Download The Crimean War

Chapter 22
1700
1800
1900
The Crimean War [1854-1856]
Russia
[claimed
protectorship over
the Orthodox
Christians in the
Ottoman Empire]
Ottoman Empire
Great Britain
France
Piedmont-Sardinia
Causes
• Russia wanted to extend influence over Ottoman territories (Balkans)
• Russia angry when Ottomans assign care of holy places to Roman Catholics

War erupts between Russia and Ottoman Empire
when Russia occupies Moldavia and Walachia
 Ottoman Empire > “The Sick Man of Europe”

France and Britain join the Ottomans, to Russia’s
surprise and displeasure, the Austrians and Prussians
remain neutral
 Motives > Great Britain?
▪ Mediterranean Sea is their lake
Poorly equipped and commanded troops lead to
massive suffering on both sides
 Helped by French and British forces, the Ottomans
defeat the Russians

The Crimean War

Great Figures
 Florence Nightingale
▪ Addressed inadequate medical treatment
▪ Helped found modern nursing profession
▪ First women to achieve international fame
 Alexander II of Russia
▪ Succeeded his father during the war
▪ Negotiated peace and instituted reform

Results
 Russia gives up land around Danube River and Black
Sea
 Russia renounces its claims to protect Orthodox
Christians in Ottoman Empire
 Military embarrassments
▪ Large loss of life
 Image of invincible Russia crushed
▪ Reforms and rearms > becomes stronger
 Sardinia can work with France to try to est. Italy
 Concert of Europe? dissolved
▪ General meeting between nations to settle differences
 Balance of power restored

Tanzimat – reorganization of the empire
 Liberalized economy
 Freedom of religion

Hatti-i-Humayun – spelled out rights of non-Muslims
 Equal chances in the military, state employment, and admission to
state schools
 Abolished torture
 Gave property rights
In some regions of the empire, local rulers made reforms
hard to enforce
 Reforms are an attempt to modernize & secularize the
empire > make Ottomans more “European”

 Fighting to survive
 Need to gain loyalty of Christian subjects
Italian Nationalist Leaders
Giuseppi
Garibaldi
[The “Sword”]
Count Cavour
[The “Head”]
King Victor
Emmanuel II
Giuseppi
Mazzini
[The “Heart”]


Nationalism aspirations emerge when Napoleon I occupies
Italy
Giuseppe Mazzini first attempts to establish an Italian
republic
 Approach called romantic republicanism
 Mazzini > most important nationalist leader in Europe

Mazzini with help of Giuseppe Garibaldi lead insurrections
 Goal > Drive out Austria

Obstacles to unification
 Austria
 Papacy
 People > conservatives in Italy

1850 > “Italy” > geographic expression rather than political
entity

Minister of Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia)
 Transformed Italy into a nation-state under a
constitutional monarchy, rather than a republic
 How?
▪ Armed force
▪ Secret diplomacy

Cavour a nationalist but different from Mazzini
 Rejected republicanism > support monarchy
 Economic and material progress replaced romantic ideals

Used the French to achieve his goal
 Drives out Austrians in the north

South > uses Garibaldi and romantic republicanism
to conquer rest of peninsula

Victor Emanuel I is named King of Italy (1861)
 Conservative Constitutional Monarchy
Tensions high between industrialized Piedmont
north and rural, poor Southern Italy
 Conservative constitutional monarchy put into
place, but Parliament is filled with corruption
 Venetia in 1866 and Rome (minus Vatican City) in
1870 become part of Italy
 Still some territory in North controlled by Austria

 Desire to liberate “Italia irredenta” > unredeemed Italy

Most important political development in Europe between
1848-1914
 Transformed balance of power

Congress of Vienna est. German Confederation
 Made up of 39 diff states
 Austria & Prussia largest
 1850s unification seemed remote

William I (Hohenzollern family) becomes king in 1861
 Fights with Parliament (liberals) over taxes to increase army
 Turns to Otto Von Bismarck for help


