph break, x)
move to a new position, xi) super script, xii) sub script, xiii) period, xiv) apostrophe &
single quote, xv) semi colon, colon, coma, xvi) hyphen, xvii) run in the previous line, xviii)
transpose, xix) wrong font, xx)sef rn italic & set in bold
- Duties & responsibilities of proof reader- the proof readers should have good
command over English grammar and vocabulary. He should find the mistakes on the sentence
and also have the knowledge to correct them accurately. All kinds of errors in the copy should be
taken out in this stage as this the last gate-keeping done to the done before getting approved for
publication. Most of the companies appoint individuals that can be able to do prooireading on all
types of documents pertaining to any topic, whether it be for a website, magazine, newspJper,
brochure or a product writes up. General habit of reading enables the prooireader to check the
matters more accurately. Apart from general knowledge the proof reader also needs to acquire
special knowledge if he is working on a special field, specific product or service. Very high ievel
of concentration is required from the proof reader.
4. Gopy writing: this is the process of writing advertising promotional materials. Copywriters
are responsible for the text on brochures, billboards, websites, emails, advertisements, catalogs
and so no. so, whatever we see as written form in any of these are known as copy. News copy
writing is to disseminate information but other kind of copy writing leads to persuading the
reader.
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Types of Copy- i) ad copy, ii) marketing copy, iii) PR copy, iv) technical materials,
v)
online
copies, vi) ghost copies, vii) audio-visual copies, viii) broadcast copies
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How to prepare - As these are specialized type of writing they need a lot of research and
reading before one starts writing the copies. lf the copies are client oriented then the need of the
client and the demand of the subject has to blend properly. Understanding the market is also
important. The targeted consumers for any product or service are to be identified beforehand.
' Principles of writing - i) do a lot of research before writing. Market research can also be
done if needed, ii) Stick to the subject while writing, iii) choice of words is important as most of
the copies are required to create an impression on the reader, iv) use action words while writing
the copies. They are more effective and stays in the mind of the readers.
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Main features - the main features of a copy starts with the headline or the catch line.
Secondly, the readers should be able to relate to the content of the copy. Emotional appeal is
one of the key features for the success of a copy. Thirdly, it should generate some desire
followed by demand (desire of purchasing or investing on something backed,by financial ability)
in the market. The copy should get the message clearly to the mind of the reader. Twisted or
heavy words are not encouraged whereas fun elements can be added to the copy.
5" Copy Writer: professionals who compose headings, sub-headings and body copy of
advertisements, who compose press releases, brochures, catalogs, billboard write-ups, product
literature and so on. ln today's world the copy writing industry provides a huge number of
employment and is one of the biggest industries in the world now of $2.3 trillion. Usually copy
writers are with the payroll of a company or an organization or agency. The copy writer is a part
of the creative team. ln case of ad agency the copy writer is often tagged with a creative director
or art director. For technical copy writing however the copy writer works in close quarters with
different teams. For content writing a there can be copy writers who works as freelancers.
- Qualities - some of the qualities that are must in a copy writer are as follows:a. ability to work under persure
b. working with team and working independently as per requirement
c. creative and imaginative with a good hold on language
d. understanding and observing both client and market and catering to the requirement
accordingly
e. well aware about the other market players
f. sound knowledge about mass media and how they work
g. organized and has the ability to keep up with the deadlines
- Duties & responsibilities
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Before meeting clients doing a research about the client
Listening to the client's requirement
Doing research
Looking for the other market players and keeping track of the emerging trends
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lf required testing the product before working on it
Checking copy before submitting it
ln case of team work being an important support of the team
The copy writer should have an eye for the detail as that helps in coming up with a
good copy which can satisfy the client
6" Communication: communication is a two way process used for sending and receiving
messages. lt involves five basic elements - a) sender, b) message, c) medium, d) receiver and
e) feedback. The form of communication can either be Verbal, like talking to each other or giving
a speech, or non-verbal like writing a letter or reading news from a newspaper. Communicition
can be divided into four major parts - i. intrapersonal communication (the communication that
goes on within an individual), ii. lnterpersonal communication (this can happen between two,
three or four individuals like exchange of information ad opinion), iii. Group communication (five
or more than five people who can assemble anywhere physically and is able to listen or
communicate with the sender is group communication. ln this kind of communication physical
presence is a pre-requisite. For example: - a classroom or a seminar), iv. mass communication
(this involves mass i.e., public and mass media is needed to convey the message or information.
