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Қазақстан Республикасының Білім және Ғылым Министрлігі Семей қаласының Шәкәрім атындағы Мемлекеттік Университеті СМК 3 деңгейдегі құжат ПОӘК ПОӘК 04–18-17.1.29/01-2015 ПОӘК 11 маусым 2015 ж. « Ғылыми-техникалық Басылым №1 аударма » оқу-әдістемелік кешені ПӘННІҢ ОҚУ - ӘДІСТЕМЕЛІК КЕШЕНІ 5В020700 «Аударма ісі» мамандығына арналған «Ғылыми-техникалық аударма» ОҚУ - ӘДІСТЕМЕЛІК МАТЕРИАЛДАР Семей 2015 ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым МАЗМҰНЫ 1. Глоссарий 2. Практикалық сабақтар 3. Курстық жұмыс (проект) 4. Студенттің өздік жұмысы 18 беттің 2- сі ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 1 Глоссарий Definition – анықтама Word meaning – сөз мағынасы direct meaning of the word – сөздің тура мағынасы denotative meaning of the word – сөздің денотативті мағынасы connotative meaning of the word – сөздің коннотативті мағынасы contextual meaning of the word – контекстік мағына morpheme – морфема morphemic structure of the word – сөздің морфемалық құрылымы semasiology - семасиология semantic component – семантикалық компонент special lexicology – арнайы лексикология general lexicology – жалпы лексикология contrastive lexicology – салғастырмалы лексикология comparative lexicology – салыстырмалы лексикология lexical valency – лексикалық валенттілік paradigm - парадигма paradigmatic relation – парадигмалық байланыс syntagmatic relation – синагмалық байланыс affix – аффикс suffix – жұрнақ prefix – префикс infix- инфикс derivational affixes – сөз тудурушы аффикс functional affixes – сөз түрлендіруші аффикс root morpheme – түбір морфема stem – негіз native words – ағылшын тілінің төл сөздері borrowed words – кірме сөздер word formation – сөз жасам word composition – сөздерді біріктіру conversion – конверсия back formation – кері сөз тәртібі litotes - литота euphemism - эвфемизм irony - ирония hyperbole - гипербола metaphor - метафора metonymy – метонимия synecdoche - синекдоха homonym – омоним synonym - синоним antonym - антоним polysemantic – көп мағыналы connotation – коннотация lexico-grammatical variant – лексико-грамматикалық вариант idiom - идиома cliche - клише familiar quotations – қанатты сөздер proverbs – мақалдар the deterninant –айқындалушы 18 беттің 3- сі ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым the determinatum- айқындаушы synonymic dominant – синонимдік доминант learned words – кітаби сөздер informal vocabulary – бейформальді лексика functional style – функционалді стиль poetic style – поэтикалық стиль Indo-European origin – шығу тегі Үнді-европалық Common Germanic – шығу тегі жалпы германдық compound word – кұрделі сөздер set expressions – тұрақты тіркестер phraseological units – фразеологиялық бірліктер phraseological fusions – фразеологиялық тұтастық phraseological combinations – фразеологиялық тіркестер semantic change of words – сөз мағынасының семантикалық тұрғыдан өзгеруі miner types of word formation – сөз жасамның өнімсіз тәсілдері shortening –Қысқарған сөздер abbreviation – аббревиатура semantic triangle – семантикалық үшбұрыш free forms – еркін тұлғалар bound forms – байлаулы тұлғалар sound imitation – еліктеуіш сқздер Genaralization of word meaning – сөз мағынасының кеңеюі specialization of word meaning – сөз мағынасының тарылуы lexical unit – лексикалық бірлік Affixation - аффиксация functional change –сөз мағынасының қызмет бірлігі бойынша адмасуы taboo – табу non-productive suffixs – өнімсіз жұрнақтар productive suffixes – өнімді жұрнақтар inversion – инверсия lexicography – лексикография synchronic –синхрондық diachronic –диахрониялық inflection – флексия paronyms – пароним contextual synonyms – контекстік синонимдер stylistic synonyms – стильдік синонимдер ideographical synonyms – идиографиялық синонимдер Linguistic –тілдік Extralinguistic –тілден тысқары archaic words - архаизм dialects - диалект word stock – сөздік қор stylistically colored words – стильдік бояулы сөздер irony - ирония simile – сравнение, теңеу slang - слэнг explanatory dictionary – түсіндірме сөздік dictionaries of word-frequency – жиілік сөздігі specialized dictionary- арнайы сөздік phraseological dictionary – фразеологиялық сөздік 18 беттің 4- сі ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 5- сі syntagmatic level – синтагмалық деңгей paradigmatic level – парадигмалық деңгей historical etymology – тприхи этимология folk etymology – халық этимологиясы onomasiology - ономасиология etymological dictionary – этимологиялық сөздік linguistic dictionaries – лингвистикалық сөздік Neologisms –неологизмдер Vulgarisms –варваризмдер encyclopedic dictionary – энциклопедиялық сөздік semantic integrity – семантикалық тұтастық indivisibility – бөлінбейтін ready-made units – даяр қалпында қолдану word equivalent – сөзге эквивалентті Standard English – стандаррты ағылшын тілі American English- американ ағылшын тілі semantic field – мемантикалық өріс sound – дыбыс phoneme –фонема consonant phoneme –дауыссыз фонема vowel phoneme – дауысты фонема The principles of vowel classification –дауыстыларды жіктеу принциптері The principles consonant classification - дауыссыздарды жіктеу принциптері articulatory system – артикуляторлық жүйе Phonemic component - фонемалық компонент Syllabic component - буын компоненті Accentual component – екпін компоненті Intonation component - интонациялық компонент Articulation basis - артикуляторлық база Syllabic structure –буын құрылымы Syllabic and non-syllabic phonemes– буын жасауға қабілетті және буын жасауға қабілетсіз фонемалар An open syllable – ашық буын A closed syllable –тұйық буын Syllable formation –буын жасау Syllable division – буынға бөлу phonetic syllable – фонетикалық буын orfhographic syllable –орфографиялық буын Modification of phonemes – дыбыстардың алмасуы Word accent –сөз екпіні Degrees of word accent – сөз екпінінің деңгейлері