Download The Nazis in January 1933

Key Question: At what point was Weimar democracy most likely to
collapse? (Lina)
 There are two situations which can be an answer to this question:
 First situation occurred in 1930:
 Brüning (Chancellor at this time) made use of Article 48
 Bypassed the Reichstag
 Clear sign that the Reichstag didn't support the Chancellor and the
other way round
 No sign for a stable system
=> “Präsidialkabinette”
 Second situation: elections in 1932 :
Nazis succeeded with major growth of their party
Definite sign that people in Germany did not believe in Weimar (and
therefore democracy) anymore
 Wanted changes and new government
 Sign for Nazis' major support of the people
[Wall Street Crash?]
Key Question:To what extent and why did the Nazi Party gain support
from 1930-1933? (Lina)
Coming into power of the NSDAP:




Elections in September 1930: landslide-like victory of the NSDAP
March 1932: Hitler reaches 37% of the votes in the battle for the presidential chair
Elections in July 1932: best result ever of the NSDAP
Becomes biggest party in the Reichstag with 230 seats (although no absolute
majority)
Elections in November 1932 ( after vote of no-confidence against von Papen)
Despite losing of 34 seats NSDAP stays biggest party
Hitler´s way to chancellorship:





4th January 1933: Agreement between von Papen and Hitler (Chancellor & Vicechancellor);
Conversation with President Hindenburg
Hindenburg refuses the demand of Chancellor von Schleicher to dissolve the Reichstag
Von Schleicher resigns 28th January
30th January 1933: Hindenburg appoints Hitler Chancellor (through the back door) &
Von Papen becomes Vice-Chancellor (Cabinet: only 3 National Socialists)
Why the NSDAP got extra support by the electorate:


Radicalization in the course of the global economic crisis (e.g. the Harzburger Front/
National Opposition)
KPD & NSDAP profited of the unrest of the electorate due to the slow reaction of
the government on the global economic crisis (elections 1930)
Advertisement with opposition to Communism







