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ISSUES & CONCERNS
• INTRODUCTION
1) Our earth naturally provides services that:
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Purify air and water
Maintain the global atmosphere
Detoxify and decompose wastes
Generate and renew soil and soil fertility
Pollinate crops and natural vegetation
Control the vast majority of agriculture pests
Disperse seeds and transfer nutrients
Maintain complex sources for our agricultural, medicine, and
manufacturing
Screen harmful radiation
Regulate the climate and sea level
Mitigate floods and droughts
Moderate temperature extremes and the force of wind and waves
Support diverse human cultures
However, human activity has
made it increasingly difficulty to
provide this service ! !
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
Page 1
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
- WHY CONCERNED?
STATE OF THE WORLD ENVIRONMENT
1950 - 1997
Population
(billions of persons)
Megacities
(cities of more than 8 million people)
Food
(ave. daily production in calories/capita)
Fisheries
(annual fish catch in million tons)
Water use
(annual water use in cubic kilometres)
1950
1972
1997
2.5
3.8
5.8
2
9
25
1980
2450
2770
19
58
91
1300
2600
4200
Rainforest cover (index of forest cover 1950=100)
100
85
70
Elephants
(milions of animals)
6.0
2.0
0.6
CO2 Emissions
(billions tons of carbon per annum)
1.6
4.9
7.0
Ozone Layer
(atmospheric concentration of CFC’s in
parts/billion)
-
1.4
3.0
This gives an opportunity to raise some sustainability issues and concepts.
•
Climate Change – Global Warming/Acid Rain – importance of SOx, NOx,
CO2, - Energy and Transport. May need extra material to present
•
1/3 of the population lives on less than $1 per day – roughly the cost of a
pint a week!!
•
25% of the population has no access to healthcare
•
In Europe 30% of population are OAP’S. In 2030 it will be 70%.
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
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WHY CONCERNED?
ENVIRONMENT
• CLIMATE CHANGE
• BIO-DIVERSITY
• RESOURCES
• POLLUTION CAUSING BOTH ENVIRONMENTAL &
PUBLIC HEALTH DAMAGE
•Climate Change is recognised by most governments world wide as the major
issue facing us all
•Often Bio-Diversity is focused on the rare and endangered species, but many
local flora & fauna are in decline
•Resources can be renewable – plants/trees but others are non-renewable – oil,
coal, mineral ores etc. The approach to using these materials has to be
different
•Every pollutant has a health hazard associated with it
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
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1)
GLOBAL WARMING
What is the greenhouse effect?
The earth is surrounded by a layer of gases. These
The main gases which contribute to global
allow the passage of ultra-violet radiation from the sun warming are:
to the earth. The earth radiates back some of this
radiation, but at a longer wavelength. This radiation is
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
absorbed by certain ‘greenhouse’ gases in the
atmosphere, leading to a temperature rise.
 Methane (CH4)
This process is known as the greenhouse effect
because it involves trapping in heat like glass in a
greenhouse
Global warming potential
Global Warming
Without the greenhouse effect, the earth would be
about 30oC colder, and life as we know it would not
exist. However, it is the enhancement of the effect
which causes concern. Man’s activities release extra
amounts of greenhouse gases, leading to an increase in
atmospheric temperature known as global warming.
Why is it called the greenhouse effect?
Incoming
solar
radiation
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Some solar radiation is
reflected by the earth’s surface
and the atmosphere
The contribution of each gas to global warming
is a reflection of:
 The amount generated
 Its potency as a greenhouse gas,
represented as the global warming
potential (GWP); this is a measure of
the warming resulting from 1 kg of a
given gas relative to the warming from
1 kg of carbon dioxide.
CFC 12 has a GWP of 7300. This means that 1
kg of CFC 12 will produce warming equivalent
to 7300 kg of CO2 – nearly three quarters of a
tonne!
Greenhouse gases
Solar radiation
passes
Through the clear
atmosphere
Some solar
radiation is
absorbed bythe
surface and
warms it
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
ATMOSPHERE
Infra-red radiation is
emitted from the earth’s
surface
EARTH
Some of the
infrared radiation is
absorbed and reemitted by the
greenhouse gases.
The effect of this is
to warm the surface
and the troposphere
CO2 contributes around 50% of global
warming. It is released by burning fossil fuels
such as gas, coal and oil as well as wood. The
use of renewable energy will therefore play a
major part in reducing CO2 emissions.