Would be more responsible for reshaping European history
more than anybody else for the next 30 years (1860’s-1890’s)
Political career extensive
 Starts out a reactionary but mellows into a conservative

Prime minister 1862
 Used German nationalism as a strategy to enable Prussian
conservatives to outflank Prussian liberals

Bismarck did not want to include all German speaking lands into united
Germany

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Unification required complex diplomacy
Danish War (1864)

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Tension over territory won in Danish War
Prussia wins
Treaty of Prague makes Prussia only major power among German Confederation
Northern German Confederation formed

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Austria & Prussia defeat Denmark
Bismarck gains prestige
Through diplomacy gains allies in Italy, France, & Russia
Austro-Prussian War (1866)

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Especially Austria
Each state governed itself > military under federal control
Pres. was Prussian King & Chancellor was Bismarck
Two House Legislature > Bundesrat & Reichstag
Germany becomes essentially a military monarchy

Prussian liberals defeated

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Bismarck needed southern Germany to complete
unification
Spanish Bourbon queen dethroned by coup & replaced by
a Hohenzollern king
 France angry

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Ems telegram provokes war
Napoleon III not only defeated but captured
1871 in Hall of Mirrors in Palace of Versailles the German
Empire is declared
 Germany also receives Alsace and part of Lorraine

A new powerful states emerges rich in natural resources
 Blow to European liberalism > Germany a conservative state
 France & Austria (led by Habsburgs) have to make a change

France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian war spelled the end of
the liberal empire
 A govt. of national defense is created > new National Assembly > makes
settlement with Prussia > Treaty of Frankfurt > people of Paris feel
betrayed


The Paris Commune – radicals and socialists attempt to govern
Paris away from the rest of France, but are put down by the
National Assembly at the cost of 20,000 lives / victory for the
nation-state
The Third Republic – when quarreling monarchists can’t agree
on a new king, the National Assembly turns to a republic
system
 Two legislative house
▪ a Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage
▪ a Senate chosen indirectly
 President elected by both legislative houses

French Captain Alfred Dreyfus (Jewish) is falsely accused of passing secret
information to the Germans (1894)
 Evidence was weak (forged)

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Dreyfus is sent to Devil’s Island, secrets still cont. to flow
Evidence of forgery comes in, but he is not acquitted
Dreyfus is still guilty according to the army, French Catholic Church,
political conservatives, and anti-Semitic newspapers
Liberal novelist Emile Zola, along with numerous liberals, radicals, and
socialists call for a new trial for Dreyfus
President of France pardons Dreyfus and the conviction is set aside in 1906
Significance?
 Puts conservatives on the defensive for framing an innocent man and embracing
anti-Semitism
 Unites groups in the political left
 Divides Third Republic

The empire in the 1840’-1860’s
remained
 dynastic, absolutist, and agrarian as
compared with the rest of Europe

Francis Joseph & ministers attempted
to centralize administration
 Austrians (German Speaking) dominating
govt.


Failure to support Russia in Crimean
War meant Tsar Alexander II would no
longer help preserve Habsburg rule in
Hungary
Defeat by France in 1859 & Prussia in
1866 confirms that a new government
is needed

Empire made up of several different ethnicities
 Main two > Austrians and Hungarians

Solution > Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867
 Dual Monarchy > Austria-Hungary
 Francis Joseph crowned king of Hungary
 Almost two different states besides sharing
▪ Common monarch, army, and foreign relations

Magyars gained a free hand (kind of happy currently)
 Had their own govt. basically (their own parliament)
City of Vienna
*Center of medical & cultural excellence
*Rebuilt to a grand scale
*Vicious anti-Semitism aroused here


Magyars now had nationality as they basically controlled
the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary
The Romanians, Croatians, and especially the Czechs
opposed the Compromise of 1867 > Why?
 German speaking Austrians & Hungarian Magyars controlled all the
other nationalities
 Czechs > most vocal > want what Hungarians have