Anguish of the lower class of Communism (KPD) & the division of the workforce into
Communists and Social democrats (after NSDAP started cooperation with Hugenberg)
 Further votes for the NSDAP
Radicalization of the electorates of the middle class
NSDAP as “Volkspartei des Protests”, mobilized social and national movements
Hitler  “knight in shining armor” (“Retter in der Not”)
Propaganda strongly against Communism
They benefited from the current situation
High unemployment rate
Decreasing economy  people disappointed about current government
Attractive because they promised a strong leadership
Key Question: Did Hitler become Chancellor through the back
door?(Julia)
1.1 The Cabinet of Barons
-
-
Brüning replaced by von Papen with Schleicher as his Defence Minister
None of the members of Papen’s rather aristocratic cabinet – nicknamed ‘Cabinet of
Barons’ – was member of Reichstag, most had no ties to political parties
Democracy was by now fading fast
Papen’s aim was to continue Brüning’s policy of ruling by decree, but his position became
even more difficult after election in July 1932
Nazis achieved 230 seats ( being largest party in Reichstag) still without overall majority
Two parties aiming at destroying Weimar Republic (KPD, NSDAP) had now control over
more than half of the seats in Reichstag => was catastrophic for democracy
Despite the lifting of the ban on SA (Brüning had imposed in April 1932), Hitler refused to
work with Papen government, because he thought with such a good election result he
should be Chancellor for himself
After meeting between Hitler & Papen, Papen was sure that Nazis had to be brought into
government, but not wholly on Hitler’s terms
Papen urged Hitler to join coalition with DNVP, Hitler refused => appointed Chancellor or
nothing
September 1932, Reichstag passed overwhelming vote of no-confidence in Papen (512 to
42), election in November brought no further support for government
Nazis remained largest party, Papen was prepared to dissolve Reichstag permanently at
this stage & if necessary use army to crush opposition
Schleicher persuaded Hindenburg that this would end in civil war, replaced Papen on 2nd
December 1932
1.2 Schleicher as Chancellor
- adopted very risky strategy: wanted to gain more support from Reichstag & unite
politicians as Brüning /Papen had failed without it
- suspicious of Hitler, ruled out any deal with Nazis
- 1st : attempted to split Nazis by appealing to more socialist wing of the party led by Gregor
Strasser (offered Vice-Chancellorship)
- 2nd: tried to gain support from left by offering concessions to trade unions
- neither strategy worked, Hitler intervened, trade unions were too suspicious of
Schleicher’s motives to offer him support
-
powerful industrials & landowners were alarmed by Schleicher’s tactics, began to
contemplate toleration of Nazis as lesser of two evils
Papen, aware of Schleicher’s failure, seized chance for revenge, government led by Hitler
with him as Vice-President was his best chance
4th January 1933: Papen and Hitler agreed, Hindenburg was pressured by Papen and his
son Oskar
thought Nazis could be ‘tamed’, and the less in seats in November elections 1932 was seen
as Nazis would lose their support from public
Hindenburg refused Schleicher’s request to dissolve Reichstag & Schleicher resigned 28th
January
Two days later Hindenburg agreed to appoint Hitler as Chancellor, cabinet was formed
consisting of three Nazis and nine other conservatives, including Papen as Vice-Chancellor
Backstairs Intrigue
Timeline
May 1932: Papen appointed
Chancellor with Schleicher as Defence
Minister
1928 June: Hermann Müller appointed Chancellor of Grand
Coalition
September 1932: The Reichstag
passes a vote of no confidence in
Papen. Either he has to go, or
Germany could face dangerous
instability.
December 1932: Schleicher appointed
Chancellor. Papen is furious.
Schleicher is unsuccessful in gaining
support in the Reichstag. Papen sees
a chance of revenge.
> “back door”?
January 1933: Papen strikes a deal
with the Nazis which Hindenburg
accepts. Hitler is appointed
Chancellor with Papen as Vice
Chancellor
1929 June: Publication of Young Plan
July: Nazis& DNVP unite in opposition to the Young
Plan
October: Death of Stresemann
October: US Stock Market crashes
1930 March: Müller resigns and Brüning appointed
Chancellor
July: Reichstag dissolved after Brüning uses Article
48
Sept.: Huge Nazi gains in election
1932 Feb.: Unemployment exceeds 6 million
April: Hindenburg re-elected as President
May: Brüning resigns and Papen appointed
Chancellor
July: Nazis become largest party in the Reichstag
Sept.: Reichstag passes a vote of no confidence in
Papen
Nov.: Nazis loose 34 seats in election but remain
largest party
Dec.: Papen resigns and Schleicher appointed
Chancellor
1933 Jan.: Secret meeting of Papen and Hitler
January: Schleicher resigns and Hitler is appointed
Chancellor
The Nazis in January 1933
 Hitler’s appointment greeted with enthusiasm, but was not voted by public for his position;
others who did not support Hitler reassured themselves that control would lie with non-Nazis
like Papen & Hugenberg; others expected Nazi spell to be short-lived, including communists
1.3
-
Strengths and weaknesses 1933
Nazis were by far the largest party, took this as their main source of strength
Also hold the key positions in cabinet
Hitler: Chancellor; Frick = Interior Minister in Reich; Goering = Interior Minister of Prussia
Still Nazis not possessed overall majority: prevented Hitler from changing Weimar
Constitution (needed 2/3 majority for that)
Survival of Nazis not guaranteed at this stage
1.4 Hitler’s aims
- once in power, he never made any secret of wishing to destroy democracy
