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Ch. 11 Thinking & Problem Solving Glossary Chapter 11 Analogy understanding one concept in terms of another Boundary conditions the necessary conditions to produce a phenomenon, or the conditions required to obtain the phenomenon Ceiling effect see Scale attenuation effects Conceptual replication the attempt to demonstrate an experimental phenomenon with an entirely new paradigm or set of experimental conditions (see converging operations) Confirmation bias the tendency to seek out information that confirms rather than disconfirms one's hypothesis Crosssectional design design using a large sample of the population of various ages at one time for testing purposes (contrast with Longitudinal design) Direct replication the repetition of an experiment as identically as possible to the first performance, to determine whether the same results will be obtained Einstellung see Set Experimental control the holding constant of extraneous variables in an experiment so that any effect on the dependent variable can be attributed to manipulation of the independent variable Experimental reliability the extent to which the experimental results can be replicated or will be obtained again if the experiment is repeated Extraneous variables control variables, also known as nuisance variables Floor effect see Scale attenuation effects Functional fixedness the inability to use an object in a new context if it has already served a different function Generality of results the issue of whether a particular experimental result will be obtained under different circumstances, such as with a different subject population or in a different experimental setting Illumination an intermediate stage in problem solving in which the individual gains insight or discovers a potential solution to a problem Incubation during problem solving, a time when a person turns to other matters after failing to solve the problem. The problem is said to incubate, much as eggs do while a hen sits on them, and can be solved more quickly later Insight the time of illumination in problem solving; when an idea is "hatched;" sometimes accompanied by an "aha" experience Latency amount of time needed to complete a task Law of effect the principle that reinforcement of a response leads to the response being more likely to occur in the future Mapping in problem solving, the set of correspondences between a source and target problem; how the two problems "map" onto each other Mozart effect the finding that listening to Mozart compositions leads to increased performance on visualspatial tests Null hypothesis the prediction that the independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable Power (of a statistical test) the probability that a test will reject the null hypothesis when it is in fact false Preparation the initial stage in problem solving in which an individual becomes immersed in thinking about the facts and considerations surrounding a given problem Reliability of results refers to the repeatability of an experimental result; inferential statistics provide an estimate of how likely it is that a finding is repeatable; also refers to the consistency of a test or measuring instrument determined by computing a correlation between scores obtained by participants taking the test twice (test–retest reliability) or taking two different parallel forms of the test (parallel test reliability), or by examining scores obtained on two halves of the test (split-half reliability) Set the effect of expectancy of cognition; for example, if the people solve problems in one particular way, they will often approach new problems in the same set way, even when the original strategy is no longer effective; also called Einstellung, from the original German experiment Statistical reliability rejecting the null hypothesis on the basis of a statistical test that yields an alpha level of less than .05 Structural consistency (problem solving) when mapped elements in the source and target problems play similar roles Subjective report verbal report of a person's perceived mental state Systematic replication the repetition of an experiment while varying numerous factors considered to be irrelevant to the phenomenon to see if it will survive these changes Thought cognition Verbal report a subject's description of his or her phenomenological experience, often very difficult to verify Verification the final stage in problem solving that involves careful checking of a potential solution Wason card a reasoning task in which subjects often choose options that confirm (rather than disconfirm) selection task their hypotheses Discussion Questions 1. Historically, there have been two main approaches to the study of problem solving. Explain these approaches and their emphases. How do these two approaches relate to the two ways of studying perception? 3. Distinguish among direct replications, systematic replications, and conceptual replications. Should the three types be considered qualitatively different, or do they lie on a continuum? If they lie on a continuum, what dimension underlies it?