Place of word stress –сөз екпінінің орны Intonation structure –интонациялық құрылым Functions of intonation structure - интонациялық құрылымның қызметі Constitutive function – құрылымдық қызметі Distinctive function - айырымдық қызметі recognitive function –рекогнитивтік қызмет Pronunciation – айтылуы accomodation – дыбыстардың бір-бірінің әсерінен өзгеруі acoustic – акустикалық adaptation –адаптация ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым adjacent sounds – жанасқан дыбыстар affricate –шұғыл-ызың дауыссыз allophone – дыбыстың айтылу варианты alveolar – альвеолярлық aspirate – леппен айту aspiration – леп ssimilation – үндесу back advanced –– ауыз қуысының артынан ортасына қарай жылжуы backlingual –тіл арты bilabial – еріндік cavity – қуыс cluster of consonants –дауыссыздырдың жинақталуы Cockney pronunciation – шығыс Лондондағы жергідікті сөйлеу мәнері collocation –сөз тіркесі colloquial style – ауызекі сөйлеу тілі constrictive – ызың contextual assimilation – контекстегі дыбыстардың үндесуі dental – тістік devoicing – ұяң дауыссыздардың қатаңдануы disyllabic – екібуынды elision – дыбыстардың тұсіп қалуы exhalation – демді шығару expiratory – дем шығару forelingual – тіл алды fortis – қарқынды дыбыс glottal – көмейлік hard palate –қатты таңдай incomplete plosion – шұғылдықтың жоғалуы inhale – дем алу inspire – дем алу inspiration – дем алу interdental – тіс аралық intermediate – орталық labial – еріндік labio-dental – тіс пен еріндік laryngal – көмейлік larynx – көмей lateral – бүйір lax – әлсіз lenis – әлсіз дыбыс long parentheses – ұзын қыстырмалар manner of production – дауыссыздардың жасалуы monosyllabic – бір буынды mouth cavity – ауыз қуысы nasal cavity – мұрын қуысы nostrils – мұрын жолы nucleus – ядро obstruction – кедергі occlusive – шұғыл occurrence – қолданылу off-glide – дыбыс жаңғырығы 18 беттің 6- сі ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым on-glide- үндесу palatalization – жауыссыздардың жұмсаруы pitch –негізгі тонның биіктігі place of obstruction –кедергінің жасалу орны place of articulation – дауыстың жасалу орны plosive – шұғыл дауыссыз prominence – ерекшелену rapid style – тез сөйлеу мәнері received pronunciation – жалпы қабылданған айтылым recessive tendency – рецессивті тенденция reciprocal assimilation – екі жақты үндестік reduction – қысаңдану retracted position – тілдің созылыңқы түрі rhyme – рифма rhythm – ырғақ sonority – үнділік syllabic – буындық tempo of speech – сөйлеу жылмамдығы tense – тартылған, қысымыды unvoiced sounds – қатаң дауыссыз utterance – сөйлем uvula – таңдай тілшігі velar – таңдай арты vocal chords – дыбыс желбезегі voiced – ұяң voiceless – қатаң windpipe – кеңірдек word stress – сөз екпіні X-ray photography – рентген Adjective - сын есім Adverb of manner- қимыл-сын үстеуі Adverbial clause of cause- сабақтас сөйлем Adverbial clause of time- мезгіл бағыныңқылы сабақтас сөйлем Adverbial modifier of place- мекен пысықтауыш Adverbial modifier of time- мезгіл пысықтауыш Affirmative- хабарлы сөйлем Appendix- қосымша Appropriate- сәйкес селетін Aspect- түр Attributive clause- анықтауыш мәнді сабақтас сөйлем Auxilary verb- көмекші есімдік Blanks- бос орын Borrow- өзге тілден сөз қабылдау Brackets- жақша Case- септік Class noun- жалпы зат есім Collective noun- жинақтық зат есім Colloquial- ауыз екі сөйлеу тілі Common noun- жалпы есім Comparative-салыстырмалы Compare- салыстыру 18 беттің 7- сі ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым Complete- аяқтау Completed action- аяқталған іс-қимыл Compound- кұрделі сөз Condition- шарт Conditional sentence- шартты сөйлем Conjunction- жалғау Connecting adverb- жалғаулықты үстеу Consequence – салдар Consonant- дауыссыз Correct- дұрыс Corresponding- сәйкес келетін Countable noun- санауға келмейтін Customary action- әдеттегі іс-қимыл Defining- айқындаушы Degree- деңгей Degrees of comparison- салыстыру шырайлары Demonstrative- сілтеу Denote- білдіру Derivative- туынды Direct speech- төл сөз Ending- жалғау Example- мысал Express- білдіру Expression- сөз тіркесі Extend- жалғастыру Feminine- әйел тегі Fiction- көркем әдебиет Formation- жасалу Future- келер шақ General question- жалпы сұрақ Habitual- әдеттегі Imply- білдіру Indefinite- белгісіздік Indirect speech- төлеу сөз Insert- кіріктіру Italic type- курсивті жазу Interrogative –сұраулы Intransitive verb- салт етістік Introduce- енгізу Inversion- кері сөз тәртібі Irregular verb- бұрыс етістік Join- біріктіру Limited- шекткулі Masculine- ер тегі Meaning- мағына Measure- өлшем Mind- назар аудару Missing- й, түсіп қалған Negative- қарсылықты Negative sentence- қарсылықты сөйлемNominative case- атау септік 18 беттің 8- сі ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым Noun- зат есім Number- сан Object clause- толықтауыш мәнді сабақтас сөйлем Objective pronouns- табыс септігіндегі есімдік Observe - байқау, қадағалау Omit- түсіріп тастау Opinion- пікір Order- бұйрық Particle- демеулік Passive voice- ырықсыз етіс Past- өткен Pattern- үлгі Pecularity- ерекшелік Permanent action- факт, тұрақты іс-қимыл Person- жақ Persona l- жіктеу есімдігі Plural-, көптік тұлғада тұрған Positive sentence- хабарлы сөйлем Possessive- ілік септігі Posterior- кейін келген Prepositional object- жанама толықтауыш Previous- алдынанг келген Principal clause- салалас сөйлем Prior- алдынан келген Proceed- алдынан келу Productive- өнімді Pronoun- есімдік Proper noun- жалқы есім Quantity- сан Question- сұрақ Real condition- шынайы жағдай Reciprocal- өзара Reflexive- өздік Relations- өзара қарым қатынас Render- білдіру Repeated action- қайталанып келген іс-қимыл Replace- алмастыру Reported speech- төлеу сөз Request- өтініш Required- талап етілген Reword- басқаша айту Right- дұрыс Rule- ереже Sequence of tenses- шақтар сәйкестігі Simultaneous- бір мезгілде Singular- жекеше түрде Special question- арнайы сұрақ State- жағдай