- this desire was shared by all fellow Cabinet members, first step into that direction already
taken by predecessors
- he toned in his 1st speech to public his anti-Semitism and aggressive foreign policy down,
instead focused on importance of family and evils of communism
Key Question: How did Hitler consolidate his power in1933/34?: Three
Phases (Julia)
Phase 1: “control at the centre” (Jan-Mar 33)
-
 election campaign: calling for new elections directly after his appointment as
Chancellor 1st Feb
4th Feb.: Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to grant his government powers to suspend
meetings and ban newspapers
five-week election campaign (69 dead people, destruction of Communist Party, barrage of
propaganda & intimidation)
determined as he was to give appearance of legality, he refused money from government,
looked to industrialists for support
this time election posters were printed in masses, Goebbels controlled radio: Hitler’s
speeches were broadcast by all stations
 massive restrictions of basic rights; aim: eliminating political opposition
political opponents = short shrift; in Prussia Goering established control of police by
insisting they serve Nazi interests, sacking them if they did not, bringing extra 50.000 SA
members
Goering’s forces amongst those used to intimidate and terrorize Nazi opponents
-
 27th Feb 33: Reichstag Fire
young Dutchman, Marinus van der Lubbe, was caught in act of burning down Reichstag
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Nazis claimed Lubbe was part of communist conspiracy, even though no evidence was
found to substantiate this claim
Very useful timing of fire, days for the election, enabled Nazis to arrest many communists
& undermine their election campaign
Nazis exploited it to their advantage, 4000 communists arrested, Hitler had alarmed
Hindenburg into granting an emergency decree which suspended many civil rights =>
Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of the People and State
(Reichtagsbrandverordnung) Feb. 28th, 1933
Gave government the power individual without trial, search private homes, censor post
and telephone calls, take over state power in case of incapability and continue restrict
freedom of assembly and expression
NOTHING illegal about decree, enacted according to Weimar Constitution by President in
power for 8 years, at a time when rule by decree was not unusual
 March elections in 1933
Results were surprising, given the circumstances => Nazis won 43.9% of the votes
Nazis once more failed to achieve majority, even with support of DNVP no 2/3-support in
Reichstag (required to amend Weimar Constitution)
Hitler claimed it as great victory; Jewish departments stores looted, attacks were made on
Press of the opposition
Hitler, claiming local authorities couldn’t handle situation, replaced legal governments
with Reich Commissioners
On 10th March: Hitler appealed for end of violence, further progress of national uprising
will be guided/ planned from the top
 in an attempt to reassure his conservative supporters, an ceremony was staged in
the Potsdam Garrison Church to celebrate the opening of the new Reichstag =>Day
of Potsdam 21st Mar 33
Hindenburg and several other army generals were present, Hitler’s speech stressed the
great traditions of Germany for which, he claimed, he stood/ represented
Propaganda triumph!
 The Enabling Act
On 5th March 1933 Reichstag effectively voted itself out of existence by passing Enabling
Act
- This act gave Cabinet the power to enact laws without permission of Reichstag
- Effectively killed Weimar Constitution, gave Hitler the powers of dictator, no longer
dependent on presidential decree, he could enact any law he chose for four years
- Why did parties sign it?
- Communists and socialists: 81 KPD & 26 socialist deputies refused admission into
Reichstag, in the end only remaining SPD deputies in Reichstag voted against the Act
- Nazi deal with Centre Party: Hitler promised respect to Catholic Church in return for
support of Centre Party, took him at his word
- Intimidation by SA: Kroll Opera House, where vote took place, surrounded by members of
SA and SS, issuing threats to the deputies
- Limiting provisions: provisions which would limit it, become invalid after four years; this
encouraged some deputies to vote for the Act, although limiting provisions were ignored
 Hitler established control of the centre of politics, he was filling his Cabinet with Nazis &
could effectively dispense with Reichstag
-
Phase 2: “control beyond the centre” (Apr-Jul 33)
-
-
 attempt to control potential enemies and adversaries, which made organized
opposition virtually impossible
Bringing into Line => “Laws for the Co-ordination of the States within the Reich” ( 31st Mar
& 7th Apr 33): society in Weimar Republic = plural, different interest groups were allowed
to exist within the state
These groups were potentially very powerful, could exert pressure on government in a
variety of ways
Hitler didn’t want to see his power limited, not interested in communication; his argument
was always that he knew what was in the long run in the people’s best interest
In reality he wanted to extend his dictatorship across the whole country by eliminating
potentially troublesome interest groups & embarking a process of “Nazification”
Gleichschaltung / Bringing into line
- process already started in April 1933, as state government & police forces brought under
Nazi control
- all actions had to be defined in legal terms, Hitler wanted is “National Revolution” to be
LEGAL
- hence the actions in the states were afterwards legalized by laws issued at the end of
March and beginning of April ( Laws of Co-ordination of the States within the Reich)
