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A HISTORY OF THE ARAB PEOPLES by Albert Hourani:
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PROLOGUE
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Ibn Khaldun was an Arab, Muslim scholar who travelled all over Arabia from
Spain to the Arab Peninsular departing from Tunis in 1382. He was educated in
Qur’an, Hadith and Jurisprudence [science of law and social morality].
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He wrote a history of the dynasties of the Maghrib. The first part [the
Muqaddina (Prolegomena) - still attracts attention today] tracked the rise
and fall of dynasties and civilisation from the tribal and nomadic [whom he
believed to possess a certain goodness] to the high stable urban culture. He
believed to achieve this high culture required a ruler with exclusive
authority and a corporate spirit [‘asabiyya].
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A sustainable dynasty and therefore attainable high culture requires: common
ancestry [real or fake] and ties of dependence reinforced by common religion
[he believed the energetic people of the Steppe were suitable]. A dynasty
may be weakened by tyranny or extravagance and the loss of the qualities of
command.
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He lived in Cairo, ‘metropolis of the world, garden of the universe,
meeting-place of nations, ant-hill of peoples, high place of Islam, and seat
of power’, in and out of favour of the Mamluk sultan. He travelled widely
and had conversations with Timur [was impressed] before the pillage of
Damascus.
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Ibn Khaldun’s life showed the frailty of human endeavour, the instability
of the alliances that dynasties relied on, how the rise of a new power could
affect the lives of cities and peoples. Outside the city order was
precarious. His family’s death at sea taught him man’s impotence in the
hands of fate.
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However something seemed to be stable. A family could move form Southern
Arabia to Spain and after 6 centuries return and still find itself in similar
surroundings – a unity transcending the divisions of time and space. The
Arabic language could open doors around the world; a body of learning had
been passed down a chain of teachers preserving a moral community even when
rulers changed. Mecca and Jerusalem were un-shifting poles of the human world
and belief in a God who created and sustained the world could give meaning to
the blows of fate.
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PART I – THE MAKING OF A WORLD (7th to 10th Century)
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In the early 7 C a religious movement appeared on the margins of the
Byzantines and Sasanians, which dominated the Western half of the world. In
Mecca, Muhammad began to call men and women to moral reform and submission to
the will of God as expressed in what he and his adherents accepted as divine
messages revealed to him and later embodied in a book. In the name of Islam,
armies drawn from Arabia conquered the surrounding countries and founded the
caliphate, which included much of the Byzantine Empire and all of the
Sasanians and extended from Asia to Spain. The centre of power moved from
Arabia to Damascus in Syria and then to Baghdad under the ‘Abbasids.
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By the 10 C the caliphate was breaking up and rival caliphates appeared in
Egypt and Spain but the social and cultural unity that had developed within
it remained. A lot of the population had become Muslims, although Jewish,
Christian and other communities remained; the Arabic language had spread and
became the medium of a culture which incorporated different elements from the
traditions of the Muslim world, expressing itself in literature and systems
of law, theology and spirituality. Muslim societies developed distinctive
institutions and forms, creating a single trading system from the
Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean and bringing about changes in agriculture
and craft that’s, providing the basis for the growth of great cities with
an urban civilisation expressed in buildings of a distinctive Islamic style.
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1.              A New Power in an Old World
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THE WORLD INTO WHICH THE ARABS CAME
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In the 4 C Constantinople replaced Rome as the seat of the Byzantine Empire.
The Roman Empire had shrunk and was more Greek than Roman.
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The Empire had also become Christian [by conversion at different levels not
decree]. There was a split in the Christian church, divided by differing
definitions of the nature of Christ. The division took place gently between
the Byzantine Church, the E Orthodox Church [Patriarchs as heads of its
priesthood] and the Church of W Europe [who accepted the supreme authority of
the Pope].
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Christ has two natures, the divine and the human, as was widely accepted.
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Armenians [Anatolia], Egyptian Christians [Copts], Syriac-speaking Christians
[aka Syrian Orthodox or ‘Jacobites’] believed in the Monophysite Doctrine
[Christ had only a single nature composed of 2 natures].
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Nestorians - sharper division between the 2 natures to maintain the full
humanity of Jesus and belief that the Word of God had been dwelling within
Jesus since conception – mainly found in Iraq and beyond Eastern Frontier.
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Monotheletes - Christ had 2 natures but 1 will – attempted compromise
between Orthodox and the Monophysites.
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The Sasanian Empire consisted of Iran, Iraq and C Asia. They tried to revive
the ancient religion of Iran, traditionally associated with Zoroaster
[universe as a battle ground beneath a supreme God between good and evil
spirits] in a philosophical form - Mazdaism.
