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Chapter 5
HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN ART
• The artwork during the Hellenistic period had the same
organic unity of structure of previous Greek art.
• Sarcophagi were rarely used before this period, but now it
became the predominant art form.
• In addition to this form of art, elements reflecting the
attitudes of the afterlife were reintroduced into Greek art.
• The Greek civilization was no longer limited to the
Mediterranean. Now it reached the boundaries of the Persian
empire in the Near East.
Key Terms:
Tufa
dome
oculas
Composite order
coffering
Learning Objectives:
• The ways in which the temples of the Hellenistic period
differed from previous Greek temples.
• The similarities and differences between Greek and Roman
temples.
• The ways Roman sculpture can be identified as a style unto
itself.
THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD
• The term, Hellenistic, originated as a way to distinguish
speakers of the Greek language from others within the empire
but came to refer to the period of some three hundred years
after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC.
• The rulers during this period were of Greek descent, and the
official language was a form of Greek-the Greek of the New
Testament.
• The Greek culture spread throughout the region with cities
trying to emulate the Greek polis.
• These cities grew into large and wealthy centers such as
Alexandria in Egypt, Seleucia on the Tigris, Antioch near
the coast of Syria, and Pergamum in Asia Minor.
• The region witnessed a change from small competitive
societies to cosmopolitan urban centers.
• The Hellenistic period was also the time of two philosophies
which influenced the ancient world.
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• Both
of
these
philosophies
stressed
a
change
from
Aristotle’s interest in the problems of human relations to
the concerns of the inner life of the individual.
Plato, Aristotle and the Arts
• In the late fourth and early fifth centuries BC in
Alexandria, Egypt, the first histories of art were written;
unfortunately, only passages survive.
• The term ‘Classical moment’ or high point in the arts has
been credited to Hellenistic writers.
• The Hellenistic writers referred to the fourth century BC as
the Classical moment.
• Plato’s believed that works of art should conform to some
absolute standard and praised the Egyptians for not allowing
artistic changes.
• Plato also held that works of art by man were pale
imitations of heavenly prototypes.
• Aristotle, on the other hand, thought that the ‘cause’ or
reason a work of art was made was a matter of judgment.
• The teachings of Aristotle opened the door to expressiveness
and to the cultivation of the artist’s individuality.
• As laid down in Aristotle’s Poetics, the visual arts could
be categorized the same as literature: epic, tragic, comic,
lyric, and elegiac.
• The new ideas brought about a profound change in attitudes
towards the arts.
• Works of art were now viewed as the creations of individual
artists.
• This new attitude gave rise to art collecting.
• The arts of the late fourth century BC were used to
associate Hellenistic rulers with Alexander and his legacy
of prestige and power.
Alexander Sarcophagus (fig. 5.1)
• In this piece, Alexander is portrayed as the superhuman
victor and hero.
• This depiction was meant to be symbolic as well as a
likeness of Alexander.
• The carving of the figures is sharp and crisp as it was
during the Classical period.
• The composition is laid out in a carefully devised pattern
of diagonals.
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Dancer (fig. 5.10)
• During the Hellenistic period, bronze statuettes were made
as independent decorative works of art instead of as votive
offerings.
• The figure draws the drapery tightly against her body
allowing movement to be depicted.
Demosthenes (fig. 5.11)
• This statue stresses the strength of the soul over the less
than perfect body of this ruler.
• The personality comes through in the expression with the
body being perhaps more realistic.
Allegory
• It was during the Hellenistic period that allegory, meaning
‘saying something else’, first appeared in European art.
• In Hellenistic art, gods became more of personifications of
love, death and wisdom.
• Also, sleeping figures appear for the first time in
Hellenistic sculpture. These figures were expressive in
their uncontrolled movements and gestures showing a new
awareness of man’s instinctual nature.
• Before the Hellenistic period a statue of a deity, hero, or
athlete
was
self-sufficient.
Now
they
required
an
allegorical significance.
Sleeping Eros (fig. 5.14)
• The legs are apart and one arm is thrown across the body
while the infant’s flesh is rendered realistically.