Stem- түбір Subject- бастауыш Subordinate clause- сабақтас сөйлем 18 беттің 9- сі ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 10- сі Substitute- алмастыру Syllable- буын Uncountable noun- саналмайтын зат есім Unproductive- өнімсіз Unreal condition- шынайы емес Viewpoint adverb- көзқарасты білдіретін үстеу 2 Практикалық сабақтар 1. Аударманың түрлері. Ғылыми техникалық ақпараттарды аудару. Ғылыми техникалық ақпараттардың негізгі әдебиеттері. Ғылыми техникалық аударманың актуальды мәселелері. Phonology (Greek phonē = voice/sound and logos = word/speech), is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sound system of a specific language (or languages). Whereas phonetics is about the physical production and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages. An important part of phonology is studying which sounds are distinctive units within a language. Phonology studies how sounds alternate and topics such as syllable structure, stress, accent, and intonation. Objectives: - Phonemes, phone and allophones - Minimal Pairs - Phonotactics - Syllables Phonology helps us consistently recognize the different versions of a word, e.g. “me” as the form [mi], and not [ni], [si], [ma], [mo]. An important part of phonology is studying which sounds are distinctive units within a language. - The smallest unit by which one can distinguish one word from another (meaning-distinguishing units in a language). - A phoneme is a basic unit of a phonology, which is combined with other phonemes to form meaningful units such as words or morphemes. - A set of speech sounds that are identified by a native speaker as the same sound e.g. tar star eight writer We might think of these as being the ‘same’, but actually they are pronounced quite differen tly. However, in the phonology of English, they would be represented in the same way /t/. These articulation differences are important, but the distinction between [t] and, for example [b], and [f] are more important because they distinguish meanings of words such as tar, bar, far. PHONES: general term for speech sounds. ALLOPHONES: the different speech sounds of a phoneme are called allophones. Let’s look at some examples of phonemes and allophones. [ph] and [p] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/ in English: /p/ phoneme h [p ] [p] allophones ‘paper’ ‘spill’ The ‘p’ in ‘paper’ is normally pronounced with aspiration. The ‘p’ in ‘spill’ is normally not aspir ated. A minimal pair is a pair of words that: - have different meanings - are pronounced the same except for one sound Examples: [teɪk] vs. [teɪp] "take" vs. "tape“ [tim] vs. [dim] "team" vs. "deem“ Phonotactics is the permitted arrangement of sounds. big, rig, fig, dig, wig, lig, vig How do we know that ‘lig’ and ‘vig’ could be viewed as possible words in English? Our phonological knowledge of the pattern of sounds in English words. ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 11- сі A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. In the commonly used graphic representation of the syllabic structure of words and wordforms every vowel sound is represented by the capital letter V and every non-syllabic consonant sound by the capital letter C. Phonemic syllables: [‘mei-kә], [‘ei-ljәn] Orthographic syllable: Mak-er, Rang-ing, Do-ing There are two functions of syllable: The first is constitutive function. It lies in its ability to be a part of a word itself. The syllables form language units of greater magnitude that is words, morphemes, and utterances. The other function is distinctive one. In this respect the syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word-forms. It can be illustrated by many examples: an aim - a name; an ice house - a nice house, etc. Sometimes the difference in syllable division may be the basic ground for differentiation in such pairs as I saw her rise.- I saw her eyes; I saw the meat — I saw them eat. Stress is the extra muscular activity or force that is exerted on either the syllable of a word or the entire word. It is not every word of a sentence that is stressed in the English language. Those words or syllables of a word that are stressed are usually more prominent than others. Generally, nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and relative pronouns are stressed in a sentence. Personal pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and articles on the other hand are not stressed. It should be noted that, when we stress the syllable of a word, or the entire word we perceived that the syllable or the word is louder and longer compared to the unstressed word or syllable around it. There are three different types of stress in English which can be assigned to either disyllabic or multisyllabic words. 1. PRIMARY OR NUCLEAR STRESS. This is marked by a high upright line placed on the syllable that is considered louder and longer than the others. 2. SECONDARY STRESS. This is marked by a low upright line on the next syllable that we consider equally loud and long but not as loud and long as the one that attracts the primary stress. 3. TERTIARY STRESS. This is assigned to less prominent syllables or words. Example: ,eco’nomic ,responsi’bility In the two words above, the secondary stress comes in the first syllable, whi le the primary or main stress for economic comes in the second syllable from the left. That of responsibility comes in the third syllable from the right. We have different methods of stress assignment on disyllabic and multisyllabic words. Generally, disyllabic nouns are stressed on the first syllable while disyllabic verbs are stressed on the last syllable. e.g. Disyllable nouns Disyllable verbs ‘master at’tend ‘teacher be’lieve ‘creator re’turn ‘painter a’buse ‘prayer be‘have Note that disyllabic adjectives and adverbs may be stressed either at the first or last syllable. Multisyllabic words may be stressed on any syllable. We shall consider some simple rules for stress placement based on word endings (suffixes). ‘ate’ stress the first syllable if the word has three or more syllables. Example: CALculate DEMonstrate MOtivate PENetrate OPerate ‘-ic’ stress the second syllable from the end if a word has three or four syllables. Example: idioMATic ecoNOmic optiMIStic draMAtic humanIStic hisTORic phoNETics ‘-cal’ stress the third syllable from the end if the word has four or five syllables. ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 12- сі Example: demoCRAtical geoMETrical ecoNOMical hisTORical poLITical ilLOgical ‘-ure’ stress the second syllable from the end if the word has three or four syllables. Example: admixture adVENture ‘-ion’ stress the second syllable from the end if the word has four or five syllables. Example: satisFACtion exeCUtion elimiNAtion ‘-ation’ stress the second syllable from the end. Example: adminisTRAtion confedeRAtion consideRAtion co-opeRAtion ‘-ism’ Stress the first syllable (initial stress) Example: Nationalism MECHanism COMmunism ‘-able’ stress the first syllable from the beginning if the word has four or five syllables. Example: COMfortable EXEcutable REAsonable CREditable Ұсынылатын әдебиеттер: 1 Launching into oil well drilling: учебное пособие по научно-техническому переводу. Шаповалова Т.Р. – Южно-Сахалинск: Изд-во СахГУ, 2012 – 196 с. 2 Английский язык: Сборник научно-технических текстов на английском языке. Никонова И.В. – Новосибирск: СГГА, 2012 – 76 с. 3 Климзо Б.Н. Ремесло технического переводчика – Москва, Р-Валент, 2006. 2. Ғылыми техникалық аудармадағы грамматикалық ерекшеліктер. Артикль. Зат есім. Сын есім, үстеу, предлог, шылау, сан есім. Етістік, етістіктің жақсыз түрлері. The term “lexicology” is of Greek origin ( from “lexis” – “word” and ‘logos” - “science”). Lexicology is the part of linguistics which deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features of words and wordgroups. Lexicology can study the development of the vocabulary, the origin of words and word-groups, their semantic relations and the development of their sound form and meaning. Phraseology is the branch of lexicology specializing in word-groups. Those are characterized by stability of structure and transferred meaning. The word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic unity. The internal structure of the word or its meaning, nowadays commonly referred to as the word’s semantic structure. This is certainly the word’s main aspect. The area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word is called semantics. Semantics is the study of meaning. There are two principal approaches in linguistic science to the study of language material, namely the synchronic (Gr. syn — ‘together, with’ and chronos — ‘time’) and the diachronic (Gr. dia — ‘through’) approach. With regard to Special Lexicology the synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a given time, for instance, at the present time. It is special Desсriptive Lexicology that deals with the vocabulary and vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time. The diachronic approach in terms of Special Lexicology deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time. It is special Historical Lexicology that deals with the evolution of the vocabulary units of a language as time goes by. An English Historical Lexicology would be concerned, therefore, with the origin of English vocabulary units, their change and development, the linguistic factors modifying their structure, meaning and usage within the history of the English language. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful language unit. Morphemes are subdivided into roots and affixes. The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of a word and a common part of a word-building cluster. Affixes are classified into prefixes, suffixes and infixes. An affix usually is a morpheme that cannot stand alone. According to their function and meaning affixational morphemes are subdivided into: grammatical affixes, serving to form new grammatical forms of the same word and derivational, building new words. Structurally morphemes fall into free and bound. Free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word without another morpheme. It does not need anything attached to it to make a word. Cat is a free morpheme. Bound morpheme: a sound or a combination of sounds that cannot stand alone as a word. The s in cats is a bound morpheme, and it does not have any meaning without the free morpheme cat. Bound morphemes can be further classified as derivational or inflectional. Inflectional ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 13- сі morpheme: this morpheme can only be a suffix. The s in cats is an inflectional morpheme. An inflectional morpheme creates a change in the function of the word. Example: the d in invited indicates past tense. English has only seven inflectional morphemes: -s (plural) and -s (possessive) are noun inflections; -s ( 3rd-person singular), -ed ( past tense), -en (past participle), and -ing ( present participle) are verb inflections; -er (comparative) and -est (superlative) are adjective and adverb inflections. Derivational morpheme: this type of morpheme changes the meaning of the word or the part of speech or both. Derivational morphemes often create new words. Example: the prefix and derivational morpheme un added to invited changes the meaning of the word. Allomorphs: different phonetic forms or variations of a morpheme. Example: The final morphemes in the following words are pronounced differently, but they all indicate plurality: dogs, cats, and horses. Homonyms: morphemes that are spelled the same but have different meanings. Examples: bear (an animal) and bear (to carry), plain (simple) and plain ( a level area of land). Homophones: morphemes that sound alike but have different meanings and spellings. Examples: bear, bare; plain, plane; cite, sight, site. Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation. The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. «educate» is a verb, «education» is a noun); Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. Inflexion is the way language modifies word forms to handle grammatical relations and relational categories such as tense, mood, voice, aspect, person, number, gender. The main function of inflexion is to show the relationship of words in the sentence. Ways of word-building: productive and non-productive Productive: Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English, which consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Composition is the way of word-building when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. E. g., blackbird, bedroom, music-lover, newcomer, freshman, etc. Conversion consists of making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged. E. g., a nurse – to nurse, love - to love, a face – to face, etc. Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different from the full form of the word. Non-productive: Sound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form a new word. E.g. bath - to bathe, life - to live, etc. Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. dis`count - `discount Sound imitation is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. E. g. to moo, to bark, etc. Blends are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. Back formation is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. E. g., to accredit (from accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation), to emote (from emotion). Ұсынылатын әдебиеттер: 1 Launching into oil well drilling: учебное пособие по научно-техническому переводу. Шаповалова Т.Р. – Южно-Сахалинск: Изд-во СахГУ, 2012 – 196 с. 2 Английский язык: Сборник научно-технических текстов на английском языке. Никонова И.В. – Новосибирск: СГГА, 2012 – 76 с. 3 Климзо Б.Н. Ремесло технического переводчика – Москва, Р-Валент, 2006. ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 14- сі 3. Аббревиатуралар. Акронимдер. Ақша бірліктері. Химиялық элементтер. Ұйымдардың атаулары. Титулдар мен атақтар. Транслитерация. Ғылыми техникалық ақпараттарды аударудағы синтаксис. Пунктуация. Ғылыми мақалалардың құрылысы. Техникалық аударманың лексикалық ерекшеліктері. Терминологиялық сөз тіркестері. Polysemy. Polysemy is a phenomenon which has an exceptional importance for the description of a language system and for the solution of practical tasks connected with an adequate understanding of the meaning of a word and its use. A word may have several meanings. Then it is called a polysemantic word. Words having only one meaning are called monosemantic. Monosemantic words are few in number. These are mainly scientific terms. The bulk of English words are polysemantic. A great contribution to the development of the problem of polysemy was made by the Russian linguist V.V. Vinigradov. The scientist admitted the importance of differentiating the meaning from the usage (a contextual variant). Meanings are fixed and common to all people, who know the language system. The usage is only a possible application of one of the meanings of a polysemantic word, sometimes very individual, sometimes more or less familiar. Meaning is not identical with usage. Of special importance is the fact that polysemy exist only in language, not in speech. The meaning of a word in speech is contextual. Polysemy does not interfere with the communicative function of a language because in every particular case the situation or context, i.e. the environment of the word, cancels all the unnecessary meanings and makes speech unambiguous. A further development of V.V.Vinogradov’s theory was A.I. Smirnitsky’s work in the linguistic field under consideration. According to this scholar all the meanings of the word form identity (тождество) supported by the form of the word. A.I. Smirnitsky introduced the term ‘a lexico-semantic variant’ (LSV). A lexico-semantic variant is a two-facet unit, the formal facet of which is the sound-form of a word, while the content-facet is one of the meanings of the given word, i.e. the designation (обозначение) of a certain class of objects. Words with one meaning are represented in the language system by one LSV, polysemantic words – by a number of LSVs. All lexico-semantic variants of a word form a homogeneous semantic structure ensuring the semantic unity of the given word. All LSVs are united together by a certain meaning – the semantic pivot of the word called the semantic center of the word. Thus, the semantic center of the word is the part of meaning which remains constant in all the lexico-semantic variants of the word. Diachronic and synchronic approaches to polysemy. The problem of polysemy is the problem of the interrelation and interdependence of the various meanings in the semantic structure of the same word. If viewed diachronically polysemy is understood as a change in the semantic structure of the word. Polysemy in diachronic terms implies that a word may retain its previous meaning or meanings and at the same time acquire one or several new ones. Thus, according to the diachronic approach in the semantic structure of a word two types of meaning can be singled out: the primary meaning and the secondary meaning. The polysemantic word table, for example, has at least nine meanings in Modern English. In the course of the diachronic semantic analysis it is found that of all the meanings this word has in ModE the primary meaning of ‘a flat slab of stone or wood’ which is proper to the word in the OE period. All other meanings are secondary as they