Download Biological Weapons, an increasing threat.

Biological Weapons, an increasing threat.
Alexandra Vera & Josefina Honig
Miss Melissa Winkler
30th June, 2015
Index
1. Introduction _____________________________________________________ 3
2. Definition Biological Weapons ______________________________________ 4
3. Origins and History _______________________________________________ 4-5
4. General Process of Production _______________________________________ 6
5. Diffusion, detection and identification of biological weapons _______________ 7-8
6. Uses ____________________________________________________________ 9
7. Protection ________________________________________________________ 10
8. Case Study: Anthrax ________________________________________________ 10-11
9. Conclusion ________________________________________________________ 11-12
10. References _______________________________________________________ 13-14
2
Introduction
The intentional use of microorganisms of biological nature to inflict damage is an ancient
practice that prevails (Hooker, 2014). Throughout history, biological weapons have evolved
from rudimental attacks involving bacteria’s from decomposing corpses and bacteria
infested food sources, such as E.coli 1 , to high technology undercover bioweapons with
greatly harming compounds. (Frischknet, 2003)
The advances in the developing field of microbiology have led to an increased
sophistication and manipulation of biological agents, to be weaponized into damaging
bioweapons with high lethality 2 , toxicity
3
and virulence
4
(M.J.Ainscough). This
development within biological warfare, according to scientists Demirev et al, will arise in
that “both their proliferation and the likelihood for eventual use will increase significantly”.
Additionally, they suggest that “Many of the current methods for the production and
dispersal of CBW5 are based on well-established, inexpensive, and accessible technology
from the 1950s over the next decades”, increasing the possibilities of a biological warfare
attack of high destructive character to happen.
The puzzling history of biological weapons has been surrounded by complex manipulation,
difficulty for attack identification and the unethical use for personal purposes, which has
generated an overall rejection and abstention of use. Anyhow, the threat of biological
warfare is estimated to continue and possibly increase, raising uncertainty and concern for
the future of our environment and race.
1 E.coli:. E coli is a bacterium that is commonly found in the gut of endotherms (warm blooded organisms). Certain
strains can cause food poisoning in humans and can become lie-threatening. (Christian Nordqvist, 2014. Medical News
Today)
2 Lethality: how capable something is of causing death
3 Toxicity: The degree to which a substance (a toxin or poison) can harm humans or animals.
4 Virulence: ability to cause disease.
5 CBW: Chemical Biological Weapons
3
Definition Biological Weapons
Biological weapons are living or replicating infectious organisms such as bacteria, viruses,
rickettsia, toxins, fungi or other biological agents of lethal or non-lethal character that may
kill or disable humans, animals or plants when paired with a delivery system. These agents
come from biological origin and reproduce within their host victims to intentionally inflict
disease, grant microbial pathogenicity and evade the host’s immune response. They’re
contemplated as weapons of mass destruction due to their high damaging potential,
extending from an isolated attack to a single individual to a whole population (Federation
of American Scientists, 2013).
Variations within biological agents are found, determining distinct levels of danger. The
type of biological weapon, the preparation and length of incubation, the durability of the
agent in the environment, the route of infection, its ease of dispersal, its infectiousness,
virulence and its lethality define the pathogens appropriateness as a weapon (Federation of
American Scientists, 2013).
Origins and History
The first documented episode involving biological warfare dates back to antiquity,
approximately around 1715 to 1075 BC, during a war in Western Anatolia where an
infection was deliberately introduced with the purpose of debilitating the adversary. This
incident is massively known as the Hittite plague, which due to further investigations
revealed itself to be an epidemic of tularemia6, a form of biological weapon (Trevisanato,
2007)
The use of biological weapons extended from antiquity to middle ages in three major
forms. First, by the intentional contamination of aliment with venomous material.
Secondly, by the use of biological agents (microbes and plants) and biological toxins in an
6 Tularemia: rare infectious disease caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis that can attack the skin, eyes, lymph
nodes, lungs and, less often, other internal organs.
4
armament system. Lastly, by the use of biologically injected humans or fabrics. Exemplars
of these techniques were depicted through history repeatedly, displayed in Persian, Greek
and Roman literature, which implied the use of animal detritus to contaminate sources of
water. As well, during 400BC Scythian archers supposedly dipped their arrows in
decomposing bodies and blood, benefitting from the microbes present within them to infect
their enemies. The use of corpses as biological weapons extended to 1422 and 1710 in wars
in Karolstein and Reval respectively, were they were catapulted towards the rival. In the
15th century, Pizarro was said to have distributed variola-contaminated clothing to South
American natives. The same technique was used by British forces in the 18th century
during the French and Indian war, were blankets infested with smallpox were delivered to
the Native Americans. (Frischknet, 2003)
Plunging into the 20th century, biological warfare suffered sophistication and development
due to the advances in microbiology, permitting the manufacture and isolation of distinct
pathogens. During World War I (1914–1918) Germany created an investigating committee,
alternatively known as sabotage group, which developed anthrax, cholera, glanders and a
destructive fungus for war and subversion motives. Later during World War II, Japan