- this “facade of legality” encouraged conservatives to support Hitler
Dissolution of trade unions (2nd May 1933)
- members of SA and SS occupied union offices & abolished trade unions
- German Labour Front (DAF) was set up by Nazis, led by Robert Ley
- Membership was compulsory, employees lost right to negotiate with employers over
wages/ working conditions
Political Parties
- Communists were effectively banned after Reichstag fire
- By time of Enabling Act, SPD only openly opposing Hitler, even they voted in favour of
Hitler’s foreign policy statement in May to survive
- On 22nd June 1933, SPD outlawed, other parties dissolved themselves (e.g. Centre Party
5thJul 33)
- In July decree was passed officially making Germany a one-party state, NSDAP only party
left (14th July 1933)
States
- after January 1933, Nazis infiltrated state governments, which were given the power to
issue laws without consulting the Landtage (state parliaments)
- this followed up with appointment of powerful Nazi Reichstatthalter (Reich governors)
- in January 1934, Landtage were abolished, state governments were made subordinate to
the Reich government in Berlin
Civil service
- Hitler was dependent on efficient/ well-established bureaucracy, many civil servants
retained their posts
- Membership of Nazi Party not compulsory until 1939
-
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, issued in April 1933, enabled
those whose political obedience/ racial purity was in question to be dismissed
Most officials of Jewish descent lost their jobs, 12,5% of Prussian civil service was
dismissed this way
Concordat (8th Jul 1933)
- not all groups put under Nazi control: Church and army survived, in both cases Hitler felt
he had too much to lose by alienating their support
- German people felt strongly loyal to Church, Hitler succeeded in neutralizing Church when
signing the concordat with the Pope
- The agreement meant that Church wouldn’t interfere in political matters, mind their own
business; Catholic bishops had to take an oath of loyalty to the Nazi state
- Catholic Church was heavily criticized for this policy
winning support of the army
- Hitler was too dependent on its support, only body who could still force him out of power,
Hitler needed well-trained & disciplined force to implement his ambitious foreign policy
- In turn the army was grateful for a leader who valued them & wished to expand their size
and role
- Relationship based on mutual benefits
- Not until Germany began to lose the Second World War, that the army began to turn
against Hitler
Phase 3: “the final stage” (Jan-Aug 1934)
 Hindenburg could still dismiss Hitler and the other Nazis in the Cabinet
 The army could use its strength to force Hitler from office
 SA could endanger Hitler’s relations with the army by carrying out further acts of
hooliganism & demanding more power to themselves
1.5 Ernst Röhm (1887-1934):
- Born in Munich, son of civil servant, was professional soldier, provided Hitler with useful
arm contacts after WWI; joined Freikorps after war, one of the early followers of Hitler/
became lose friend, in 1930 put in charge of SA which expanded to over 2mio. members by
the end of 1933;
- Röhm wanted to enhance the role of his organization and merge it with the army; Hitler
refused and ordered a purge of SA leaders including Röhm who died in June 1934
- Röhm wanted SA to merge with army, Röhm as overall controller, so that German
revolution would be pushed forward
1.6 The SA and the “second revolution”
- when Hitler became Chancellor, SA (represented the more working-class element of the
Nazi Party) felt their efforts on the streets vindicated
- Ernst Röhm (leader of SA, long time friend of Hitler) wanted SA not to become a
propaganda tool of Hitler
- Hitler had no intention to reward the SA with a higher status
- In fact, SA became embarrassment to Hitler, SA was too brutal/ inefficient
- Friendship between Röhm and Hitler reached low point in early 1934
-
-
-
Meanwhile, army was making clear its opposition to the SA; in Feb. General von Blomberg
alerted Hitler to the growing military activities of SA in areas that the Treaty of Versailles
had demilitarized
Hitler had to make choice, either attempt to win the full backing and trust of the army by
removing power from SA or Hitler risked alienating the army by remaining loyal to SA
In the end Hitler chose the army
 The Night of the Long Knives
on the night of 30th, Röhm and other leaders were shot by members of SS, blamed for
improper behavior (abusing young boys etc.),
army lent helping hand by providing transport and weapons
Hitler seized opportunity to remove old enemies, men like Strasser and Schleicher were
amongst the 400 murdered that night
Hitler claimed that he had responded to a treason plot; was thanked by Cabinet, Blomberg
and Hindenburg
SA ceased to be a military presence, became what Röhm had feared- a propaganda
showpiece which could be displayed at events like giant Nuremberg rallies
SA was also wheeled into carry out acts of vandalism and thuggery against oppressed
minorities, Jews in 1938
Replaced by SS as the prime para-military wing of the party (SS had been originally the
personal bodyguards of Hitler when founded in 1925)
1.7 Hitler becomes Führer
- President Hindenburg died on 2nd August 1934
- 19th August 1934 Hitler proclaimed himself Führer, combining the offices of Chancellor and
President
- Automatically made Hitler Supreme Commander of the German army (swore an oath of
loyalty to Hitler)
After the completion of the third phase, Hitler was in the position he needed in order to restructure the German society in the way he had planned.
Concordat between the Holy See and the German Reich (Lina)



