Download Biology 2011-2012

Biology 2011-2012
Top 100 things to know for the EOC!!!!
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The control group and the experimental group in an experiment are different in that the
experimental group gets the manipulated variable while the control group gets treated exactly like
the experimental group but does not get the manipulated variable.
Data is collected and graphed during an experiment to show results.
On a graph, the dependent variable goes on the y-axis and the independent variable goes on the
x-axis.
When using SI (metric) units, move the decimal left when going from smaller prefixes to larger
prefixes and right when going from larger prefixes to smaller prefixes.
Something is considered living if it has cells, dna, metabolism, can reproduce, grows, develops, and
demonstrates homeostasis.
Levels of organization: Biosphere, biome, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ
system, organ, tissue, cell, organelles, atoms, subatomic particles.
Protons +, Electrons -, Neutrons (neutral). Protons and Neutrons in nucleus, electrons orbiting in
energy levels. (Electron cloud)
Ions are charged atoms which have lost or gained electrons. (Oppositely charged atoms will attract to
form an ionic bond)
Covalent bond = sharing electrons, Ionic bond = losing or gaining electrons, Hydrogen bonds occur
between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom or molecule. Water has hydrogen bonds as do
the nitrogenous bases in DNA.
Chemical reactions: Reactants on the left, products on the right. Arrow means yields. Coefficients
work with entire molecule, subscripts with only atom they follow.
Organic compounds have carbon, hydrogen, oxygen; Inorganic molecules don’t have carbon atoms.
Acids have a pH less than 7 and have hydrogen ions; Neutral is a pH of 7; Bases have a pH above 7
and have the OH- ion (hydroxide). Acids and bases get stronger the further away from 7 they are.
Monomers are the basic building molecules of organic compounds. Polymers are made of multiple
and sometimes very long chain monomers.
a.
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides = single monomer; Disaccharides = 2,
Polysaccharides=many (ENERGY)
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Lipids: (Oils, Waxes, Fats) Fatty acids make up fats. HYDROPHOBIC. (ENERGY
STORAGE) Good fats – unsaturated Bad fats - saturated
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Proteins – Amino acids are building blocks. All of your genetics are codes for the many
different proteins, including the group of catalysts called enzymes. PEPTIDE BONDS
OR POLYPEPTIDE BONDS!
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Nucleic Acids – monomers are nucleotides. Found in DNA and RNA
Water is one of most important compounds on earth. Properties include high specific heat, cohesion
and adhesion, Expands when nearing freezing point, Universal solvent; all living things depend on
water.
Plant cells have cell wall, large central vacuoles, chloroplasts and animal cells do not have these but
do have centrioles.
Eukaryotes = true nucleus and membrane bound organelles. Prokaryotes = no true nucleus nor
membrane bound organelles. Bacteria are only example of prokaryotes!!
Organelles have very specific jobs in the functioning of the cell.
a.
Nucleus – control center. Houses DNA + proteins (chromatin). Also contains nucleolus.
b.
Nucleolus – makes ribosomes that are found throughout cytoplasm.
c.
Ribosomes – carry out protein synthesis by working with mRNA, tRNA, rRNA.
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Endoplasmic reticulum – SER and RER. Rough has ribosomes attached. Intracellular
highway where proteins and other important molecules are synthesized and transported.
Golgi apparatus (body) – Packaging plant. Important molecules are marked and labeled for
movement to appropriate locations.
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Chloroplast – contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis. Helps plants make glucose.
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Mitochondria – found in all cells. POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL. Allows cell to change
GLUCOSE to usable ATP, the energy unit of all cells.
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Lysosomes – garbage men. Digestive enzyme used to get rid of unwanted materials in the
cell.
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Cell membrane – All cells have cell membrane. SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE.
DNA - DNA = REPLICATION; DNA  RNA = TRANSCRIPTION; RNA  PROTEINS =
TRANSLATION.
Cilia and flagella = motility of cells (sperm and others)
Cell membrane has lipid bilayer consisting of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Diffusion = movement of material from high concentration to a lower concentration. (Free)
Osmosis = movement of water from high concentration to a lower concentration. (Free)
a.