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Alexander the Great helped Greek ideas move east. Moving westwards were
Mani’s from Iraq started Manichaeism, which tried to incorporate all the
prophets, teachers and teachings into a single religious system. Again based
on the idea of a battle between good and evil as opposed to an all powerful
monotheistic god.
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Persian was widespread, as was Aramaic, a Semitic language related to Hebrew
and Arabic.
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Around the Red Sea there was also the kingdom of Yemen [many gods] and
Ethiopia [Coptic].
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In between the empires were the Bedouins, whose Gods existed in nature.
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From 540-629 the Romans and the Sasanians [reached Jerusalem, Antioch,
Alexandria, and South West Arabia] were engaged in long wars.
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The Arab world was a world of tribal chiefs maintaining stability in oases
and spreading knowledge of the outside world to Arab culture.
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THE LANGUAGE OF POETRY
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The common Arab language came from the poetry of dialects or qasidas
[standardised poems].
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MUHAMMAD AND THE APPEARANCE OF ISLAM
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Muhammad was born in 570 [to Quraysh tribe – traders]. He had a wife who
died before him, Kadija. He was a wanderer/trader seeking a vocation until
the Night of Power or Destiny in his 40s. An angel appeared to him and whom
began to communicate messages from God. God would judge all; God’s will:
show gratitude by prayer and other observances and by benevolence and sexual
restraint – as his belief developed he attacked idols of God and supported
regular communal prayer. He placed himself more explicitly in line with the
tradition of Jewish and Christian Prophets.
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By 622 Muhammad’s life was too difficult in Mecca and he went to the oasis
Yathrib [now Medina]. This was called the hijra [now means: leaving a wicked
place to one where you can live by the laws of Islam].
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Initially he and his followers taught haram – settlement of two cultures,
living in peace, disputes judged by God and Muhammad, alliance would act
together against peace breakers. Muhammad was drawn into fight against the
Quraysh [possibly trade dispute] and they came to believe it was necessary to
fight for what was right.
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As the teaching became more universal:
        It set itself against Jews and Christians – Muhammad fell out
with the Jews in Medina.
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Muhammad as directly descended from Abraham [he founded a
sanctuary in Mecca and is now also common to Jews and Christians] was
emphasised.
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Mecca surrendered to Muhammad with minimal resistance in 630. He abolished
claim of privilege, blood and property.
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He used political manipulation even marriages.
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He made his last visit to Mecca in 632: ‘Brotherhood of Muslims – no infighting’, he said, ‘he would fight until all men should confess “there
is no God but God―’ and then died. The legacy of his personality and of
the Qur’an [familiar world made anew], grew in confidence and was passed
down.
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NB as a man Muhammad was God’s “arbiter―.
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2.              The Formation of an Empire
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THE SUCCESSION TO MUHAMMAD: THE CONQUEST OF AN EMPIRE
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Muhammad had sent military leaders and emissaries to spread the message.
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There was no natural replacement to Muhammad. this caused in fighting between
‘Companions’ [as in Companions of the Prophet – early and devoted
followers], Mecca notables and Medina notables.
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THE CALIPHATE OF DAMASCUS
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[Umayyad – a vast and heterogeneous empire]
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The Arabic empire expanded throughout the 690s. The Masjid [first mosques]
were communal buildings. The building of the Dome of the Rock asserted that
Islam was distinct and would endure.
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There remained disputes over the caliphate. Some believed in rule by virtue
[Basra], others believed in the family of the prophet. Umayyad power was
weakened through the 740s, an army gathered and the Umayyads were defeated.
There were various claimants to authority and by 750s the Abbas [another
branch of the family of Muhammad] had taken control.
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THE CALIPHATE OF BAGHDAD
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[Abbasids]
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The Abbasids ruled with “splendour and ceremony―, keeping the rulers
separate from the ruled. The rulers required moral and Islamic legitimacy and
a loyal army [which was a problem]. Islamic law and social norms were
established.
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The Shi’i were another branch of the prophet’s family. Sunnism [from
sunna – practise of the prophet] was the belief in the Unity and importance
of the Qur’an and sunna. Sunnism arose out of resistance to the ruler while
Shi’ism is based on the legitimacy of rulers belonging to the family of the
prophet.
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3.              The Formation of a Society
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THE END OF POLITICAL UNITY
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Eventually local dynasties arose during Abbasid rule and splintered. Some
believed Mohammad would return as the Mahdi to reveal the inner truth of the
Qur’an. The Fatimids [caliphs and imams – sent many missionaries and
forged connections] also came to power centred on the Nile valley.
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A UNIFIED SOCIETY: THE ECONOMIC BASES
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Although there were many dynasties there was one Muslim Empire. Trade
flourished. More and more people were converted to Islam.