Signed the 20th July 1933 in Rome
Promise from Hitler that the church can run its own affairs
Promise from the church it would not interfere in political matters (promise soon to be
broken)
Hitler´s Reasons:




German people loyal to the church
Church = International organization
Support of church needed
Win of prestige for Hitler
Role of the church:
The Catholic Church:



Support by catholic offices  shared Anti-Marxist nationalist attitude or reassured
by Hitler
Concordat resolved sensitive issues (e.g. Catholic priests into army)
1937: papal encyclical anxious about Nazi anti religious propaganda (“With deep
anxiety”)
 Regime embarrassed
Suppressed description of encyclical
 Closure of catholic press




Catholic priests arrested
Seizure of church property
New Pope Pius VII avoided challenge
Catholic youth groups forced to join “Hitlerjugend”
1941: sermons of bishop von Galen (criticism against euthanasia methods of NSRegime)
Reveals limits of Hitler´s powers, concept of “totalitarianism” needs to be
discussed
The Protestant Church:




At first: supported Nazis & Anti-Marxist Nationalist attitude
Anti-Nazi movement due to :
Pro-Nazification
Arrest of 2 luth. state bishops (1934)
“German Christians”
vs.
“Confessional Church”
Pro-NSDAP
Anti-NSDAP
Tendency towards German nationalism before 1933
Conclusion
 Furious but political measured reactions
Putting stress on upholding morale during the war
 Tendency towards German nationalism before 1933
Key Question: What were the core elements of Nazi ideology and how
did the Nazis try to “implement“ it? Was there anything “new” about it?
(Kirstin)
anti-Semitism: > Jews = illness
 “Jewish world – conspiracy”- Jews responsible for every calamity in the world
 not new: through all ages, especially in the Middle Ages (+ 2nd Empire /
Bismarck)
- Social Darwinism: > survival of the fittest (natural selection)
> Dualism = world divided in good and bad (Jewish)
> not new: Darwin developed idea to describe evolution (cf.
Imperialism)
- Master race: >one race (Aryan) superior to others and should rule over them
> refers to Social Darwinism
> not new: already appeared during the era of imperialism
- Pan- Germanism: > unite German speaking people in one nation (e.g. gaining back
Polish Corridor)
> not new: occurred first in the Balkans (Pan-Slavism)
- living space: > need for space in the east to expend German territory and the German
nation, resources
- anti-Marxism: > against communism because, naturally, the stronger ones do not
blend with weaker ones (+ Marx = Jew)
- anti-Democracy: > democracy provided weak governments
> state was build up on “Führerprinzip” (one party state)
- anti-Capitalism: > to be rich meant to be bad because being rich equalled being Jewish
-
“Volksgemeinschaft” : >community with the same aims which wants to work for it
> struggle to survive and overwhelm enemies only as whole
nation possible (fictional concept!)
> only people of German blood (master race)
- blood and soil: > maintaining purity of German life through connection to soil
> agriculture important for autonomy
- eternal Germany: > to be preserved
> all other principals work to wards it (eternal unity)
- honour: > Treaty of Versailles could not happened again if everybody keeps his honour
> everybody (German) equally keen to hold up honour
- courage: > fight for honour
> struggle rules the world
> Jews = no courage because do not fight
- national character: > characteristics of all German tribes (e.g. Austria, Saxony)
together
> community of German people
- Socialism in action: > individual makes sacrifices that are necessary for community
> labour, possessions and life in service of community
- family: > heaving many children to provide workers and soldiers
> ensure life through children
> children are living expression of eternal Germany
-
-
how implemented:
bringing into line (“Gleichschaltung”)
Propaganda: Goebbels in charge
12. March 1933: Ministry for “Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda” found
Radio: > most important because of the Nazis preference of the spoken word
> German broadcasting made by the “Reich Radio” Company
> cheap radio (Volksempfänger) introduced -> limited range against foreign
broadcast
> loudspeakers in towns and factories for important speeches
- press: > two-thirds of press controlled by the “Nazi publishing house”
> news - agencies run by Nazis so that the information was controlled before
publishing
> daily press conference by Goebbels: Editors punished for unacceptable
printing
> own newspaper to advertise special appears and anti-Semitic campaigns
- film: > censorship
> feature films used to convey ideals
- others: > stamps with Nazis messages
> rituals introduced like Hitler greeting
- education: > youth important because they are the future
> minds: easily influenced
> teachers controlled by the state
> “National Socialist Teacher’s League” to control them
> ideology published in schoolbooks
> establishing of groups like Hitler Youth
> attendance voluntary until 1939
> variety of activities
>>>>>> preparing youth for their future duties
> implementation of ideology only necessary in the first stage; then people should adopt it
naturally for their own good
-
Key Question: Was Hitler a weak dictator?(Kirstin)
-
functionalist interpretation:
weak dictator
decentralist, chaotic, structure of the “Reich”
improvised decisions, relying on opportunities
for major blocs; over lapping competencies /competition
-
intentionalist interpretation:
all Nazi propaganda centred Hitler
popularity higher then of anybody else
leadership principal made Hitler unassailable
the “Führer`s” will was highest level of reference
-
conclusion:
Hitler had sometimes the role of a mediator
not sure if he made use of chaos or had the strategy “divide and rule”
What were the stages in the extermination of the European Jewry? Who
is responsible for the Holocaust?(Kirstin)
(Lina)