are derived from the primary meaning. The terms secondary and derived meaning are to some extent synonymous. The term secondary implies that the meaning could not have appeared before the primary meaning existed. When we use the term derived we imply not only that, but that it is dependent on the primary meaning as well and somehow subordinate to it. For example the meaning of the word table 'the food put on the table' is secondary and is derived from the meaning 'a piece of furniture'. Semantic changes result as a rule in new meanings which are added to the ones already existing in the semantic structure of the word. Some of the old meanings may become obsolete or even disappear but the bulk of English words tend to an increase in the number of meanings. Synchronically polysemy is understood as the co-existence of various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the English language. In the course of synchronic analysis ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 15- сі of the word table following question arises: do all the nine meanings of the word table equally represent the semantic structure of this word? The meaning that first occurs to us whenever we hear or see the word table is ‘an article of furniture’. This emerges as the central (or basic) meaning of the word, and all other meanings are marginal (or minor) meanings. The central meaning occurs in various and widely different contexts, marginal meanings are observed only in certain contexts. There is a tendency in modern linguistics to interpret the concept of the central meaning in terms of the frequency of occurrence in speech. For example the meaning 'a piece of furniture' of the word table possesses the highest frequency and makes up to 52% of all the uses of the word. There is also the stylistic stratification (наслоение) in a polysemantic word as individual meanings may differ in their stylistic reference. For example there is nothing colloquial or slangy or American in the word jerk in the meaning 'a sudden movement or stopping of movement'. But when it is used in the meaning of 'a bad person' it is both slang and American. Stylistically neutral meanings are more frequent. The words of different languages which are similar or identical in lexical meaning are termed correlated. The semantic structure of correlated polysemantic words can never be identical. For example compare the word table in English and the word стол in Russian. We can see that only the central meaning, i.e. 'a piece of furniture' is identical. Polysemy and context. Types of context. The term context denotes the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word. Contexts may be of two types: linguistic (verbal) and extra-linguistic (non-verbal). Linguistic contexts may be subdivided into lexical and grammatical. In Lexical contexts of primary importance are the groups of lexical items combined with the polysemantic word under consideration. It can be illustrated by the results of the analysis of different lexical contexts in which a polysemantic word is used. For example the adjective heavy used with the words load, table means “of great weight”. When combined with the words denoting natural phenomena such as rain, storm, snow, wind the adjective heavy is understood as denoting ‘abundant, striking, falling with force’. If used with words industry, artillery, arms and the like, heavy has the meaning ‘the larger kind of something’. It can be easily observed that the main factor in bringing out individual meanings of the adjective heavy is the lexical meaning of the words with which this adjective is combined. Thus, the meanings of heavy may be analyzed through its collocability with the words weight, safe, table; snow, wind; industry, artillery, etc. The meaning at the level of lexical contexts is sometimes described as meaning by collocation. In grammatical contexts it is the grammatical (mainly syntactic) structure of the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word. For example the meaning of the verb to make – ‘to force, to induce’ is found only in the grammatical context possessing the syntactic structure to make +prn+verb (to make smb laugh, to make smb work, to make smb sit). Another meaning of this verb – ‘to become’ is observed in the context of a different syntactic structure – to make+adj+noun (to make a good wife, to make a good teacher). Such meanings are sometimes described as grammatically or structurally bound meanings. There are cases when the meaning of a word is ultimately determined by the actual speech situation in which the word is used, i.e. by the extra-linguistic context (or context of situation). In the sentence The bill is large, the meaning of the word bill is clearly ambiguous as it has two “readings” resulting from the two meanings of the word bill. The sentence can be “disambiguated”, i.e. one or the other of its two readings can be established if it is extended with… but need not be paid. This extension is, of course, possible, only with one of the meanings of the word bill. The noun ring in ‘to give smb a ring’ may possess the meaning “a circlet of precious metal’ or ‘a call on the telephone’ depending on the situation in which the word is used. Another example is the word glasses in the sentence: John was looking for the glasses. This is ambiguous because it might refer to ‘spectacles’ or to ‘drinking vessels’. So, it is possible to state the meaning of the word glasses only through the extended context or situation. Homonymy. Classification of homonyms. Two or more words identical in sound-form, spelling but different in meaning, distribution and in many cases in origin are called homonyms. The term is derived from Greek homos – similar and onoma - ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 16- сі "name" and thus expresses the sameness