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Ch. 11 Thinking & Problem Solving
Glossary
Chapter 11
Analogy
understanding one concept in terms of another
Boundary
conditions
the necessary conditions to produce a phenomenon, or the conditions required to obtain the
phenomenon
Ceiling effect
see Scale attenuation effects
Conceptual
replication
the attempt to demonstrate an experimental phenomenon with an entirely new paradigm or
set of experimental conditions (see converging operations)
Confirmation
bias
the tendency to seek out information that confirms rather than disconfirms one's hypothesis
Crosssectional
design
design using a large sample of the population of various ages at one time for testing
purposes (contrast with Longitudinal design)
Direct
replication
the repetition of an experiment as identically as possible to the first performance, to
determine whether the same results will be obtained
Einstellung
see Set
Experimental
control
the holding constant of extraneous variables in an experiment so that any effect on the
dependent variable can be attributed to manipulation of the independent variable
Experimental
reliability
the extent to which the experimental results can be replicated or will be obtained again if the
experiment is repeated
Extraneous
variables
control variables, also known as nuisance variables
Floor effect
see Scale attenuation effects
Functional
fixedness
the inability to use an object in a new context if it has already served a different function
Generality of
results
the issue of whether a particular experimental result will be obtained under different
circumstances, such as with a different subject population or in a different experimental
setting
Illumination
an intermediate stage in problem solving in which the individual gains insight or discovers a
potential solution to a problem
Incubation
during problem solving, a time when a person turns to other matters after failing to solve the
problem. The problem is said to incubate, much as eggs do while a hen sits on them, and
can be solved more quickly later
Insight
the time of illumination in problem solving; when an idea is "hatched;" sometimes
accompanied by an "aha" experience
Latency
amount of time needed to complete a task
Law of effect
the principle that reinforcement of a response leads to the response being more likely to
occur in the future
Mapping
in problem solving, the set of correspondences between a source and target problem; how
the two problems "map" onto each other
Mozart effect
the finding that listening to Mozart compositions leads to increased performance on visualspatial tests
Null
hypothesis
the prediction that the independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable
Power (of a
statistical
test)
the probability that a test will reject the null hypothesis when it is in fact false
Preparation
the initial stage in problem solving in which an individual becomes immersed in thinking about
the facts and considerations surrounding a given problem
Reliability of
results
refers to the repeatability of an experimental result; inferential statistics provide an estimate
of how likely it is that a finding is repeatable; also refers to the consistency of a test or
measuring instrument determined by computing a correlation between scores obtained by
participants taking the test twice (test–retest reliability) or taking two different parallel forms of
the test (parallel test reliability), or by examining scores obtained on two halves of the test
(split-half reliability)
Set
the effect of expectancy of cognition; for example, if the people solve problems in one
particular way, they will often approach new problems in the same set way, even when the
original strategy is no longer effective; also called Einstellung, from the original German
experiment
Statistical
reliability
rejecting the null hypothesis on the basis of a statistical test that yields an alpha level of less
than .05
Structural
consistency
(problem
solving)
when mapped elements in the source and target problems play similar roles
Subjective
report
verbal report of a person's perceived mental state
Systematic
replication
the repetition of an experiment while varying numerous factors considered to be irrelevant to
the phenomenon to see if it will survive these changes
Thought
cognition
Verbal report
a subject's description of his or her phenomenological experience, often very difficult to verify
Verification
the final stage in problem solving that involves careful checking of a potential solution
Wason card
a reasoning task in which subjects often choose options that confirm (rather than disconfirm)
selection task their hypotheses
Discussion Questions
1. Historically, there have been two main
approaches to the study of problem solving.
Explain these approaches and their emphases.
How do these two approaches relate to the two
ways of studying perception?
3. Distinguish among direct replications,
systematic replications, and conceptual
replications. Should the three types be
considered qualitatively different, or do they lie
on a continuum? If they lie on a continuum,
what dimension underlies it?