Justification:
Race: non-German
Creation of Aryan master race
Eugenics/racial hygiene
Finance Capitalism, monopolizing culture & society
Jewish World conspiracy

1933-1934:
 Law for the restoration of the Professional Civil Service
Exclusion of the Jews from civil service



1935

1936




Already violent outbreaks (SA)  Phase 1
Nuremberg Laws
Removal of citizenship/ no participation in political affairs
Restrictions on marriages/ relationships
No employment of German housekeepers allowed
No representation of flag/ Germany allowed
Olympic Games : No Jewish athletes allowed
Anti-Semitic campaigns contained
BUT: persecution continued, esp. on local level (e.g. no theatre visits allowed)
Segregation at schools

1937-1938
 Decree excluding Jews from Economic life (1938)
Dispossession; “Aryanisation” of economy
 Escalation
Identification cards compulsory, Jewish forenames
Night of Broken Glass (9.-10. November)
> Jews made responsible; had to pay for damages; afterwards: excluding them
from participating in economy / dispossessions

1939-1941
 Wearing of Yellow Star compulsory (1941)
 Mass shootings  in the East / SS-Einsatzgruppen
 Beginning of mass deportations to the East
 Restrictions on emigration // dispossessions // gassing

1942-….
 Wannsee conference:
”final solution to the Jewish question”
responsibility: > foreign countries like Britain or America
>> should have recognized what Hitler was doing because he
did not hide it very much (+ strict immigration laws, esp. GB)
> Germans because they could have acted against the deportations
-
Key Events: Night of the Broken Glass („Reichskristallnacht“) (Lina)
Prelude:





End of October 1938 à thousands of polish people deported to Poland by the
Reichsregierung
Uncertain future à Polish government refused their resumption
7th November 1938: 17 year old Polish boy shot German diplomat Ernst vom Rath
wanted to shot German ambassador
Goebbels used this as a cause to tolerate and navigate the violent excesses against Jewish
citizens, their homes and their stores
The Event:




Night from 9th to 10th November 1938
Synagogues burned down
Stores and apartments destroyed
Jewish people who tried to intervene were beaten up or even murdered
Effect



Material damage several 100 million Reichsmark
During the event 26,000 Jews arrested and deported to concentration camps
Jews had to pay a fine over 1 billion Reichsmark to the German Reich