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Political instability follows
Nationalism grows stronger in late 1800s
 Language was the defining factor for a nation

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Wanting to be linked by a common race and language;
Croats, Poles, Ukrainians, Romanians, Italians, Bosnians,
and Serbs all look towards nationhood
Consequences of nationalism?
 Two World Wars and unrest even today

Serfdom abolished > for a long time only nation where it existed
 Positives – serfs gain rights to marry without permission, to buy
and sell land, to sue in court and to pursue trades
 Negatives – over a forty-nine year period serfs have to pay back,
including interest, their landlords in order to receive their land
 Result was large debt
 Fortunately in 1905, the govt. finally cancelled the debts

Local government reform – local government run by a system of
provincial and county councils, which proved to be largely ineffective

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Underfunded
Judicial reform – included equality before the law, impartial hearings,
uniform procedures, judicial independence, and trial by jury
Military reform – service requirements lowered from twenty-five to
fifteen years and discipline is relaxed slightly
 Largest military in Europe

Repression in Poland – Poland placed under Russian laws and
language

Merely seen as a Russian province

Alexander Herzen
 Started a movement called populism, resistance
to reforms set by Alexander
 Made up of students and intellectuals
▪ Went to the peasants with their message
 Sought a social revolution through peasantry
▪ Chief radical society > Land and Freedom
▪ Many peasants turned the radicals into the police

Resort to terrorism after the Tsar uses harsh
punishments
 Land and Freedom split into two groups > one
dissolved and the other was the
▪ The People’s Will – terrorist group that assassinated
Alexander II
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Autocratic and repressive like Nicholas I
Rolled back his father’s reforms
Strengthened secret police and censorship of
the press
He confirms all the evils the revolutionaries
feared
His son will find out autocracy will not be
able to survive the pressures of the 20th
century
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Must understand first > Britain seen as your ideal liberal state
1860’s push for the working class to have a vote
Surprisingly the Conservatives in the House of Commons led
by Benjamin Disraeli accomplishes this goal
 Almost doubles the electorate (1,430,000-2,470,000)
 This push is due to Chartist Movement (working class demanding vote & other
constitutional reforms
 Refresher
▪ Two parts to British Parliament
▪ Lower house > House of Commons (Democratically elected)
▪ Upper house > House of Lords (National Legislature)

By doing this Disraeli thought Conservatives would win more
support
 He was right > Conservative Party dominates politics in 20th c.

The new prime minister elected however is a liberal
 William Gladstone in 1868
Freedom of religion and class
Competitive exams replace patronage for civil
service
 Voting by secret ballot
 The Education Act of 1870

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 Established that the government, not the church
would run the elementary schools, more schools
built

Significance?
 Removed abuses without destroying institutions
 Reforms a mode of state building > reinforced
loyalty while abolishing abuses


Disraeli and Gladstone differed on most
issues
Disraeli actually talked a better line that he
performed
 Public Health Act of 1875 – reaffirmed duty of the
state to interfere with private property to
protect health and physical well-being
 Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875 – government
becomes actively involved in providing housing
for the working class
 He also gave protection to trade unions and
allowed picket lines

Gladstone, again prime minister in 1880 has to deal with the Irish
wanting home rule – Irish control of local government
 Disestablished the Church of Ireland (Anglican branch)
▪ Irish Catholics no longer had to pay for the Anglican Church
 Compensation provided for Irish tenants who were evicted from their
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land
 Another act > Tenant rights established
 Coercion Act passed to restore law and order to Ireland
Irish still wanted a just land settlement
 Leader of Irish movement > Charles Stewart Parnell
The Home Rule question fought in Parliament between 1886 and 1914
When the rule was finally passed (1914), it was then suspended due to
World War I
Significance

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Irish question is going to dramatically affect British politics
British domestic issues could not be solved due to the political divisions the Ireland
question created