Isotonic solution = equal movement of molecules. (no net gain)
b.
Hypotonic solution = Higher concentration of water in surroundings than in cell. (Net
movement into cell.) CELL SWELLS AND POSSIBLY BURSTS.
c.
Hypertonic solution = Higher concentration of water inside cell than in environment
surrounding cell. CELL LOSES WATER AND SHRINKS. (SHRIVELS)
Active transport = movement into or out of cell which requires energy. (movement against the
concentration gradient)
Facilitated diffusion – use of protein channels to move certain molecules into or out of cells or
across membranes. Very specific for which molecules.
Aerobic respiration = oxygen used. Reactants = glucose and oxygen Products = carbon dioxide,
water, and ATP! (Mitochondria is main organelle)
Anaerobic respiration = no oxygen available. Lactic Acid Fermentation = production of lactic acid
(lactate) Alcoholic fermentation = production of ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Respiration = Glycolysis then citric acid cycle then oxidative phosphorylation (Electron transport
chain)
Photosynthesis: Reactants = carbon dioxide and water Products = glucose and oxygen
Basic equations:
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Photosynthesis = Light dependent reactions (water used) followed by the light independent reactions
(calvin cycle) – carbon dioxide used here as well as ATP and NADPH.
Mitosis = division of 1 cell to get 2 IDENTICAL daughter cells. (Diploid to diploid)
Meiosis = sex cells (gametes). 1 cell divides to get 4 daughter cells that are haploid.
Human diploid number = 46. Haploid number = 23.
Mitosis = PMAT (Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)
Interphase occurs during longest part of cell’s life. G1, S (synthesis of DNA), G2. Is not part of
mitosis.
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid.
DNA structure = Sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous base. (nucleotide) Nucleotides form
long structure and spirals into double helix to fit into cell.
DNA nitrogenous bases = ATGC (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine)
Chargaff’s rule = A to T and G to C.
RNA differences = ribose as sugar (instead of deoxyribose), U(racil) instead of T, single stranded
instead of double stranded.
Proteins formed from Amino acids.
Three nitrogen bases code for 1 of 20 amino acids. (codon or triplet)
Change DNA codon to RNA codon by using matching base. U instead of T opposite every A.
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Read 3 letter codons from genetic code chart to find amino acid.
Sequence of amino acids = specific protein.
Mendel = father of genetics.
Monohybrid crosses = 1 trait (4 boxes in Punnett square). Dihybrid crosses = 2 traits (sixteen boxes
in punnett square or use fork line method)
Meiosis I = 2 haploid cells. Meiosis II = 4 haploid cells (sperm or egg)
Male meiosis = 4 sperm. Female meiosis = 1 egg + 3 polar bodies (destroyed)
Sister chromatids attached to each other before division. (occurs during S phase)
Homologous chromosomes pair up during prophase I of meiosis and line up during metaphase I.
These alike chromosomes separate during Anaphase I which make 2 new cells haploid.
Sister chromatids separate during meiosis II to give us 4 new cells.
Genotype = gene combination found on homologous chromosomes. Represented to letters.
Upper case letters = dominant allele Lower case letters = recessive allele.
Homozygous = 2 of same gene (represented by 2 of same letter) LL = homozygous dominant; ll =
homozygous recessive
Heterozygous = one dominant allele + one recessive allele (Ll). Dominant trait shows up.
Phenotype = physical appearance of trait. (What shows up) Freckles or no freckles is example of
phenotype.
Codominance = Blood typing is example. AB blood type shows both proteins on blood cells.
Incomplete dominance = the presence of a third (in between) trait. Red (RR) crossed with White
(WW) gives us pink flowers (RW).
Sex-linked traits carried on X-chromosome so a heterozygous female is a CARRIER of a sex-linked
recessive trait.
Females have very small chance of getting sex-linked diseases. Males have 50/50 chance if mother is
a carrier.
Color blindness is example of sex linked trait. Male has XY and female has XX. (He only needs one
gene on his one X chromosome to be colorblind) She has to inherit 1 gene from both biological
parents to be colorblind.
Pedigrees map path of a trait through family generations.