Industrialised nations such as the UK and USA
account for 20% of global population and 80%
of global CO2 emissions. The USA produces
22 tonnes of CO2 per person every year,
compared to just 0.7 in India
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
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We can reduce our CO2 emissions by:
 Not wasting energy: switch off
unnecessary items and use energyefficient equipment both at home and
at work
 Reducing car use: if possible use
public transport or self-propulsion
 Reducing waste production (CO2 is
released from landfill sites due to the
breakdown of waste), and conserving
and planting trees (which absorb CO2
from the atmosphere)
Methane (CH4)
Major global sources of methane include
natural wetlands, rice growing, cattle farming
and the escape of natural gas. A quarter of
UK methane emissions are derived from
landfill, and can be reduced by minimising
the waste that we produce. Naturally this
will make economic as well as environmental
sense
Chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs)
CFSs are compounds containing chlorine,
fluorine and carbon, which have been widely
used in foams, propellants and coolants.
They are inert, stable and have a high global
warming potential; hence the use of
international agreements such as the
Montreal Protocol which aim to phase our
CFS usage.
Agriculture and ecosystems
Agriculture occurs in bands around the
globe. Global warming will force changes to
traditional practices, with potential impacts
on total global food production. Ecosystems
will be forced to adapt, relocate or die out.
Sea levels and water resources
Sea levels will rise due to thermal expansion
of water and melting of land ice. A rise of
20-5cm is expected by 2050, threatening
low-lying areas. Patterns of cloud and
precipitation will also vary, and many dry
areas might receive even less rainfall.
Impacts on human population
Less developed countries will be less
adaptable to changes, and impacts will be
especially hard on those currently under
stress. Increased temperature may affect
health, by altering the availability of water
and changing the spread of disease.
The effects of global warming
o
C
The impact of global
warming
average temperature to
date.
The red line shows the
best estimate of
predicted temperature
rise.
4
3
2
There are, however, still plenty of CFSs in
use. These should be recovered, recycled
and reused. A domestic refrigerator contains
around 120g of CFC in coolant and 180g in
the foam insulation. If you replace your
appliance, see if shops will take your old one
for CFS recovery, and check whether new
equipment is CFC-free.
Effects of global warming
It is estimated that 0.3 – 0.6o C of global
warming has occurred in the past century. A
further 1.5 – 4.5o C is predicted by 2050, and
this will have a variety of effects, outlined
below.
1
0
1860 1900 1940 1980 2020 2060
Cm
Year
Future sea levels
The red line shows the
predicted sea level rise.
The dotted line shows
the proportion of this
that is due to thermal
expansion of the
oceans
20
16
12
8
4
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Years
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
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2)
ACID RAIN
What is acidity?
Acidity is measured on the pH scale. This runs
from pH 0, the most acid, to pH 14, the most
alkaline. PH 7 is neutral, i.e. neither acid nor
alkaline. The pH scale is logarithmic; pH 4 is 10
times more acid than pH 5. Some everyday
comparisons include lemon juice (pH 2.3), vinegar
(pH 3.3) and baking soda (pH 8.2).
Even in the cleanest air rainfall is acidic, with a pH
around 5. As water falls through the atmosphere it
dissolves a small amount of carbon dioxide and
forms a weak carbonic acid.
Dry acid gases, or even particular matter to
which they are attached, are also deposited
on the earth’s surface, in a process called
dry deposition.
The collective name for all the processes,
wet and dry, which result in the transport of
acid materials from the atmosphere to the
surface of the earth is acid deposition.
What is acid rain?
The acidification process
When the atmosphere contains oxides of sulphur
and nitrogen, they too will dissolve in the falling
rain and its acidity will rise.
Industry and transport emit pollutants such
as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, both
of which are acidic. These oxides may be
deposited as gases, or fall from the
atmosphere attached to particles. This is dry
deposition, and it usually occurs close to the
pollution source.
Formation and deposition of acid
rain
Chemical conversion
SO2
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
NOx
NO2
SO2
Dry deposition
Wet deposition
Alternatively, the oxides may have contact
with water in the atmosphere and be
converted into sulphuric and nitric acids.
These become dissolved in cloud and fall as
precipitation (rain, snow, hail, mist or fog).
This is wet deposition, the effects of which
may occur thousands of miles from the
source of the pollution
Acid gases
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Nearly all fossil fuels (for example oil, coal
and gas) contain sulphur. When these fuels
are burnt, sulphur is released which
combines with oxygen to form sulphur
dioxide.
Coal-fired power stations account for over
70% of UK emissions. In one day of full
production, a 2000 MW coal-fired power
station emits around 400 tonnes of SO2
(equivalent to 600 tonnes of sulphuric acid).
Other sources include industrial boilers and
coal-burning processes such as smelting.
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
Page 6
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
What can I do to help?
Nitric oxides (NO), nitrous oxide (N20) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are usually grouped under
the collective term of nitrogen oxides (NOx).
These are formed in all types of combustion when
air is heated to more than 650o C.