For example: - radio or television news, books, magazines, websites, etc.)
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Definition- communication has been defined in many ways. Though the contemporary
period is referred to as the age of communication the process of communication has
existed since the very beginning of the human civilization. The English word of
communication is derived from the Latin word 'communis'which means common. Modern
day communication encompasses a multitude of experiences, actions, and events, as
well as a whole variety of happenings and meanings and technologies.
'Communication is the name we give to the countless ways that humans have of keeping
in touch - not just words and music, pictures and print, nods and becks, postures and
plumages; to every move that catches someone's eye and every sound that resonates
upon another's ear.'
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Scope & Functions- Communication is important both for an individual and also for the
society. A person's need for communication is as strong as the basic needs of human
beings. A communication should always clearly identify the subject scope of the
communication. The subject scope is a specification of the information covered by the
communication, lt has become a basic for the social existence and the feeling of
commonality and togetherness. So the existence of human being can be clearly
elaborated in the development of the communicative system. The scope of
communication can be evaluated and analysed from different point of views. The
dimensions can be social, educational, organizational, cultural, entertainment or
integrated.
The main functions of communication are to - inform, educate and entertain. ln the long
run communication always leads to decision making, coordinating and persuading.
However, the functions and scopes of communication always face barriers while
functioning within the various levels of the society.
7. Mass Gommunication: this is a process of communication where the receivers are rnany
or mass and the mass media are used to reach to the public or the large number of receivers.
The term mass communication was coined along with mass media in the twentieth century" This
became a new social phenomenon and a key feature of the modern society and popular
democracy and industrialism was found.
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Definition
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Scope & Functions - This is the age of communication, especially mass communication.
With the advent of new media and up-gradation of the conventional media smooth
communication is an essential part of the modern society. The functions of mass
communication is same as communication as a whole but with a little more perspective.
The basic functions of mass communication are to - a. disseminates information, b.
building opinions and discussion of opinions, c. cultural transmission through interaction,
d. entertainment.
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according to the Oxford dictionary mass communication is
'the imparting or exchanging of information on a large scale to a wide range of people'.
Mass communication is the study of how individuals and entities relay information
through mass media to large segments of the population at the same time.
Theories
- there are many theories prescribed by experts over time based on their
research and study of society and application of communication and its various
components in the society. Four such theories are discussed below hypodermic or bullet theory- The phrasing "hypodermic needle" or "bullet" is meant
to give a mental image of the direct, strategic, and planned infusion of a message into
an individual. But as research methodology became more highly developed, it became
apparent that the media had selective influences on people. As the name implies, the
bullet theory suggests the messages were thought to be like magic bullets that were
shot directly into the receiver. The influence of media on individuals is immense. lt
depends on many factors including individual psychological differences, membership
in social categories, and patterns of social relationships that serve as alternative
channels of communication
individual theory- lndividual differences theory of mass communication proposes
that each one of us has unique qualities that result in our reacting differently to media
messages. ln other words, individuals respond differently to the mass media according
to their psychological needs, and that individuals consume the mass media to satisfy
those needs. Professor Melvin DeFluer and Sandra Ball-Rokeach say - lndividual
differences perspective implies that messages contain particular stimulus attributes
that have differential interaction with personality characteristics of audience members.
This means that the members of an audience are very selective in what they read,
listen to, or view from the media.
democratic-participant- Democratic-participant theory was proposed in recognition
of new media developments and of increasing criticism of the dominance of the main
mass media by private or public monopolies. From the 1960's onwards call could be
heard for alternative, grass-roots media, expressing the needs of citizens. The theory
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ii)
iii)
iv)
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i)
supports the right to relevant local information, the right to answer back and the right
to use the new means of communication for interaction and social action in small-scale settings of community, interest groups or subculture. Dennis Mceuail states that
it is most difficult to formulate this theory partly because it lacks full legitimisation and
incorporation into media institutions and partly because some of its tenets are already
to be found in some of the other theories.
Developmental- Development media theory was intended to recognize the fact that
societies undergoing a transition from underdevelopment and colonialism to
independence and better material conditions often lack the infrastructure, the money,
the traditions, the professional skills and even the audiences needed to sustain media
institutions comparable to those of the First world or Second world, in which the four
theories could take root. The limited application of the four established theories of
the press let to the emergence of the new media theory whose main task is to carry
out development functions in the society through communication.