Punnett squares = 1 gene (letter) given in a sperm or egg. Gg x Gg =
Evolution = change over time of the traits of a species. (Long period of time and lots of generations)
Natural selection (survival of the fittest) = the passing on of the strongest traits in a species to
‘improve’ the species in future generations. Members not having the ‘strong’ traits usually die or do
not reproduce so the best traits get passed on through generations.
Darwin travelled to Galapogas Islands and did famous studies. (Darwin’s finches)
Animal tissue includes:
a.
Epithelial tissue – covers body and lines organs and cavities
b.
Connective tissue – binds and supports other tissue (includes cartilage, bone, blood)
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Muscle tissue – functions in movement and includes skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and
smooth muscle
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Nervous tissue – forms communication network
Major organ systems:
a.
Endocrine system – secretes hormones which regulate most body activities.
b.
Skeletal system – supports the body, protects certain organs, provides framework for muscles
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Circulatory system – Delivers nutrients and oxygen to cells; carries carbon dioxide to lungs;
carries metabolic wastes to excretory organs.
Respiratory system – brings in oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide.
Muscular system – produces movement, maintains posture, produces heat.
Integumentary system – protects body from mechanical injury, infection, excessive hear or
cold, and drying out.
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Lymphatic system – returns excess body fluid to circulatory system and functions as part of
the immune system.
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Urinary system (excretory system) – removes nitrogen-containing waste products from the
blood; regulates chemical makeup, pH, and water balance in the blood.
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Digestive system – ingestion and break down of food; absorbption of nutrients; elimination
of undigested material.
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Reproductive system – produces gametes and sex hormones. Female system provides organs
to support developing embryo and glands for producing milk.
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Nervous system – coordinates body activities, integrates information; directs body’s response
to stimuli.
Plants have xylem for moving water and minerals up from plant roots and phloem distributes sugars
throughout the plant.
Gymnosperms – cone bearers; Angiosperms – flowering plants
Taxonomy – study of and placing of species into groups based on certain properties.
6 Kingdoms: Archaebacteris, eubacteria, protista, fungi, plantae, animalia.
Levels of taxonomy: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
Humans taxonomy: Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae, Homo, Sapien
Scientific name: Genus + species
Dichotomous key used to identify organisms.
Biotic factors – living things affecting ecosystem; Abiotic factors – nonliving things affecting
ecosystem.
Bacteria are good guys in nitrogen cycle and decomposition.
Energy flows in one direction only. (Sun to producer to primary consumer to secondary consumer to
top or tertiary consumers)
Herbivore – plant eater; Carnivore – meat eater; Omnivore – eats both
Earth is an open system for energy (sun adds constantly) and a closed system for matter. (What is
here is all we have and by the same token will always be here)
Predator hunts to kill prey. (Predator/prey relationships drive natural selection)
Competition among organisms also drives natural selection
Competitive exclusion: no two organisms can occupy the same exact niche. (Niche is the role an
organism plays)
Food chain – simple feeding relationships; Food web – all the relationships in an ecosystem.
(complex)
Energy pyramid – shows energy passed up food chains. (Generally 10% to each trophic level) Never
inverted
Biomass and numbers pyramids can be inverted.
Mutualism – +/+ relationship; Commensalism - +/Neutral relationship; Parasitism - +/- relationship
(parasites never want to kill HOST)
Carrying capacity – sustainable number of a population an ecosystem can hold.
Exponential growth – J curve; slow followed by fast doubling. (human population)
Logistic growth – exponential growth until population reaches carrying capacity then leveling off to
for S-curve.
Succession – changing of ecosystem over time from pioneer species to climax community.
Primary succession – newly formed land (volcanic islands) requiring the development of soil then
plants then larger shrubs and trees.
Secondary succession – the re-development of a community after fire or other disturbance. (Soil
base already there)
Age structure pyramids:
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Human population over 7 billion!
Rule of 70 – doubling time for a population (70 divided by the annual growth)
Overshoot carrying capacity = population crash as resources disappear.
BIOLOGY – THE STUDY OF LIVING THINGS!!!!!
YOU CAN DO THIS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! GOOD LUCK!!!!