managed a secret biological warfare facility that developed and studied biological agents on
several victims. Consequently, due to conferences and treaties, the use of these biological
weapons were drawn to a halt but investigation continued, leading to accidental leakages of
the manufactured biological warfare as was the case of New York and Sverdlovsk. (Eitzen
et al)
Currently, biological warfare investigation has continued but its use has been restricted by
several agreements, being the most recognized of them the Biological Weapons
Conference. Actually the most popular form of biological warfare is bioterrorism, using
these agents for terrorist purposes. This has been the case of a Japanese sect (Aum
Shinrikyo, 1994) or an unidentified group, which delivered anthrax in form of spray and
embedded in a letter to an American congressman (2001), respectively, to harm a group of
individuals. (Johnson T.J, AARC)
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General Process of Production
During the initial process of production, a specific biological agent must be chosen,
collected and acquired essentially through isolation from its matrix, concentration and
posterior purification. The criterion of election is based on the specific characteristics of
each agent in relation to the matching desired results of an eventual attack. These may
include the agents pathogenicity (quantity required to generate disease); its incubation
period, as time between exposure and illness will generate delay; its virulence based on
how debilitating the resulting disease is and how much harm is intended to create; lethality
and transmissibility.
These agents may be acquired through two major sources: either through our natural
environment such as soil, water and infected animals or through microbiology laboratories,
where bacteria may be obtained from pathogen banks or created, such as toxins, whose
DNA coding for production is attached to a bacteria that acts as a vector 7 . Subsequent
concentration and purification of the agent is obtained through a variation of methods such
as Centrifugation8, Antibody absorption and Field flow fractionation9. (A. Demirev et al,
2005)
Optimal conditions are later supplied in order to promote an increasing rate of growth and
multiplication of the specific microorganism through cell wall disruption. Liquid agents are
mostly affected by enzymatic, PH and electric discharge controlled variables, among
others, whilst solids are influenced by the presence of a vacuum, laser action and electric
discharge. Once sufficient quantities are provided, possible selection and modification
procedures are used to alter certain traits and characteristics of the microorganism in order
to adapt its function in a particular manner that could result in a more severe, fast-acting
disease. For example, a microorganism that under normal circumstances does not affect
potential targets could be modified to do so. This process usually occurs through
7 An organism, typically a biting insect or tick, that transmits a disease or parasite from one animal or plant to
another
8 Use of centrifugal force as a separating technique
9 Separation technique where a field is applied to a solution pumped through a long and narrow cannel to disperse
particles
6
Chromatography and technical manipulations of the agent’s genome. (Federation of
American Scientists, 2007)
The final stage involves delivery, in which agents are prepared to remain effective when
removed from optimal conditions, as external factors such as temperature, ultraviolet
radiation and drying can reduce the agent’s activity when dispersed. These procedures
include Lyophilization,10 deep-freezing or the formulation into a specific stabilizing solid,
liquid or gas. Once this process is achieved, pathogens are ready for dispersal. (Federation
of American Scientists, 2007)
Diffusion, detection and identification of biological weapons
Eventhough several biological agents have the ability to induce disease, only a reserved
amount are suitable to be weaponized into biological warfare. They must be easy to obtain,
synthezise and operate, given by a reduced size which permits facilitated concealment,
transport and diffusion.
Diffusion
According to Edward M. Eitzen, the size of the agent, stability and atmospheric conditions
may alter the disseminating process. Biological weapons may be dispersed by:
1) Aerosol: for effectiveness they must be diffused in particles of a size less than 5 μm and
requires a large inspiration of the bioweapon. This form is commonly used within
bioterrorism and by military groups.
2) Food and water borne: demand an exaggerated amount of agent for effectiveness and
must be introduced after water treatement.
3) Explosives: diminished effectiveness by the partial destruction of the agent after the
explosion.
4) Injection/absorption by skin: permits effective individual attacks, but unrealistic to
perform a massive assault.
10 Direct freeze drying
7
Detection and Identification
Biological weapons are difficult to detect as they’re invisible, lack odor and taste and have
a silent method of dispersion. Early detection of a biological attack diminishes lethality, but
is hard to accomplish as biological organisms, wether pathogenic 11 or non pathogenic,
contain the same biochemical compounds and require deep molecular analysis for
differentiation. Additionally, immune responses initiate as non specific, performing general
symptoms which delay the recognition of the biological weapon agent. (D.R Walt et al,
2000)
The recognition of particular DNA, RNA, and proteins within the biological warfare agent
permit the identification of the microorganism. Anyhow, only a small fraction of DNA
sequences are known, disrupting rapid identification and posing a challenge for organisms
with unknown DNA sequences. (D.R Walt et al, 2000)
Currently, detection involves finding the biological agent within the environment or victim
via medical diagnosis, as there are no reliable detection systems or sensors. Therefore,
surveillance systems which provide epidemiologic evidence and data on the bioweapon
permit proper identification and recognition. Anyway, according to Tracee Treadwell, the
following criteria suggest a possible bioattack:

Contraction of disease by a rare agent with unconventional symptoms and
development.

Non endemic, so the disease is inconsistent to the location.

Transmission methods which are consistent to those of biological warfare (aerosol,
food, water, injection, explosives).

Stability and uncommon antibiotic resistance of strain, suggesting manipulation of
the agent.

Large number of casualties concentrated within one geographical area, suggesting a
point source outbreak.
11 Pathogenic: Capable of causing disease.
8

Multi biological agents and disease coexistance within affected victims, suggesting
an engineered mixture.

Ilness inconsistent to a particular population or age group.

Simultaneous appeal for medical treatment.
Uses
Offensive
Biological weapons are used offensively to debilitate the opposing force, but pose a threat
not only to the attacked but also to the attacker. They may be used to gain tactical
advantage on the enemy, incapacitate a territory and kill or harm the desired target.
Biological warfare is characterized by its complex control, so it may miscarry its purpose,
harming and weakening the power that made use of the weapon initially.
These may be:
1) Anti personnel: attack aimed at humans. The desired characteristics of the biological
weapon include high infectivity and virulence, lack of inoculating agent, efficient
delivery and transport system, high stability and knowledge on the management and
storage of the agent.
2) Anti agriculture: the use of biological weapons to harm and inhibit cultivating land and
raising crops. This type of bio attack is commonly driven by economic interest, intent
of sabotage or to incite attention to a particular cause, being an effective offensive that
doesn’t imply killing human population. These attacks are relatively easy to execute
due to the vulnerability and exposition of agricultural resources, and due to the velocity
at which they reproduce and disseminate the pathogen.
3) Anti livestock: use of biological warfare to kill or disable domestic animals, raised for
home-use or for an economic concern. These attacks have a large productive impact on
a nation, due to the frustrated commercialisation of animal products and the incapacity
of consumption.
4) Entomological warfare: use of insects to harm the opponent. Insect may be used in the
form of vector, direct agricultural attack or carrier and sufferer of a specific pathogen.
Defensive
9
Biological weapons are handled in response to a bio attack, in order to restore biological
security. These include biological agents, which aid in decontamination, neutralizing
biological weapons and vaccines.
(M.Leitenberg, 2003)
Protection
According to Eisenkfraft et al, a well-known method of biological warfare protection are
protective respiratory devices. These account for differentiated respirators which aid in the
purification and decontamination of air, preventing inhalation of bioweapons. Protective
respiratory devices may be self-contained breathing apparatus, supplied air respirators, air
purifying respirators, air filters and surgical masks.
On the other hand, protective clothing may inhibit direct skin contact with biological
weapons. These may be barrier attire, masks, latex gloves, clothing covers and eye shields.
These are not only available to civilians which desire to prevent an attack, but are
indispensable for health care professionals treating the bioweapon case and military forces.
A wide spread form of bioattack protection are antibiotics, which obstruct bacteria action
and detain their replication. These may be given orally or intravenously, but are more
effective when the specific pathogen is identified.
Finally, vaccinations promote the immune system functioning by exposing the body to a set
of bacteria. The body reacts with the creation of antibodies12, and so creates a form of
defense and immunization against widespread biological weapons.
Case Study: Anthrax
Anthrax is an infectious disease caused by an anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium known as
Bacillus anthracis, found within our natural environment such as in soil. It primarily affects
livestock and wildgame, which consequently leads to the infection of humans through the
inhalation of spores, direct contact with skin of sick animals vía wounds and by the
12 Antibodies: large Y-shaped proteins which function to identify and help remove foreign antigens or targets such
as viruses and bacteria
10
ingestion of contaminated meat. Symptoms, which develop within seven days of the
exposure, will vary depending on how infected the person is; ranging from skin sores and
black lesions, 13 when a cutaneous infection occurs; to vomit and fever, during a
gastrointestinal anthrax; to shock and Meningitis14, present in a respiratory infection. These
may be treated with specific antibiotics that cure the infection, however, inhaled anthrax is
more difficult to treat and might be fatal. The ability of sporulation and resistance of these
spores to harsh environmental conditions, including their survival for more that 40 years,