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UNITY OF FAITH AND LANGUAGE
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Arabic spread with Islam. A body of literature developed. A mass of
narratives formed (up to 900s): collections of hadiths [record of Prophet’s
behaviour and words]; biographies of the Prophet; collections of lives of the
transmitters of the Hadith; works of narrative history.
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THE ISLAMIC WORLD
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By C10 there were in the Islamic world: mosques and shrines and palaces and
other splendour buildings. Also common to the Muslim world were the 5 daily
prayers, the weekly sermons, Ramadan, the pilgrimage to Mecca and the Muslim
calendar. There was also a widespread identity. Other religions existed
within the world of Islam.
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4.              The Articulation of Islam
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THE QUESITON OF AUTHORITY
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Iraq was where Christianity, Judaism, Nestorians and religions of Iran and
Islam all met and religious science and practise was developed through
movements of thought.
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Originally peace and unity was important to the Sunnis and therefore they
accepted the Caliphs. The Caliph was a human leader who should be descended
from the Quraysh tribe.
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Ibadis [challenged the legitimacy of the caliph] was based on the principle
that anybody could be an imam as long as they were just.
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Shi’i believed in various successors and in infallible imams.
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Zaydis believed in a line of imams that would be perpetually renewed.
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THE POWER AND JUSTICE OF GOD
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The question of God’s relation to the Qur’an and humanity:
How can you sign attributes such as speech to Allah?
Monotheism: if God is all powerful how can he permit evil and how can He
justly condemn men?
If man is free to act and be judged, how can God be all powerful?
Is God free to act and be judged?
From these questions arose a reason and logic of doctrine.
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The Sunnis were sceptical of reason in answer to these questions and believed
that God judges in mysterious ways. Sunnis were required to be faithful and
carry out good acts.
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Shi’is were rationalist and believed that only faith was required.
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THE SHARI€™A
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The Pillars of Islam were established from the Qur’an:
1.   the oral testimony: there is no god but god and Muhammad is the
Prophet of God.
2.   ritual prayer [x5]
3.   give a proportion of your income to charity
4.   Ramadan
5.   Hajj
6.   Jihad [to strive in the way of God – or wider meaning to fight to
extend the bounds of Islam].
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The practise of Islam is interpreted from the Qur’an, the sunna and the
Hadiths and also from community opinion.
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Ideas would be formulated and become part of accepted practise via scholars
[ulma]. The Ulma were effectively separate from the rulers’ interests and
caprice of popular feeling.
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THE TRADITIONS OF THE PROPHET
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Hadith scholars traced the writing back to the Prophet [C9] and the
Companions of the Prophet. Hadiths contained events and how these events had
been passed down.
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THE PATH OF THE MYSTICS
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Muhammad: “No monasticism in Islam―. Sufism was persecuted. Sufism was
about meditation and getting close to God, being removed from one’s own
existence and filled with God [transcendent].
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THE PATH OF REASON
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Greek philosophy was translated into Arabic. This was difficult to reconcile
with Islam. Philosophy = truth and can be understood by intellect and
imagination.
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PART II – ARAB MUSLIM SOCIETIES (11th to 15th Century)
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The five centuries that form the subject of this part were a period during
which the world of Islam was divided in some respects but preserved its unity
in others. The frontiers of the Muslim world changes: it expanded in Anatolia
and India but lost in Spain to Christian Kingdoms. Within these frontiers, a
division appeared between those areas where Arabic was the main language of
life and culture , and those where it continued to be the principal language
of religious and legal writing but the revived Persian language became the
main medium of secular culture. A third ethnic and linguistic group became
important, the Turks, who formed the ruling elite in much of the eastern part
of the Muslim world. Within
caliphate continued to exist in
broad political division emerged
linked with Iran; Egypt, which
the Maghrib
the Arabic speaking regions, the Abbasid
Baghdad until the thirteenth century, but a
between three areas: Iraq, which was usually
usually ruled Syria and western Arabia; and
with its various parts.
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In spite of political divisions and changes, however, the Arabic-speaking
parts of the Muslim world had social and cultural forms which were relatively
stable during this period, and showed similarities from one region to
another. This part explores the worlds of townspeople, peasants and nomadic
pastoralists and the links between them, and shows how there grew up an
alliance of interests between the dominant elements of the urban population
and the rulers, whose power was justified by a number of ideas of authority.
At the heart of the high culture of the cities lay the tradition of religious
and legal learning, transmitted in special institutions, the madrassas.
Linked with it were other traditions of secular literature, philosophical and
scientific thought, and mystical speculation transmitted by Sufi
brotherhoods, which played an important role in integrating...
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