of the word combined with the difference in meaning. Modern English is very rich in homonymous words and word-forms. It is sometimes suggested that the abundance of homonyms in Modern English is to be accounted for by the monosyllabic structure of the commonly used English words. From the viewpoint of their morphological structure, they are mostly one-morpheme words. The most widely accepted classification of homonyms is that recognizing homonyms proper, homophones and homographs. Homonyms proper are distinct words identical in pronunciation and spelling. Some of the examples are: back (n.), back (adv.), back(v.); ball (n) - "a round object used in games"- ball(n) - "a gathering of people for dancing". The important point is that the term homonym serves to denote not different meanings within one word but different words having different meanings. Homophones are words of the same pronunciation but of different spelling and meaning: air - heir; buyby; piece - peace; steel - steal and many others. Homographs are words different in pronunciation and meaning but identical in spelling: bow [bou] bow [bau]; lead [li:d] - lead [led]; row [rou] - row [rau] and so on. When analyzing different cases of homonymy we find that some words are homonymous in all their forms, i.e. we observe full homonymy. For example in seal1 - a sea animal and seal2 — a design printed on paper by means of a stamp. The paradigm 'seal - seal's - seals - seals' is identical to both of them and doesn't indicate which word is analyzed. In other cases for example seal' - a sea animal and to seal3 - to close tightly we see that though some individual forms are homonymous the whole paradigm is not identical: 'seal - seal's - seals - seals' for a noun and 'seal - seals - sealed - sealing' for a verb. In such case we can speak of homonymous word-forms or of partial homonymy. Thus all cases of homonymy may be divided into full and partial homonymy. The bulk of full homonyms is to be found within the same part of speech. Homonyms may also be classified by the type of meaning into lexical, lexico-grammatical and grammatical. In seal1 and seal2 for example the part-of-speech meaning and the grammatical meanings of all their forms are identical. The difference is in lexical meaning only. So we can say that seal and seal are lexical homonyms. If we compare seal1 and seal3 we find the difference not only in lexical meaning but a difference in their grammatical meanings as well. Identical sound-forms, i.e. seals [si: Iz] (Common Case Plural of the noun) and (he) seals [si: lz] (third person Singular of the verb) possess different grammatical meanings. As both grammatical and lexical meanings differ we describe these homonymous word-forms as lexicogrammatical. Lexico-grammatical homonymy implies that the homonyms belong to different parts of speech. However there are cases when this type of homonymy is observed within the same part of speech, for example the verbs find and found, where the homonymous word-forms are found- Past Indefinite of find sad found- Present Indefinite of found. Modern English is very rich in homonymous word-forms differing in grammatical meaning only. In the paradigms of the majority of verbs the form of the Past Indefinite is homonymous with the form of Participle II, for example asked — asked. In the paradigms of nouns we usually find homonymous forms of the Possessive Case Singular and the Common Case Plural, for example son's - sons. It may be seen that grammatical homonymy is the homonymy of different word-forms of the same word. Polysemy may also arise from homonymy. When two words become identical in sound-form, the meanings of them are felt as making up one semantic structure. For example the human ear and the ear of the needle are homonyms from the diachronical point of view. One is etymologically related to L. auris, the other to L. acus, aceris. Synchronically they are perceived as two meanings of the same word. Ұсынылатын әдебиеттер: 1 Launching into oil well drilling: учебное пособие по научно-техническому переводу. Шаповалова Т.Р. – Южно-Сахалинск: Изд-во СахГУ, 2012 – 196 с. 2 Английский язык: Сборник научно-технических текстов на английском языке. Никонова И.В. – Новосибирск: СГГА, 2012 – 76 с. 3 Климзо Б.Н. Ремесло технического переводчика – Москва, Р-Валент, 2006. ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 17- сі 4. Ғылыми мақалалардың аударылуы. Тау кен өнімдерін табуға байланысты материалдарды аудару. Металлургия саласы бойынша мәтіндерді аудару. Информатика, есептеу саласына қатысты материалдарды аудару. Патенттік әдебиетпен жұмыс. Фирмалық материалдарды аудару. Халықаралық сөздерді, сөз тіркестерін аудару. Ғылыми техникалық мәтіндерді аудару. Synonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar in their inner aspects. In English there are many synonyms, because there are a lot of borrowings: hearty (native) – cordial (borrowing). After a word is borrowed it undergoes desynonymization, because absolute synonyms are unnecessary for a language. However, there are some absolute synonyms in the language, which have exactly the same meaning and belong to the same style: to moan, to groan; homeland, motherland. In cases of desynonymization one of the absolute synonyms can specialize in its meaning and we get semantic synonyms: city (borrowed) – town (native). The French borrowing city is specialized in its meaning. Sometimes one of the absolute synonyms is specialized in its usage and we get stylistic synonyms: to begin (native) – to commence (borrowing). Here the French word is specialized. Stylistic synonyms can also appear by means of abbreviation: exam (colloquial), examination (neutral). Among stylistic synonyms we can point out euphemisms: the late (dead), to perspire (to sweat). On the other hand, there are slang synonyms. They are