time in which bacteria remain dormant before entering a living host, is what has caused
Anthrax to become one of the most important biological warfare agents.
The use of Anthrax as a potential biological weapon is prevalent in many parts of the
world and has been adopted primarily for warfare and bioterrorist attacks, creating a
leading cause of global concern. The first official documented attack occured during World
War I, when Scandinavia released this infectious disease against the Imperial russian Army.
Subsequently, Anthrax was also used by the british army during World War II in order to
weaken german livestock. Nevertheless, one of the most recent cases was reported posterior
to the terrorist attacks of 9/11, when letters contaminated with Anthrax were being sent to
the U.S. Five americans were killed and 17 were infected, leading to one of the worst
biological attacks in north american history. The ability of sporulation and resistance of
these spores to harsh environmental conditions, including the survival for more that 40
years is what has caused Anthrax to become one of the most important biological warfare
agents. (J Pharm, 2010)
Conclusion
Resemblant to most scientific and industrial advances within society, Biological Warfare is
considered an effective technological device, whose implementation for the good or bad
cany vary tremendously, imposing a vast amount of responsability onto scientists,
politicians, military and others, who also take charge of this matter and whose moral and
ethical values are continously challenged; as any nation with a reasonably developed
13 Black Lesion: suspicious flat lesion irregular in shape and pigmentation. Often known as Melanomas. Can be
benignant or malignant.
14 Meningitis: A potentially life threatening inflammation of the brain
11
technical and medical industry, could produce massive amounts of biological weapons in
order to casuse destruction upon an external population or opposing force as to gain further
power.
Although the use of biological weapons was initially condemned by international
declarations and treaties during the 1907 Hague Convention, intentions failed to succed
during both WW I and II when the use of disease and other biological agents was enabled
in order to attack and defeat the enemy. However, the Biological and Toxin Weapon
Convention (BTWC) entered in force during March 1975, with the ratification and support
of more than 22 different countries and managed to legally ban the development,
production and aquisition of biological agents and toxins of any type that did not have
protective, medical or other peaceful purposes.
Nevertheless, Biological Weapons still remain as an increasing global threat due to terrorist
and other infiltrated ilegal attacks, which has lead to a significant amount of financial
investment by many governments in order to meet public health responses and other
additional concerns, such as investigations of mechanisms that counteract their impact.
12
References
[1] Hooker E (2014). Biological Warfare (Electronic version), Emedicine health, 1-2.
[2] Nordqvist C (2014). What is E.Coli? (Electronic version), Medical News Today, 1.
[3] Frischknecht F. (2003). The History of Biological Warfare, EMBO Reports, Vol 4
[4] Ainscough M.J (2004). The Gathering Biological Warfare Storm, Westport, Praeger.
[5] Demirev P.A, Feldman A.B, and Lin J.S (2005). Chemical and Biological Weapons:
Current Concepts for Future Defenses, Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest. Volume 26,
Number 4.
[6] http://fas.org/programs/bio/bwintro.html (Federation of American Scientists, 26.5.2015)
[7] Trevisanato, S.I (2007). "The 'Hittite Plague', an Epidemic of Tularemia and the First
Record of Biological Warfare". Medical Hypotheses 69 (6): 1371–1374.
[8]http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.360.3421&rep=rep1&type=pd
f (Eitzen E.M & Takafuji E.T, Historical Overview of Biological Warfare, 15.6.2015)
[9] https://c.aarc.org/resources/biological/history.asp (Johnson T.J, American Association
for Respiratory Care, 29.5.2015)
[10]
http://fas.org/biosecurity/resource/bioweapons.htm#production
(Federation
of
American Scientists, 15.06.2015)
[11] http://dead-planet.net/chemical-terrorism/med_cbw/Ch20.pdf (Eitzen E.M, 26.5.2015)
[12] Walt, D.R & Franz, D.R (2000). Biological Warfare Detection (Electronic version).
Analytical chemistry, vol 23, pp 738 A–746 A.
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[13] Treadwell, T. (March–April 2003). "Epidemiological Clues to Bioterrorism". Public
Health Reports 118: 93–94.
[14] Leitenberg M (2003). Distinguishing offensive from defensive biological weapons
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[15] Eisenkraft A, Cohen A, Krasner E, Hourvitz A (2002). Personal protection against
biological warfare agents, PubMed, 105-10
[16] J Pharm (2010) Biological Warfare Agents (Electronic version) Journal of Pharmacies
and BioAllied Sciences 2(3) 179-188
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