• The way in which this god is depicted is new to Greek art,
there is a sense of the unknown about him.
Victory of Samothrace (fig. 5.15)
• This statue was to commemorate a naval victory on a small
north Aegean island.
• The goddess of victory is depicted with great animation in
the drapery.
• The wings are shown as if she were landing and the way in
which the drapery was carved also gives the viewer a sense
of a strong wind.
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Hellenistic Architecture
• The history is hard to trace because we know less about it
than that from the Classical period because less of it has
survived.
• Most of the major cities were rebuilt by later inhabitants
changing the original layout and designs.
Altar of Zeus (fig. 5.17)
• The qualities that differentiate Hellenistic from Classical
Greek art and architecture reach their peak here.
• This building is by far the largest sculptural complex in
the ancient world.
• It was so imposing that it was referred to as ‘Satan’s seat’
in the Book of Revelation.
• This structure was erected as a memorial to the war, which
established Rome as the dominant power in the eastern
Mediterranean.
Dying Gaul (fig. 5.18)
• The war commemorated by with the Altar of Zeus was
illustrated with a series of statues of dead or dying Gauls.
• The style now used for the statues, as demonstrated here, is
in response to the ‘civilized’ demands of the patrons.
• This statue bestows dignity on the defeated Gaul.
• In keeping with Hellenistic, thought the spirit persists
while life slowly leaves the body.
HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PAINTING AND MOSAICS
• Though the wall paintings and floor mosaics done in Italy
during the last two centuries BC and first century AD, the
subject matter was in the Hellenistic style.
• By this time the Roman upper class had absorbed Hellenistic
culture.
• The vast expansion of the Roman empire geographically and
ethnically raises many problems in defining Roman art.
Battle of Issus (fig. 5.24)
• This mosaic is both Hellenistic in both subject matter and
style.
• It is the depiction of the actual event of Alexander’s
victory over the Persians.
• The emphasis is on the drama of the moment, illustrated by
the movement of the spears.
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• The figures in the mosaic are rendered with shading, giving
them substance.
• There is also great use of foreshortening, with the horse in
the middle of the composition.
Ixion Room (fig. 5.28)
• The
illusionism
of
the
architectural
framework
is
characteristic of painting in Italy during this period.
• The illusion would visually enlarge the space of rooms by
using
columns,
entablatures,
and
other
architectural
elements.
• Sometimes make-believe windows would be used to disclose an
illusionistic view of colonnades stretching into the
distance.
• The use of a perspective system may have had Italian origins
with the use of lines slanting towards a central axis.
• In this room, above the ‘windows’ are paintings of statues
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
• Architecture was regarded as one of the liberal arts,
whereas painting and sculpture were not.
• Vitruvius,
a
practicing
architect,
believed
that
an
architect should be, among other things, a ‘man of letters’.
• Many feel that the Romans’ artistic genius was fully
expressed in architecture.
Domestic Architecture
• Nearly all of the types of ancient Roman buildings and
methods of construction are represented at Pompeii.
• The Pompeiian house was inward looking with an unimpressive
exterior.
Temples and Public Works
• A heightened sense of the relationship between architecture
and landscape is evident in the Roman designs.
• The Roman temple evolved by skillful and inventive blending
of Etruscan and Greek elements.
• Unlike the Greek temple, the Roman temple was not the
largest structure in the city.
• There was a change in the attitude towards public works such
as harbors and aqueducts.
• This was very different from early civilizations, which
believed that the greatest service to the community was a
temple to a god.
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• In Rome, politics played a bigger role than religion in
architecture.
• During the first century BC, greater public works and
building programs began, in part, as propaganda.
• Augustus completed the building program began by Julius
Caesar.
• Marble was a symbol of magnificence and, because of the size
of the empire, marble of any color was available.
Maison Carre (fig. 5.37)
• This temple combines the raised temple and processional
entryway of the Etruscans with the use of a pediment and
Corinthian columns from the Greeks.
• The Romans employed engaged columns for decorative purposes
only.
Pont du Gard (fig. 5.41)
• The purpose of this structure was to carry water some 30
miles to Nimes.