Road transport is the largest single contributor to
NOx in the UK (51%). There are currently 24
million vehicles in the UK, and this figure is
expected to rise to over 50 million by 2025. Power
stations and industry are the next most significant
contributors.
Movement of Pollutants
The time-lag between the emission of pollutants
and the falling of acid rain means that the wind
plays a vital role in dictating where the acid
compounds are actually deposited.
In Europe the prevailing wind direction is south
westerly. Pollutants from the UK and western
Europe are therefore frequently carried into central
and northern Europe before falling as acid rain.
Neutralisation of acidification
Rain normally has a pH of 5. This will not usually
acidify soils and surface waters with a natural
buffering capacity, i.e. an ability to resist change
and neutralise the acid. This gives some protection
to lakes in lime-rich areas which receive
neutralising compounds from the surrounding soil
and rock, but lakes and soils which lack a suitable
buffer will become acidified. There is a
predominance of these features in Scandinavia,
which is also where a large proportion of European
pollution is blown by the wind, hence the severe
problems of acidification in the area
 Save energy at home and at work
(this will lower power station
emissions, fossil fuel consumption
and your costs)
 Minimise car use (consider public
transport or self-propulsion)
 Allow catalytic converters to warm
up before going at speed (these
convert NOx into less harmful
compounds)
 Ensure your car is properly tuned,
regularly serviced and the tyres are
correctly inflated. 50% of road
pollution is caused by only 10% of
vehicles
The effects of acid deposition on
freshwater ecosystems
pH 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0
6.0
Crayfish and shrimps
5.7
Snails and sensitive ephemerid larvae
5.5
Minnows, salmon, roach
5.1
Trout
4.8
Many ephemerids and other
small animals
Perch,
pike
4.4
Hardy insects
Effects of acid rain
When lakes become acidified, they suffer a
decrease in the number of plant and animal species.
Acid rain also causes damage to materials, for
example structures such as the Parthenon, the
Colosseum and, in the UK, many cathedrals
Bog moss proliferate
Tolerance of acidity by selected
freshwater aquatic species
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
Page 7
3)
OZONE
What is acidity?
Ozone is a gas which occurs naturally in the
atmosphere. It is a form of oxygen, each molecule
of which consists of 3 oxygen atoms (O3).
Ozone is especially important in the upper
atmosphere because it forms a protective layer
which filters out potentially harmful rays from the
sun. This is known as the ozone layer.
The process requires still sunny weather, but
even so, it is becoming a problem in the UK!
It results in a blue/brown haze in the
atmosphere and can lead to damage to
plants, irritation of the eyes and notes and
can aggravate breathing difficulties
Low-level ozone
Photochemical pollutants
In the lower parts of the atmosphere (troposphere)
ozone is a damaging pollutant. It is formed by the
action of sunlight on pollutants emitted from
vehicles and industry, for example nitrogen oxides
and volatile organic compounds. This process is
known as a photochemical reaction (it requires
light) and the ozone that it creates is a major
contributor to photochemical smog.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are
major contributors to photochemical smog.
They are released from many sources,
including:
 solvents, for example paints and inks
Tropospheric ozone
(in the lower atmosphere)
Sunlight
Ozone (O3)
 petrol, from storage, distribution and
motor vehicles
In Europe, around 35% of VOCs are due to
road transport, and 30% due to solvent use.
VOCs are a cause of other concerns as well,
as some are toxic and cancer-causing, some
contribute to high-level (stratospheric)
ozone depletion, and most contribute to
global warming.
The other major component of low-level
ozone build up, nitrogen oxides, are detailed
on Factsheet 1, Global Warming.
Photochemical pollutants
Photochemical smog
formation
Pollutants
(hydrocarbons
oxides of nitrogen,
carbon monoxide)
Ground-level ozone (O3)
The ozone present in the stratosphere forms
the ozone layer. This is important to
mankind as it absorbs ultra-violet radiation
that is emitted from the sun.
In the spring around 60% of the ozone over
Antarctica is destroyed. This is commonly
known as the ‘hole’ in the ozone layer; the
depletion is due to the unusual climatic
conditions in the area, and has now spread to
the edge of Latin America and the Falkland
Islands. Those living in such areas will
therefore suffer from increased exposure to
ultra-violet radiation.
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
Page 8
Ozone-depleting chemicals
Ozone depletion is attributed to a range of
chemicals which contain chlorine and/or bromine,
both of which destroy ozone molecules in the
stratosphere.
Most important are chlorofluorcarbons (CFSs).
These are very stable gases which are eventually
transported into the stratosphere. Here they are
broken down by radiation from the sun, releasing
chlorine which reacts with ozone and destroys it.