Models
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linear & non-linear models -
Linear model - lt is a one way model to communicate with others. lt consists of the sender
encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. ln this model
there is no feedback which may allow for continues exchange of information.
Non'linear model
- this model is not based on a definite set of performance always. Unlike the
linear model it is not like a straight line. lt has interference in different level and feedback is
always a part of this type of models,
ii)
Lasswe// - Harold Dwight Lasswell, the American political scientist states that a
convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following
questions
.
Who
.
Says What
.
.
To Whom
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With what effect?
ln Which Channel
This model is about process of communication and its function to society, According to Lasswell
there are three functions for communication (prescribed by him in 194g):
1. Surveillance of the environment
2" Correlation of components of society
3. Cultural
i
ii)
transmission between generation
Shannon & Weaver - ln 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic
engineer and Weaver was an American scientist both of them join together to write an
article in "Bell System Technical Journal" called "A Mathematical Theory of
Communication" and also called as "shannon-Weaver model of communication"
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The effects oriented models or approaches to mass communication derive from this model. They
conceived of communication composed of five essential parts plus noise.
iv)
Wilbur Schramm - in the year 1954 Wilbur Schramm prescribed the model circular
model of communication, This model is also referred to as the Osgood and Schramm
Circular Model. Schramm defined communication as "the sharing of information, ideas
or attitude". He endorsed the Aristotelian principle that communication always requires
at least three elements - source, message and destination.
lnlerpreler
For Schramm the encoding and decoding of the message are the most important point of the
communication system.
v) Westley & MacLean- ln 1957 Westley and Maclean's model of communication is proposed
by Bruce Westley (1915-1990) and Malcolm S. Maclean Jr (1913-2001). Being one oi the
creators of journalism studies, Westley served as a teacher at the University of Wisconsin,
Madison, between 1946 and 1968. Malcolm was director of University of Journalism School
(1967-74) and co founder of the University College at University of Minnesota.
This model can be seen two contexts, interpersonal and mass communication. And the point of
difference between interpersonal and mass communication is the feedback. ln interpersonal, the
feedback is direct and fast. ln the mass, the feedback is indirect and slow.
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X1,X2, X3 and X4..."-are news articles or information, Feedback (f), Clients (A), Reader or
Audience (B) and Gate Keeper (c)
Vl)DeFleur- The theory De fleur model of communication is expanded version of Shannon and
weaver model of communication. And also based on the "Westley & Maclean model of
communication" describes the circular process of communication with feedback from the
receiver. Shannon and Weaver model is a one way communication and they explain the role of
noise in the communication process. Westley & Maclean model is a two way communication and
for first time they introduced the important component called "Linear Feedback" in the
communication model. De fleur combine these two models and creates new one called "De
Fleur Model of Communication".
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Defleur Model of Mass Communication System
Defleur's another important suggestion in this model is "Feedback Device". This feedback device
is helps to analyse the target audience (as separate from the receivers). Here, all these
receivers are not considering as a target audience because the target audience will make some
kind of feedback which will helps to find the target audience by using feedback device.
8. Mass Media:
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Definition
- The mass media are the tools or technologies that facilitate dissemination of
information and entertainment to a vast number of receivers. These tools 'mediate' the
messages. "Mass media" is a deceptively simple term consisting of a countless array of
institutions and individuals who differ in purpose, scope, method, and cultural context including
all forms of information communicated to large groups of people, from a handmade sign to an
international news network, There is no standard for how large the audience needs to be before
communication becomes "mass" communication. There are also no constraints on the type of
information being presented. 'A mass medium' says Wilbur Schramm, 'is essentially a working
group organized round some device for circulating the same message, at about the same time,
to large number of people'" ln communication studies today, however, mass media has come to
be a useful collective phrase, though it slurs over the distinction among the various media.
- modern mass media largely informs, educates and entertains the mass. lt also
helps in establishing smooth and fair connectivity. lt also integrates the mass at sometimes.
Apart from these mass media is also used as the tool for advertising.
'Functions
- Different types -
i.
ii.
on
Conventional or traditional mass media - newspapers, books, radio, television,
film, journals, magazines, etc.
