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The Nature of Religious Fundamentalism
“Fundamentalism” is a term that has been used increasingly in
recent years. But it is incredibly difficult to define.
Why is “fundamentalism” such a difficult word to use?...
1. ...because people use it to mean lots of different things:
“fundamentalism is such a commonly and loosely used term, thrown around like a baseball in the
media, backyard arguments, and political arenas. Sometimes the term fundamentalist is used to
describe any group that takes religion seriously or that views religion’s role in public life to be
greater than the labeler would wish it to be. The term also might be used for those who are too
religiously confident or who engage in any sort of action out of religious conviction.”
Emerson & Hartman, “The Rise of Religious Fundamentalism”,
published in The Annual Review of Sociology 2006
2. ...because there isn't one accepted definition:
If you look up the word in different dictionaries, you will read a variety of definitions.
And most complex concepts can not be adequately defined in a sentence even if everyone
agrees with their meaning. Various sociologists have tried, not to define the term in a
sentence, but to offer features of a group or a person or a set of beliefs that may lead to it
being known as “fundamentalist”. But again, there are lots of sociologists who each give
different theories on what it is that makes someone a fundamentalist.
3. ...because some people use it in a pejorative way:
For many people, being addressed as a fundamentalist would amount to an insult,
an accusation or even an attack on them. But other people are happy to be known as a
fundamentalist. In this unit, the groups we will class as fundamentalist will not necessarily
be happy themselves with this label.
4. ... because the word is sometimes used to describe someone’s political position
or even their tendency for violence rather than their religious viewpoint.
Although the word fundamentalism originates in protestant Christianity, it has been used to
describe elements in every religion. But some scholars argue that it is only applicable to
the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam).
Another problem is that people’s definitions of the term and approach to the issue will
naturally be biased by their own standpoint. As Emerson and Hartman say:
“From a modern, secular viewpoint, fundamentalists are reactionaries, radicals attempting
to grab power and throw societies back into the dark ages of oppression, patriarchy, and
intolerance. These fundamentalists are misguided, scary, and even evil…
Conversely, for fundamentalists and their sympathizers, Western versions of
modernization rush over them in a tidal wave of change, ripping apart communities,
values, social ties, and meaning….
As Bruce states, “Fundamentalism is the rational response of traditionally religious peoples
to social, political and economic changes that downgrade and constrain the role of religion
in the public world. . . . Fundamentalists have not exaggerated the extent to which modern
cultures threaten what they hold dear.” ”
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Defining Fundamentalism
Although there are various ways of defining the word, there are some elements that are
common to most people’s understanding of what fundamentalism is.
The sociologist Donald Taylor (1987) defines fundamentalism as involving the following:
1. A group of people perceive a challenge to an ultimate authority in which they
believe.
2. These people decide that the challenge cannot be tolerated.
3. They reaffirm their belief in the authority that is being challenged.
4. The oppose those who have challenged the established beliefs, and often use
political means to further their cause.
“In general, a description of those who return to what they believe to be the fundamental
truths and practices of a religion...
More specifically, it denotes the view of Protestant Christians opposed to the historical
and theological implications of critical study of the Bible.”
Oxford Dictionary of Religion, 1999
“Fundamentalism means taking the Bible as literally inerrant or as “literal where possible”
...More loosely still, the term is applied to a strong antimodernist reaffirmation of any faith,
for instance Islam.”
The World's Religions, Ninian Smart, 1998
“a discernible pattern of religious militance by which self-styled ‘true believers’ attempt to
arrest the erosion of religious identity, fortify the borders of the religious community, and
create viable alternatives to secular institutions and behaviours.”
The Fundamentalism Project, Almond et al., 2003
“a religiously based cognitive and affective orientation to the world characterized by
protest against change and the ideological orientation of modernism.”
Understanding Fundamentalism, Antoun, 2001
Emerson and Hartman have also produced the following table, outlining the findings
of Almond’s research into fundamentalist groups. Although it is a good list of features as a
starting point for research, as Emerson and Hartman point out:
“there are critiques of these fundamentalist characteristics. For example,
Iannaccone (1997) points out that the authors of these character traits say only two of the
eighteen religious movements studied score high on all nine traits. In contrast, he states,
religious movements not given any consideration by this or most any other research, such
as Jehovah’s Witnesses, score high on every trait.”