The chlorine itself is not destroyed, and just one
chlorine atom can destroy up to 100,000 ozone
molecules.
Other ozone depleters include halons, carbon
tetrachloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The
potential of a given substance to deplete ozone is
expressed as the ozone depletion potential (ODP).
The higher the ODP, the more destructive the
compound.
Hydrochlorofluorcarbons (HCFCs) have been
introduced as temporary replacements for CFCs.
They still deplete ozone, but to a much lesser extent
than CFCs. Typically a quantity of HCFC would
have an ozone depletion potential of 2-10% of one
of the main CFCs.
Hydrofluorocarbons are similar to HCFCs, but they
do not contain chlorine and therefore do not deplete
ozone. However, they still contribute to the
enhancement of the greenhouse effect.
Scientists believe that a 1% reduction in
ozone can lead to a 1-2% increase in ultraviolet radiation and a potential 2-4%
increase in skin cancer. Plant cells and
aquatic life may be damaged. This has
implications for the whole food chain.
What can I do to help?
 Recover, recycle and reuse CFCs.
When replacing refrigeration
equipment, see if suppliers will take
your old appliances and arrange for
the CFCs to be recovered.
 Check that new equipment is CFCfree
 Ask how your company has
addressed the issue
 When replacing fire extinguishers,
look at substitutes for any containing
halons. Halons should be recycled
for use in specialist processes which
cannot yet manage without them.
Ozone depletion
450
400
300
250
200
150
Mean monthly ozone levels in Dobson units
Ozone-depleting chemicals
 If the ozone layer is depleted, it cannot absorb
as many rays from the sun. This may lead to
problems for humans such as:




Skin cancer
Premature ageing of the skin
Damage to eye tissue
Reduced immunity to diseases which enter the
body through the skin
A representation of the ozone hole over the Antarctic,
based on a satellite image taken in October 1990
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
Page 9
SOCIAL
• POPULATION GROWTH 12 BILLION IN 2050 ?
• 1 / 3 OF POPULATION LIVE ON LESS THAN $1 PER
DAY
• 25 % OF POPULATION HAVE NO ACCESS TO
HEALTHCARE
• IN EUROPE TODAY LESS THAN 30 % OF POPULATION
ARE PENSIONERS. IN 2030 IT WILL BE 70 %
• SOCIAL EXCLUSION
Population growth and the “Quality of Life” of over 30% of the population is
low – unacceptable (?)
In developed world, the population is growing older, so needs/requirements
will change with time. Major opportunity for new designers!!
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
Page 10
ECONOMIC
• POVERTY
• INTERNATIONAL COMPANIES
• NORTH / SOUTH DIVIDE
• STANDARDISATION – PRODUCTS & SERVICES
• PRODUCT COSTS TO INCLUDE ENVIRONMENTAL
DAMAGE
• TAXES, LEVIES, ETC. TO CHANGE CUSTOMER
BEHAVIOUR
Poverty is seen as the major issue. It is not exclusive to the underdeveloped
countries, it happens in the UK and USA
Some major concerns regarding behaviour of financial institutions –
“uncaring” – many making money – most eminent cultures and religions saw it
as not acceptable. On the other hand it can be argued until we pay the “true”
cost of a product we will not change our behaviour.
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
Page 11
SUSTAINABILITY ASPECTS TO CONSIDER
ENVIRONMENT
•Use of Hazardous Materials
•Water usage
•Energy usage high
•Electricity usage high
•Waste generated high
•Special/Hazardous Waste
•Emissions from process –
VOC
•Discharges from process –
BOD, COD
•Generate Nuisances – noise,
dust, odour, heat
•Transport across the world
•Ability to recycle at E.O.L.
•Disposal method simple
•Global Warming potential
•Ozone-depleting substances
SOCIAL
•Health & Safety at risk
•Human rights affected
•Community impacted
•Community involvement
•Site selection
•Staff training
•Staff development
•Skills transfer
•Technology transfer
•Ease of disposal
•Nuisances
•Use of child labour (self &
suppliers
•Extent of distribution
•Transport to and from site
•Operation close to sensitivity area
•Animal testing requirements
ECONOMIC
•Raw material costs
•Manufacturing costs
•Distribution costs
•Community impact
•User costs
•Patient costs
•Levy/Taxes implication
•Economic instruments
applies
•R & D costs
•Other capital investments
•Human capital – employee
training, community
education, customer
training/education etc.
This list is not exhaustive, but covers most of the issues and concerns. Some
will be more important to you than others. Some you may never have
considered before!!
It is important at the early stage of an assessment a very wide range of issues is
considered – it increases awareness for the people involved and brings to the
surface hidden issues!
Lectures – Issues & Concerns
Page 12