New media - blogging, social networking, micro blogging, iptv, cell phones and so
- Print Media and Electronic Media
i.
print
media
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newspaper, magazine, journals, advertisements,
ii. electronic media
iii. others
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bitl
boards
or
hoarding, tablos.
- radio, television, film, web, cell phones (usage like citizen journalism)
social networking, blogging, micro blogging, street corners, street theaters, jatra, etc.
9. Specialization in Reporting: specialized reporting is based on what beat is assigned to
the reporter. Depending on the area of reporting there are some general and some special
points that the reporter should keep in mind while covering his assignments.
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Science
Political
Administration
Crime
Fashion
Financial & Agriculture journalism
Sports journalism
10. lnterpretative & lnvestigative reporting:
a. interpretative reporting -
lnterpretive (or interpretative)journalism goes beyond the
basic facts of an event or topic to provide context, analysis, and possible consequences"
lnterpretive journalists must have unusual familiarity with and understanding of a subject,
and their work involves looking for patterns, motives, and influences that explain what
they are reporting. Some experts are of the opinions that for 150 years, interpretive
journalism has waxed and waned, but levels of interpretation have generally risen since
the beginning of the twentieth century, at least in US journalism. ln other countries where
news work developed primarily as a literary occupation, interpretation began and
remained at the forefront. ln Latin America, southern Europe, Africa, and elsewhere, the
main content occupying key positions in newspapers, for example, is always interpretive
rather than straight
chronicles.
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nsws , which journalists in these regions consider mere
b. investigative reporting -
lnvestigative journalism is a form of journalism in which
reporters deeply investigate a single topic of interest, such as serious crimes, political
corruption, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist may spend months or
years researching and preparing a report. lnvestigative journalism is a primary source of
information. Most investigative journalism is conducted by newspapers, wire services,
and freelance journalists. Practitioners sometimes use the terms "watchdog journalism"
(though that has a broader meaning) or "accountability reporting".
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lmportance & Scope - both investigative and interpretative reporting has huge scope in
today's journalism. With so much or scandal and corruptions there isalways story to
chase and crack. On the other hand explaining the message underneath a story can be
done by interpretative reporting.
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Basic qualities i. sharp mind and clear thought process
ii. having the ability to analyse a situation or a some information
iii. keeping record of all the details
iv. doing thorough background research
v. asking the right kind of questions
vi. cross checking facts from more than one source in case of investigative
i
vii.
viii.
ix"
x.
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reporting
writing the facts while reporting
detaching from the content emotionally and looking from a top view
discussing different aspects with experienced people specially the editor
if needed the detail of the source should not be reveal for security reasons
planning & style
a. investigative reporting ln this case the reporter is always trying to bring out something
which someone is hiding. The steps to be followed are:- i. phase one - getting hint of the
story and doing initial investigation, ii. phase two - getting clearance for doing the story and
making a working plan for the story, iii. phase three - getting confirmation on the doubts and
confirmation about the story, iv phase four - investigating and keeping records and cross
checking, v phase five - writing the story telling it chronologically and sticking mosily to the
facts" No comments should be done
b. interpretative reporting - this type of reporting need a detailed amount of report. lt also
needs experts' comments and views to substantiate a point that the reporter is trying to
make with the story. Keeping records and cross checking to reach a probable interpretation
of a fact is also required. Works on same or similar subject is a must read. While working on
a report the journalist will always have to analyse the facts that are acquired through out the
process. ln interpretative reporting the reporter often explains the inner meaning or the
cause of certain things. For example:- a report on climatic shift will always explain with
insights about the climatic conditions of planet earth.
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Few major cases of investigative journalism
xi.
xii.
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Watergate (international case study) - The Watergate scandal was a major potitical
scandal that occurred in the United States in the 1970s as a result of the June 17 , 1972,
break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate
office complex in Washington, D.C., and the Nixon administration's attempted cover-up of
its involvement. This whole story was investigated, recorded and reported by two of the
eminent journalists - Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward. Finally in 1974 President Nixon
had to resign from his position just before he was about to run a second term in the oval
office.
Tihar (nilan case study) - ln lndia the ground breaking investigative reporting
was done by Ashwini Sarin under the guidance of Mr. Arun Shourie. On April
18, 1979 Sharin got himself arrested and went inside the famous Tihar jail of
the lndian capital. He investigated and gathered evidences for about three
months before coming up with a whole story about how the jail operates;
blowing the cover on all the misdeeds that went on inside those boundaries"