expressive, mostly ironical words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequently used.: mad – daft, potty, balmy, loony, bonkers, touched, nutty. There are also phraseological synonyms, these words are identical in their meanings and styles but different in their combinability with other words in the sentence: to visit museums but to attend lectures; teachers question their pupils, judges interrogate witnesses. There are also contextual synonyms which are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions: buy and get are not synonyms out of context but they are synonyms in the following examples: I‘ll go to the shop and buy some bread and I‘ll go to the shop and get some bread. In each group of synonyms there is a word with the most general meaning, which can substitute any word in the group. Such words are called synonymic dominants: piece is the synonymic dominant in the group slice, lump. morsel. Very many compound nouns denoting abstract notions, persons and events are correlated with phrasal verbs. We have such synonymous pairs as: arrangement – layout, reproduction – playback. Conversion can also serve to form synonyms. laughter – laugh. There are also cases of different affixation: effectivity – effectiveness. It can be treated as a lexical variant but not a synonym. Variants can also be phonetical (vase [veiz] - [va:z]) and graphical (to-morrow - tomorrow). The peculiar feature of English is the contrast between simple native words which are stylistically neutral, literary words borrowed from French and learned words of Greko-Latin origin, e.g.: to ask to question to interrogate belly stomach abdomen to end to finish to complete Paronymy is an intermediate phenomenon between homonymy (identical sound-form) and synonymy (similar meaning). Paronyms are words which are partially similar in form but different in meaning and usage: proscribe-prescribe. The coinciding parts are not morphemes but meaningless sound-clusters. Pairs like historic-historical (words containing the same root-morpheme) are usually treated as synonyms. Yet words of both groups are easily confused in speech even by native speakers: sensible- sensitive, prudentprudish. Improper usage of learned and sonorous language results in the so-called malapropisms. to have a supercilious (superficial) knowledge in accounts. This kind of word confusion is due to ignorance and produces a humorous effect. Malapropisms may be viewed as a kind of paronyms. The words are attracted to each other because of their partial phonetic similarity. Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style, expressing contrary or contradictory notions. V.N. Comissarov classified antonyms into two groups: absolute (root) antonyms (late - early) and derivational antonyms (to please – to displease, honest - dishonest). Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the same roots but different affixes. In most cases ПОӘК 042 –18-17.1.29/03-2015 11 маусым 2015 ж. № 1 басылым 18 беттің 18- сі negative prefixes form antonyms (un-, dis- non-). Sometimes they are formed by means of antonymous suffixes: -ful and –less (painful - painless). The difference between derivational and root antonyms is also in their semantics. Derivational antonyms express contradictory notions, one of them excludes the other: active-inactive. Absolute antonyms express contrary notions. If some notions can be arranged in a group of more than two members, the most distant members of the group will be absolute antonyms: ugly, plain, good-looking, pretty, beautiful, the antonyms are ugly and beautiful. Leonard Lipka in the book Outline of English Lexicology describes three types of oppositeness: a) complementarity: male – female. The denial of the one implies the assertion of the other, and vice versa; b) antonyms: good – bad. It is based on different logical relationships; c) converseness: to buy – to sell. It is mirror-image relations or functions: husband-wife, above-below, pupil-teacher. L. Lipka also gives the type which he calls directional oppositions: up-down, consequence opposition: learn-know, antipodal opposition: North-South, East- West. L. Lipka also points out non-binary contrast or many-member lexical sets. In such sets of words we can have outer and inner pairs of antonyms: excellent, good, average, fair, poor. Not every word in a language can have antonyms. This type of opposition can be met in qualitative adjectives and their derivatives: beautiful-ugly, to beautify-to uglify. It can be also met in words denoting feelings and states: to respect-to scorn, respectful-scornful and in words denoting direction in space and time: here-there, up-down, before-after. If a word is polysemantic, it can have several antonyms, e.g. the word bright has the antonyms dim, dull, sad. Ұсынылатын әдебиеттер: 1 Launching into oil well drilling: учебное пособие по научно-техническому переводу. Шаповалова Т.Р. – Южно-Сахалинск: Изд-во СахГУ, 2012 – 196 с. 2 Английский язык: Сборник научно-технических текстов на английском языке. Никонова И.В. – Новосибирск: СГГА, 2012 – 76 с. 3 Климзо Б.Н. Ремесло технического переводчика – Москва, Р-Валент, 2006. 4 КУРСОВАЯ РАБОТА (ПРОЕКТ) Не предусмотрено типовым учебным планом 5 САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА СТУДЕНТА 5.1 Ғылыми техникалық аудармадағы грамматикалық ерекшеліктер. Артикль. Зат есім. 5.2 Ғылыми техникалық аудармадағы грамматикалық ерекшеліктер. Сын есім, үстеу, предлог, шылау, сан есім. 5.3 Халықаралық сөздерді, сөз тіркестерін аудару. 5.4 Аббревиатуралар. Акронимдер. Ақша бірліктері. Химиялық элементтер. 5.5 Ұйымдардың атаулары. Титулдар мен атақтар. Транслитерация. 5.6 Тау кен өнімдерін табуға байланысты материалдарды аудару. 5.7 Металлургия саласы бойынша мәтіндерді аудару. 5.8 Информатика, есептеу саласына қатысты материалдарды аудару.
