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SPCBA
SAN PEDRO COLLEGE OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, INC.
Brief Overview of Punctuation
Summary: When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate
emphasis. When writing, we must use punctuation to indicate these places of emphasis. This
resource should help to clarify when and how to use various marks of punctuation.
When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When
writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases.
Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a
complete sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an
incomplete sentence
Comma
Use a comma to join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and,
but, or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
The new house has a large fenced backyard, so I am sure our dog will enjoy it.
Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.
To get a good grade, you must complete all your assignments.
Because Dad caught the chicken pox, we canceled our vacation.
After the wedding, the guests attended the reception.
Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a
comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include
it. The examples below demonstrate this trend.
On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy.
In their speeches, many of the candidates promised to help protect the
environment, bring about world peace, and end world hunger.
Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a
sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence,
enclose it in or separate it by commas.
John's truck, a red Chevrolet, needs new tires.
When he realized he had overslept, Matt rushed to his car and hurried to work.
Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).
The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin.
The sturdy, compact suitcase made a perfect gift.
Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise,
finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other
hand, in conclusion, in addition)
For example, the Red Sox, Yankees, and Indians are popular baseball teams.
If you really want to get a good grade this semester, however, you must complete
all assignments, attend class, and study your notes.
Use a comma with quoted words.
"Yes," she promised. Todd replied, saying, "I will be back this afternoon."
Use a comma in a date.
October 25, 1999
Monday, October 25, 1999
25 October 1999
Use a comma in a number.
15,000,000
1614 High Street
Use a comma in a personal title.
Pam Smith, MD
Mike Rose, Chief Financial Officer for Operations, reported the quarter's
earnings.
Use a comma to separate a city name from the state.
West Lafayette, Indiana
Dallas, Texas
Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the
clauses with a period, with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon.
Semicolon
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when
the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become
covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive
adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise)
or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the
other hand, even so).
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern
for America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.
Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include
commas.
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah;
Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan.
Colon
Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main,
Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.
Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or
other idea directly related to the independent clause.
Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese.
In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urges Americans to rededicate
themselves to the unfinished work of the deceased soldiers:
"It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished
work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for
us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these
honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the
last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall
not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of
freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall
not perish from the earth."
I know the perfect job for her: a politician.
Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.
To Whom It May Concern:
Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.
12:00 p.m.
Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.
Matthew 1:6
Parenthesis
Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content
than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying
information, or sources, from a sentence.
Muhammed Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed
he would "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee."
Dash
Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that
follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.
Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to
definition, and yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its
multitude of applications.
In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state
legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators—English departments
are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught.
The U.S.S. Constitution became known as "Old Ironsides" during the War of 1812—
during which the cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S.
Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of the Constitution.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.
Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word
that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed
inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement
of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.
He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30."
Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "justice."
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or
newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or
radio shows.
"Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson
"Just Like a Woman," by Bob Dylan
"The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.
Italics
Underlining and Italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were
widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize
whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead
of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe,
you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of
magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of
three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes,
or ships.
Time
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
The Metamorphosis of Narcissus by Salvador Dali
Amazon.com
Titanic
Italicize foreign words.
Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marine Corps, means "always faithful."
Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.
The truth is of utmost concern!
Italicize a word when referring to that word.
The word justice is often misunderstood and therefore misused.
Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses
Summary: This handout defines dependent and independent clauses and explores how they are
treated in standard usage.
When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and when you are concerned about
whether a sentence is or is not a fragment, a good way to start is to be able to recognize
dependent and independent clauses. The definitions offered here will help you with this.
Independent Clause
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a
complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.
Dependent Clause
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a
complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is
marked by a dependent marker word.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened
when he studied? The thought is incomplete.)
Dependent Marker Word
A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes
it into a dependent clause.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy.
Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even
if, even though, if, in order
to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever,whether, and while.
Connecting dependent and independent clauses
There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent
clause: coordinating conjunctions and independent marker words.
1. Coordinating Conjunction
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an
independent clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent
clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the
coordinating conjunction:
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to
concentrate because of the noise.
2. Independent Marker Word
An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent
clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second
independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed
before the independent marker word.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to
concentrate because of the noise.