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Nine characteristics of fundamentalist groups
Based on the findings of Almond et al. (1995).
Ideological Characteristics:
1. Reactivity to the marginalization of religion: Fundamentalism is first
and foremost a defence of a religious tradition, a tradition perceived to be eroding or
under attack by the processes of modernization and secularization. Without this
characteristic, a movement is not properly labelled fundamentalist.
2. Selectivity: Fundamentalism is selective. Rather than simply
defending a religious tradition, it selects and reshapes aspects of
the tradition, particularly aspects that clearly distinguish the
fundamentalists from the mainstream (see also Antoun 2001).
What is more, such movements affirm and use some aspects of
modernity, such as much of modern science and modern forms of
communication and other technologies. Finally, certain
consequences or processes of modernity are singled out for
special attention and focused opposition (such as abortion for U.S.
Christian fundamentalists).
4. Absolutism and inerrancy: The text of
the tradition (the Torah, Qur’an, or Bible, for
example) “are of divine (inspired) origin and
true and accurate in all particulars”.
Fundamentalist movements in religions that
do not have a clear sacred text (such as
Hinduism) often privilege one text (or set of
texts) over others.
3. Dualistic
worldview: Reality is
clearly divided into
the good and the evil,
light and darkness,
righteousness and
unrighteousness.
5. Millennialism and messianism: History
has a miraculous and holy end. At the end
of time, at the entry or return of the hopedfor one (the messiah, the hidden Imam,
etc.), suffering will end, evil will be
vanquished, and believers will be victorious.
The Abrahamic religions (Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam) offer the most
certain assurances; non-Abrahamic
traditions, although tending to borrow from
Abrahamic religion’s “end times” certainty,
lack such fully elaborated assurances.
Organisational Characteristics:
1. Elect, chosen membership: Those in
fundamentalist movements view themselves
as called, selected out, set apart for their
mission to defend the religious tradition.
2. Sharp boundaries: People are either in
the fundamentalist group or they are not.
The boundaries are clearly set; there is no
confusion. One is saved, righteous, a
follower of Allah, a defender of the faith, or
one is not.
3. Authoritarian organization:
Fundamentalist movements are typically
organized around charismatic leaders, with
others the followers. The leader (or leaders)
is viewed by the followers as specially
chosen by their deity, someone with near
supernatural qualities or special access to
the deity, virtuous, a model for the followers,
and one with special training and insight
into the sacred texts.
4. Behavioural requirements: As an
extension of the dualistic worldview and
creating sharp boundaries, behavioural
requirements are both elaborate and
specific. Rules about appropriate speech,
dress, sexuality, drinking, eating, family
formation, children, entertainment pursuits,
and other behaviours are common.
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Task:
Fill in Almond’s nine characteristics of fundamentalist movements with examples
from different religions:
Ideological
1. Reactivity to the marginalization of religion
2. Selectivity
3. Dualistic worldview
4. Absolutism and inerrancy
5. Millennialism and messianism
Organizational
1. Elect, chosen membership
2. Sharp boundaries
3. Authoritarian organization
4. Behavioural requirements
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AO1 Exam Questions
Examine what is meant by the term “fundamentalism”. (45 marks)
Examine ways in which ‘religious fundamentalism’ may be defined. (45 marks)
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The Origins of Fundamentalism within Christianity
Fundamentalism is the result of a split between Protestant Christians in America in the late
1800s/ early 1900s. To understand why this happened, we need to go back a little and see
what was happening during the 1800s that caused this split.
What was life like in America in the early 1800s?
Massive Changes in American Society:
Life in America at the end of the 1800s
Society was changing very
rapidly during this period, in
America just as it was in
Britain. For decades, each
town had been based
around a church. Parish
churches controlled
people's education,
healthcare and welfare, and
were very much at the
centre of the community.
The main factor that
changed this was the
Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution led millions of people to move away from villages and small
towns, to look for jobs in the cities. As a result of the Industrial Revolution, life became
based around the manufacturing industry. This broke up the small communities and
Christianity lost its dominance in people's thoughts and lost influence in their lives. Church
attendance and even belief in God became seen as more of a matter of personal choice.