• This aqueduct is constructed of dressed stone.
• The width of the arches at the top are six times their total
height.
The Colosseum and the Invention of Concrete
• The most important material was concrete which helped the
Romans revolutionize architecture.
• Roman concrete was a combination of mortar and pieces of
aggregate and was laid in courses.
• Concrete’s unique strength and durability came from the
binding agent, which was a mortar made of lime and volcanic
sand.
• The ability of concrete to hardened into an homogeneous mass
revolutionized architecture when combined with the arch and
vault.
• The arch became the essential element in Roman architecture
and symbolized the sustaining power of the empire itself.
• Romans could now cover large areas of space; whereas, before
architecture was simply an art of mass.
• Architecture of space replaced the previous limited concept
of building
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Colosseum (fig. 5.42)
• The exterior of this structure incorporates the use of the
arch and the Greek architectural orders starting with Doric
on the bottom, followed by Ionic, and topped with
Corinthian.
• The Colosseum had an estimated seating capacity of 45,000 to
55,000.
• The architects took care of the entrance/exit problem with
an ingenious arrangement of stairways and corridors all
leading down to the continuous ground floor arched openings.
• This structure’s plan measured 615 by 510 feet externally
and 159 feet high, and was completed in a decade.
• Various materials were used such as concrete travertine,
tufa, and brick faced concrete for the walls between the
piers.
• There was a huge awning, which was supported by wooden poles
to protect the public from the sun.
• With the Colosseum, concrete was used only for foundations
and walls.
Pantheon (fig. 5.48)
• This structure was built on the site of an earlier temple
with a different design.
• The Pantheon consists of two parts, a traditional templefront portico with massive granite columns, and an enormous
domed rotunda, which was possible because of the use of the
slow drying concrete.
• This dramatic combination of shapes was not missed by the
public as they passed from the angular forms into one of
spherical infinity.
• The surface of the dome is broken into 5 bands of coffers,
which serve the dual purpose of decoration and an
architectural means of reducing weight.
• The bands diminish in area as they approach the oculas but
are equal in depth.
• It is believed that the coffers originally had gilded
moldings around the edges and contained gilt bronze
rosettes.
• The design of the Pantheon differed from previous Roman
temples and this, in addition to its beauty, may have been
one of the reasons the Christians did not destroy it.
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ROMAN SCULPTURE
• The ruler Hadrian preferred Athens to Rome, spoke Greek
better than Latin, and furnished his villa with Greek
statues.
• Romans had begun to collect Greek statues before the end of
the third century BC.
• The demand was greater than the supply, which led to a
proliferation of copies and imitations, which were generally
of poor quality.
• Greek bronze statues were reproduced into marble with no
concern for the change of the medium, and there generally
was an addition of an unsightly support.
Laocoön and his Two Sons (fig. 5.52)
• The representation of the figures is suggestive of those
found on the Altar of Zeus, which is one reason why many
believe that this is an original.
• The bodies are depicted with strained muscles and tortured
looks on their faces, which are traits of the Hellenistic
period.
Towards a Definition of Roman Art
• Romans were blatant in their use of Greek sculpture.
• One of their practices was to use a copy of the body part of
a Greek statue and add the portrait head of the individual.
• The Roman preoccupation with actuality enabled them to
enlarge their range.
• Even though there was a great degree of realism in
Hellenistic sculptures, Roman portraits surpassed them in
their extreme realism.
Augustus of Primaporta (fig. 5.55)
• This statue is one of the finest examples of the copying
practice.
• Here though, not only was the head added but also the
general’s costume and additional carvings which allude to
one of Augustus’s victories.
• Though this is a copy of a Greek statue, adjustments were
made in the pose giving Augustus a speaking gesture.
• This statue raises the questions of whether there is such a
thing as a Roman style and how does one define Roman art.
• Many believe that because of the Romans extracting so much
from other cultures; there truly is not a Roman identity.
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• The term Roman may be used for works of art produced in its
territory, but this does not take into consideration the
ethical diversity of the Roman Empire.