Some common independent markers
are: also, consequently, furthermore, however,moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.
Some Common Errors to Avoid
Comma Splices
A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent clauses. You can usually fix the
error by changing the comma to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two
separate sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by making one clause dependent
by inserting a dependent marker word in front of it.
Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.
 Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.
 (or) I like this class; it is very interesting.
 (or) I like this class, and it is very interesting.
 (or) I like this class because it is very interesting.
 (or) Because it is very interesting, I like this class.
Fused Sentences
Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of
punctuation. This error is also known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be
corrected by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences.
Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her.
 Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned a lot from her.
 (or) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her.
 (or) My professor is intelligent, and I've learned a lot from her.
 (or) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from
her.
Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a
complete sentence. You can usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make
a complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.
Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.
 Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't study.
 (or) I forgot the exam was today.
The Apostrophe
The apostrophe has three uses:
1. to form possessives of nouns
2. to show the omission of letters
3. to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters
Forming Possessives of Nouns
To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..."
phrase. For example:
the boy's hat = the hat of the boy
three days' journey = journey of three days
If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is
needed!
room of the hotel = hotel room
door of the car = car door
leg of the table = table leg
Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create
one.
 add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):
the owner's car
James's hat (James' hat is also acceptable. For plural, proper nouns that are possessive,
use an apostrophe after the 's': "The Eggleses' presentation was good." The Eggleses are
a husband and wife consultant team.)
 add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:
the children's game
the geese's honking
 add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:
two cats' toys
three friends' letters
the countries' laws
 add 's to the end of compound words:
my brother-in-law's money
 add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
Todd and Anne's apartment
Showing omission of letters
Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one
or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission.
Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a
contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some
examples:
don't = do not
I'm = I am
he'll = he will
who's = who is
shouldn't = should not
didn't = did not
could've= could have (NOT "could of"!)
'60 = 1960
Forming plurals of lowercase letters
Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears
to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural
of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a
plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors,
teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples:
p's and q's = a phrase believed to be taken from the early days of the printing
press when letters were set in presses backwards so they would appear on the printed page
correctly. Although the origins of this phrase are disputed, the expression was used commonly to
mean, "Be careful, don't make a mistake."
Today, the term also indicates maintaining politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and
thank-yous."
Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.
three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4
There are two G4s currently used in the writing classroom.
many &s = many ampersands
That printed page has too many &s on it.
the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969
The 1960s were a time of great social unrest.
The '60s were a time of great social unrest.
Don't use apostrophes for personal pronouns, the relative pronoun who, or for noun plurals.
Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already
show possession — they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all
possessive pronouns. However, indefinite pronouns, such as one, anyone, other, no one, and
anybody, can be made possessive. Here are some examples:
wrong: his' book
correct: his book
correct: one's book
correct: anybody's book
wrong: Who's dog is this?
correct: Whose dog is this?
wrong: The group made it's decision.
correct: The group made its decision.
(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possessive
pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember
this rule is the fact that you don't use an apostrophe for the possessive his or hers, so don't do it
with its!)
wrong: a friend of yours'
correct: a friend of yours
wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket.
correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.
Proofreading for apostrophes
A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following
strategies to proofread for apostrophes:
 If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see if it
needs an apostrophe.
 If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify it
with a rule for using apostrophes.
Hyphen Use
Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or
connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the
following compounds:
hair stylist
hairsplitter
hair-raiser
Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is obviously
in a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen
offered here are generally agreed upon.
1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:
a one-way street
chocolate-covered peanuts
well-known author
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:
The peanuts were chocolate covered.
The author was well known.
2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers:
forty-six
sixty-three
Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.
3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:
re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
semi-independent (but semiconscious)
shell-like (but childlike)
4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect;
between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:
ex-husband
self-assured
mid-September
all-inclusive
mayor-elect
anti-American
T-shirt
pre-Civil War
mid-1980s
5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only
between syllables:
pref-er-ence
sell-ing
in-di-vid-u-al-ist
6. For line breaks, divide already-hyphenated words only at the hyphen:
massproduced
selfconscious
7. For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is
doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at
the suffix itself:
plan-ning
run-ning
driv-ing
call-ing
8. Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put
two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:
lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)
eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial
e- at the end of a line.)