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Premise, Conclusion, Syllogism… oh my! premise An assumption that something is true. At least two premises are needed in order to form a basic argument structure. All books from that store are new. These books are from that store. conclusion The consequence formed from the premises. The final part of a basic argument structure. Therefore, these books are new. syllogism A logical argument based on deductive reasoning—two or more premises that form a logical conclusion. Premise: All books from that store are new. Premise: These books are from that store. Conclusion: Therefore, these books are new. Important… A syllogism is a fallacy when it makes accurate premises, but the conclusion is not logical. All crows are black. The bird in my cage is black. Therefore, the bird in my cage is a crow. A flawed syllogism is where one or both premises are not true. All humans are selfish. Gandhi was a human. Therefore, Gandhi was selfish. A sound syllogism must have a logical conclusion and accurate premises; hence, this syllogism is the strongest in forming an argument. All men are mortal John is a man. Therefore, John is mortal. Effective debaters and writers use a variety of tools to make their arguments more powerful, persuasive and memorable—you know these, but it’s important to review them, since you will use them to make your own arguments. pathos speaking with emotion; appealing to the audience’s emotion; evoking emotion from the audience ethos how the speaker’s reputation plays a role in persuasion logos using logic and facts to support claims Argument – A “Brief” Overview Argument is at the core of critical thinking. It’s not just about people disagreeing and/or yelling at each other; it’s about making a case to support a claim, which can be applicable in virtually all subject areas. There are basically three types of arguments: * Argument of fact O.J. Simpson is guilty of killing his wife. * Argument of judgment Is the crime first-degree, manslaughter, accident, etc.? * Argument of policy Determination of punishment: acquittal, imprisonment, execution. Organizing an Argument Claim This is the writer’s/speaker’s overall thesis or proposition. Data This is the evidence gathered to support the claim—in some cases, it might be a good idea to start with evidence in order to help form a claim. Warrant (connects the claim to the data) This is an explanation of why or how the data supports the claim, the underlying assumption that connects your data to your claim. Backing This is additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to support the warrant. Counterclaim This is a claim that negates or disagrees with your claim. Qualification Since arguments deal in probabilities, they must be qualified with words such as probably, very likely, almost certainly and so forth—see complete list on next slide. Absolute Qualified will may, might, could forms of “be” (am, is, are, was, were) may be, might have been, may have been all, every many, most, some, numerous, countless, a majority none, no few, not many, a small number, hardly any, a minority always often, frequently, commonly, for a long time, usually, sometimes, repeatedly never rarely, infrequently, sporadically, seldom certainly probably, possibly impossible unlikely, improbable, doubtful Be careful using qualifiers; they might express doubt, leaving the reader/listener wondering if you know what you’re writing/talking about. It appears that Freud believed the unconscious plays a significant role in behavior. Which works best? Freud believed the unconscious plays a significant role in behavior. Rebuttal This is evidence that negates or disagrees with the counterclaim. Organizing an Argument Example Claim Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution. Data 1 Driving a private car is a citizen’s most air polluting activity. Warrant 1 Because cars are the largest source of private air pollution, switching to hybrid cars should likely have (q.) an impact on fighting pollution. Organizing an Argument Example Cont. Data 2 Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years. Warrant 2 Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that a decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels. Data 3 Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered, electric motor. Organizing an Argument Example Cont. Warrant 3 This combination of technologies means that less (q.) pollution is produced. Counterclaim Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages a culture of driving even if it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging use of mass transit systems. Rebuttal While mass transit is an environmentally sound idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many (q.) rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work; thus, hybrid cars are a better solution for much of (q.) the nation’s population.