• There is, however, certain characteristics which do lend
themselves to be recognized as pure Roman.
• Quite
different
from
the
Greeks,
wrinkles
were
not
considered unsightly. Instead, they were regarded as an
implication of a successful life.
Roman husband and wife (fig. 5.53)
• This funerary portrait is from the late Roman Republican
period.
• The wife has a superior expression in keeping with
republican decorum.
• The husband is in keeping with the Roman embodiment of
dignity, with his unsmiling, heavily wrinkled face.
Ara Pacis Augustae (fig. 5.54)
• This structure was made to mark the return of Augustus to
Rome in 13 BC and to celebrate the peace that followed the
civil wars.
• It is actually an altar on a podium surrounded by a
rectangular wall enclosure. Its design was influenced by the
Greeks.
• The outer walls contain deeply carved panels of foliage
ornament, figurative reliefs of mythological subjects, and
two long processions.
Frieze of the Ara Pacis Augustae (fig. 5.56)
• These friezes differ from those of the Parthenon in that the
figures are not idealized youths or expressionless.
• The figures here are presented in a manner that suggests
that they are communicating with each other and that they
are recognizable portraits.
• This frieze also differs from the Parthenon in the fact that
it includes younger members of the family.
• The friezes differ from other processional reliefs in other
ways such as the fact that this marks a specific moment in
time.
• This is an excellent example of the use of low and high
relief to show the illusion of distance.
Portrait bust of a Roman lady (fig. 5.61)
• The portrait bust was one of Rome’s most famous contribution
to sculpture.
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• This form of sculpture, consisting of the head, neck and a
portion of the torso, evolved out of the Roman practice of
making wax masks of their ancestors.
• This bust is one of the finest examples to survive this
period.
• The detail in the hair alone is amazing as is the soft
modeling of the face.
Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (fig. 5.62)
• This statue is the only one to survive from the Roman
period.
• The addition of hair on the face is a feature left over from
the emperor Hadrian, who favored beards.
• There is a strong contrast between the tension of the horse
and the calm appearance of the rider.
• The figures are not in scale to each other, and it is
believed that they were not meant to be fitted together.
Arch of Titus (fig. 5.63)
• One method frequently used for visual propaganda was the
triumphal arch, which was another Roman invention.
• These arches usually stood over a thoroughfare and were not
used as an entrance.
• This arch was built of concrete and was faced with honey
colored marble.
• The engaged columns are the Composite order combining
Corinthian and Ionic elements.
Spoils from the temple in Jerusalem, from the Arch of Titus
(fig. 5.64)
• This relief reveals a strong sense of illusion of space and
movement in the way the men and the horses are depicted
passing through another arch.
LATE ANTIQUE ART
• The great Roman empire began to show stress before Marcus
Aurelius died in 180 AD.
• The center of the empire shifted from Rome towards the East.
• Even with these changes there does appear to be an awareness
in architecture of the decline of the empire.
• During the third century AD, a shift began away from clarity
in sculpture towards inner thoughts and feelings.
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• The sculpture of the late third and early fourth century AD
disregards the Greek notion of ideal beauty,though it is not
known if this change was a reflection of the turmoil of the
times.
Frigidarium of the Baths of Diocletian (fig. 5.72)
• This was the cold room of the complex and shows the
continual grandiose approach to architecture.
• The great vault of this structure spanned an area of some
200 feet by 80 feet.
• This complex was built partly to illustrate the ability of
Diocletian to restore imperial authority after a period of
near anarchy within the empire.
Sarcophagus from Acilia (fig. 5.77)
• The figures are very different from those on the Ara Pacis
where each was presented in their own self confident
physical presence.
• The figures shown here are not in proportion and are self
absorbed.
Reliefs from the Arch of Constantine (fig. 5.78)
• This traditional arch’s reliefs are a blend of traditional
and new sculpture.
• The roundels were made in the second century AD and offer a
good contrast to the panel below them, which was done in the
fourth century AD.
• The panel is generalized in its depiction of Constantine and
the space is flattened, scale is ignored and gestures are
not individualized.
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