During this period, social attitudes changed radically, especially people's views about
relationships and the roles of men and women. Women went to work in factories just the
same as men did.
Science and technology progressed rapidly too. Electric light, telephones,
radioactivity, X-rays and electrons were all invented/ discovered in the
1800s, which changed people’s daily lives and their views on the world
around them.
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The scientific method was also applied to many other areas of life. The fields of Sociology
and Psychology were developed during the 1800s, giving scientific explanations for
people’s personalities, thoughts and behaviour (things which were previously thought to be
ordained by God).
In 1859, Charles Darwin published his book The Origin
of the Species, in which he first put forward his theory of
evolution.
HW Task
Research the reaction of religious and non-religious people
to the publication of Darwin's theory.
For all of these reasons, the end of the 1800s was a time when fewer and fewer
people were starting from the assumption that Christianity is unquestionably true.
Because of all of these changes in science and society, Christianity had to respond. Some
Christians chose to adapt their faith to accommodate the changes (known as
“modernists”). Others maintained their faith as it always had been, despite some of their
beliefs contradicting modern science or the new liberal views of society (known as
“conservatives”).
This was also the time in which a new field of Biblical scholarship emerged. Originating in
Europe, Higher Criticism involves studying the Bible in the same manner as any other
ancient text, and not as the authoritative word of God. It uses historical and scientific
evidence to work out who wrote the texts, when, and what their meaning and intention
was. During the 1800s, Higher Criticism was being developed among European Bible
scholars, allowing European modernists to interpret the Bible more liberally.
Although every Protestant denomination experienced divisions between modernists/
liberals and conservatives, the disagreements were felt most strongly in the Presbyterian
church (one of the largest denominations in America), so we’ll take them as an example of
what happened:
Division in the Presbyterian denomination
In the 1800s, ministers in the Presbyterian denomination were taught at either the
Princeton Theological Seminary (which had an “Old-School” approach) or the Union
Theological Seminary (which had a “New-School” approach). The differences between
these two institutions became more and more apparent throughout the 1800s, and
reflected a division that existed within other denominations.
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Old-School approach (Princeton)
Declared that the Westminster
Confession is the foundation document
of the Presbyterian church
Accused the New School of allowing
Arminianism and other ‘errors’ to be
taught
Believed that evangelism and mission
work should be kept within the
denomination to make sure they stick to
its teachings
Were very strictly Calvinist
Demanded that Presbyterian ministers
stuck to the Westminster Confession
and supported heresy trials of any who
didn’t
Examples of Princeton scholars from
this period include Charles Hodge,
A.A.Hodge, B.B.Warfield, J.Gresham
Machen
New-School approach (Union)
Opposed rigid acceptance of the
Westminster Confession
Allowed non-Presbyterians to teach at
the seminary
Were willing to set up parachurch
ministries and co-operated with nonpresbyterians
Preferred a more personal style of
religion, focusing on an emotional
encounter with the Bible, mediated by
the Holy Spirit
Were more relaxed about who they
ordained and opposed heresy trials
Examples of Union scholars from this
period include Charles Briggs, Henry
Van Dyke and Arthur Cushman
McGiffert
Charles Briggs studied HC in Germany in 1866. He became a professor at Union
Theological Seminary in 1876. In 1881, he published an article which led to a series of
responses and counter-responses between Briggs and the Princeton theologians.
In 1891, Briggs was promoted to Professor of Biblical Theology and gave an address
called “The Authority of Holy Scripture” in which he explained the main findings of HC: that
most of the Old Testament “writers” didn't actually write the Old Testament. He also
claimed that the doctrine of Biblical inerrancy taught at Princeton was wrong and called
on other modernists in the church to join together to sweep away this dying doctrine.
In 1893, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian church responded to this by making a
statement which reaffirmed the Presbyterian church’s belief that the Bible is without error
and that anyone who believes otherwise should withdraw themselves from its ministry.
They tried Briggs for heresy and found him guilty, removing him as a minister in the
Presbyterian church.
In 1909, there was again heated debate within the
Presbyterian church about whether or not to ordain
three men who refused to accept the virgin birth of
Jesus. They were ordained, but the debate led to
the General Assembly drawing up a set of five
doctrines that were “necessary and essential” to
the Christian faith.
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The Doctrinal Deliverance of 1909 became known as “The Five Fundamentals”, and
this move to declare a set of beliefs that must be accepted by “true believers” is the
root of what we now know as fundamentalism.
The Development of Fundamentalism 1910-1925
At the same time, a wealthy Presbyterian businessman was concerned about the threats
of modernism to the Christian faith, and used $250,000 to fund the publication of a series
of articles defending it.
The Fundamentals: a Testimony to the Truth
were a series of pamphlets published between
1910 and 1915. These 12 pamphlets were
designed to outline the fundamentals of the
Christian faith, and to respond to threats to it
posed by modernity. In particular, they attacked
Higher Criticism of the Bible, Roman
Catholicism, modern philosophy, atheism,
socialism, evolution, and many other
movements and ideas of the time. There were
90 articles in all, written by leading Christian
scholars.
Lyman Stewart’s $250,000 paid for the printing and distribution of about 2 million copies
throughout the English-speaking world. The pamphlets were sent free to Christian
ministers, missionaries, Sunday School leaders, and many other people engaged in
Christian work all over the world. When they ran out of copies that were paid for out of the
original money and there was still a high demand for copies, the Bible Institute of Los
Angeles published them for sale.
Task
Go to http://user.xmission.com/~fidelis/ and have a look through the titles to get an idea of
what they contained. If you’re feeling really brave, read some of the articles themselves!
The publication of The Fundamentals was the beginning of people being labelled as
“fundamentalists”. In the following decade, the fundamentalist movement grew rapidly,
across many Protestant denominations. In 1919, The World’s Christian Fundamentals
Association was founded by William B. Riley and in 1920 The Fundamentalist newspaper
was launched. There were many rallies, meetings and publications
which spread the fundamentalist message.
However, not everyone who read The Fundamentals agreed with
them. In 1922, Harry Emerson Fosdick gave a sermon entitled
“Shall the Fundamentalists Win?”, in which he claimed that
fundamentalism itself was a threat and called on modernists to unite
against them.
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This was followed by a sermon by Clarence Edward Macartney entitled
“Shall Unbelief Win?”.
As Frank Lambert points out, “The titles of the two sermons suggest that
each side viewed the struggle as a mighty contest or even a war with dire
consequences if the wrong side prevailed.”
Task
Read excerpts from these sermons and make notes on their key points
The widespread publication of these and similar articles made the modernistfundamentalist debate a national one. Every Christian in America would now have heard
about the issues and would have to take a side. What was previously a difference of
opinions between scholars and ministers within denominations became a split between
two kinds of Christians. Lambert comments that, “Each side in the controversy attacked
the other’s position and defended its own with an intensity that deepened the gulf between
them.”
The debate really came to a head in 1925 with the Scopes Trial.
Take notes on the key points of the trial:
Task
Read p16-25 in your textbook and the article The World of Fundamentalism.
Take notes on how Christian fundamentalism developed between 1925 and 2000.
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AO1 Exam Questions
Examine the nature of fundamentalism from its origins to the present day (45 marks)
Examine the origins of fundamentalism within Christianity (45 marks)
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Factors in the rise and development
of fundamentalism
Rise means …
Development means …
This topic can include the early rise and development of Fundamentalism
within Christianity, how it has risen and developed since the 1970s, and how it
has risen and developed within other religions.
Social factors
1- Rapid Social Change
Late 1800s Britain and America
1800s Islamic countries
1960s Britain and America
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(fundamentalist movements) “feed on contemporary alienation or anomie
by offering solutions to contemporary dilemmas, buttressing the loss of
identities sustained by many people (especially young people), at times of
rapid social change, high social and geographic mobility, and other stressinducing factors.”
Malise Ruthven
Last year, we saw that the sociologist Wilson suggested that rapid social
change could cause a rise in NRMs. The same reasoning applies to
fundamentalist movements.
Which aspects of fundamentalism make it appealing during times of rapid
social change?
2-Change in family patterns
Breakdown in family life, increase in divorce/ adultery, blurring of gender
roles, women working full-time etc.
How did this cause fundamentalism to develop from the 1970s, from how it
was originally?
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Economic Factors
1 “Capitalism” is the economic system based on privatelyowned companies selling or trading to make a profit.
What values are encouraged in a capitalist society?
“Consumerism” is a system where individuals are encouraged to purchase
more and more material possessions.
As capitalism and consumerism have spread to other countries, how has
fundamentalism developed?
2 – Urbanisation and Geographic Mobility – people having to move
geographically due to changes in market forces – “displacement”. Some
people live in several areas or even countries during their lives.
Why would this cause a rise in fundamentalism?
3 - Economic prosperity means that foreign travel and global communication
is available to everyone.
How has global communication affected people’s everyday lives?
Why would this cause a rise in fundamentalism?
How has this helped fundamentalism to develop?
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Political Factors
1- Secularisation of politics and law
Religion is increasingly being removed from the political arena and from
public sight in general.
In the UK/US…
In other areas…
Why would this cause a rise in fundamentalism?
2- Idea of a religious state
The creation of the state of Israel after World War II and the success of the
Iranian Revolution in securing a religious government supported the idea
that a society based on religious rather than secular authority was possible.
How has this caused fundamentalism to develop?
3 - Confusion of national/cultural/religious identity
In many areas, people’s religious identity is tightly bound up with their
ethnic, cultural or national identity.
How has this caused fundamentalism to develop?
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A Reaction to Scientific Rationalism
Scientific Rationalism is the view that knowledge can be obtained through
objective empirical observation of physical phenomena.
This means that if something is true, then it can be proven scientifically, with
physical evidence. Things that cannot be proven or explained in this way are
disregarded.
Scientific rationalism is obviously the approach that is taken within the study of
science, but since the Enlightenment has spread throughout human experience.
1. Psychological and Sociological Accounts of Religion
During the late 1800s, the fields of Psychology and Sociology were developed,
which applied scientific principles to the study of human behaviour.
Freud (1920s)
Religious belief is : “an adolescent stage in the development of the human race
from which humanity should free itself”.
Marx (1848)
Religion is “the opium of the people”
“People can’t really be happy until the abolition of the illusion of religion.”
2. The Debate between Science and Religion
Professor Richard Dawkins is an expert on evolutionary biology.
In 2008, he declared that: “In order not to
believe in evolution you must either be
ignorant, stupid or insane.”
But he has also come to prominence as
being part of the “new atheism”, a
movement characterised by its quest to
rid society of religion.
He founded the Richard Dawkins Foundation
for Reason and Science, which aims to
“support scientific education, critical
thinking and evidence-based understanding of the natural world in the quest to
overcome religious fundamentalism, superstition, intolerance and suffering.”
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How has fundamentalism developed in reaction to scientific rationalism?
A Reaction to Liberal Modernist Religious Views
1. Higher criticism/ modern translations of scripture
These are seen to threaten the authority and trustworthiness
of scripture.
2. Decreasing adherence to traditional religious practices
• Wearing tefillin in Judaism
• Regular formal confession in RC
• Keeping the sabbath (in Judaism and Christianity).
3. Decreasing adherence to traditional morality
•
•
•
•
Adultery
Inter-faith marriage in Judaism
Homosexuality
Sex before marriage in both Judaism and Christianity
How has fundamentalism developed in reaction to liberal modernist religious
views?
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A reaction to Secularism
Secularism is the view that society should be secular- separate from religion.
1. Declining attendance at places of worship
(See statistics in your notes from Unit 2)
2. Increased legal/ moral acceptance of behaviours prohibited by religion
•
•
•
sabbath-breaking
adultery
blasphemy
3. Lack of respect for religion in public life
•
Widespread attacks on religion in entertainment and media
How has fundamentalism developed in reaction to secularism?
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AO1 Exam Questions
Examine the development of fundamentalism as a reaction against science and
secularism
(45 marks)
Examine reasons for the rise and development of religious fundamentalism
(45 marks)
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