Jewish shopkeepers forced to hand over their shops to “Aryans”
JEWS
The situation in Poland(Kirstin)
-
-
September 1939: setting up of the „Einsatzgruppen“
 1. function: combat ‘all anti-German elements in enemy territory’
 2. function: ‘render harmless’ the leading class of Poland
Einsatzgruppen killed thousands of intellectuals, Jews and rich Poles
Himmler appointed ‘Reich Commissar’ in 1939
Himmler’s function: spread ‘Germanisation’ and take care of the ‘cleaning’ of
the conquered territory
territory conquered in Poland about 188000 sq km
was divided into the ‘incorporated territories’ and ‘General Government’
settlers coming to Poland were examined by a Nazi scientist to see if they were
pure blooded
Poles had to leave houses for the settlers and were ‘evacuated’ into the east as
were the Jews
The General Government(Kirstin)
Hitler saw the eastern part of Poland as “dumping ground” for all European
Jews
- Hans Frank appointed as governor
 no real power given to Frank because the SS was in control of the police
- Jews, Poles and Gypsies evacuated to the General Government
- ‘pacification policy’: officially – calming down rebellions and avoid uprisings
unofficially – killing the intellectuals left from the massacres
of the Einsatzgruppen
-
The Polish Jews (Kirstin)
-
-
Poles and Jews both vermin to Hitler
 Poles low on evolutionary ladder = no danger
 Jews higher on evolutionary ladder = big threat to the German people
and the whole humanity
Jews from all over Poland deported to General Government
no official order for deportations probably because Hitler did not want an early
war with Russia and the other allies
Jews suffered discrimination and persecution
many Jews already killed by the Einsatzgruppen
Ghettos(Kirstin)
-
Jews to be ‘collected’ in Ghettos to make the final solution easier
Jews were brought to wilderness and were ordered to get lost
Ghettos were separated from the rest of the population
many cities already had Jewish areas which were then surrounded by walls to
create a Ghetto
no food and water supply = illness, starvation and death
Dealing with “hereditary” defects: Sterilization & Euthanasia (Julia)
-
1st method of eliminating hereditary practiced by Nazis: sterilization of humans who were
carrying the defect in their genes
eugenics had become increasingly influential in 1920s in Germany as also elsewhere like
e.g. America; voluntary sterilization in certain cases of hereditary illness
July 1933: Sterilization Law by Nazis, was compulsory, dubious definition of “hereditary”
(e.g. depicted as “chronic alcoholism”, “feeble-mindedness”)
Led to another sinister policy – that of euthanasia (=> euphemism)
Was misleading as people had no choice about their “mercy killing”
In 1939: 5.200mentally/ physically handicapped children were murdered. September: the
program was extended to adults
By 1941 victims numbered 72.000
Nazis wanted to keep programme secret, but soon became public, so officially halted the
programme, continued inofficially with inmates of concentration camps
T4-Programme (Julia)
-
long before Hitler announced the extermination of the Jews, he started the T4 program
T4 = Tiergartenstraße Nr. 4 Berlin ruled by interior ministry
Extermination of disabled people and mentally disabled people, were gassed in carriages
Catholic Church was against, Nazis stopped it officially in 1941, in secret going on
120.000 victims
The Final Solution: 1941-45(Julia)
The Wannsee Conference: 20th Jan. 1942
-
practical problems discussed in 90 minutes
principle for selection was set
moment for government to confirm agreement with final solution
extermination process”quasi-industrial” process
failed to agree on Mischlinge
Operation Reinhard
-
=mass gassing (named after Reinhard Heydrich)
Belzec: 1st functional Operation Reinhard camp, commandant Christian Wirth( T-4)
opened in March 1942; main staff: 30SS men, most T-4 veterans
responsibility for clearing ghettos, organisationSS; Jewish councils had to job finding
people for ‘re-settlement’
transportation experienceterrifying: trampled to death, dehydrated, suffocated or
shot while trying to escape
transport arrived: few selected, others sent to death: undress in barracks, then to
‘Baths and Inhalation Rooms’, after 30 minutes clearing by Sonderkommando
in Treblinka: within 5weeks268,000 deaths (1,000 per hour, often 12-hour day)
problems with dead bodies in Belzec/ Sobibor cremation as solution, at Treblinka:
bodies put on steel girders over huge fires
still had Jewish work force: employed in various stages of the killing process
signs of sickness/weakness: sent to gas chambers
by end of 1942: Himmler’s goal to exterminate all the Polish Jews largely achieved,
1943 November: official end, all remaining work force shot, 1.850.000 Jews killed
Economic Considerations
-
Operation Reinhard: impact on Germany’s war effort
Killing affected potential labour pool
SS (owned factories) hired out Jews; protest!  phases: extermination slowed
1941-2: Auschwitz and Majdanek- dual purpose: labour and extermination camps
Majdanek: 60.000 Jews of 200.000 people killed, in Nov. 1943 “Harvest Festival”
Auschwitz
-
Polish prisoners in 1940, expanded for Soviet prisoners, Himmler made it 1941 centre
for killing Jews
Hoess, camp commandant, used Zyklon B, killing in half the time required by carbon
monoxide
Consisted of three compounds: Auschwitz I (original camp), Auschwitz II at Birkenau
(extermination camp), Auschwitz III (industrial centre)
SS doctor selecting, numbers of fit fluctuated depending on labour requirements, not
physical health; workers sent to Auschwitz I or II
Victims sent to Brikenau, newly built complex: 8.000 corpse a day
Workers got different coloured markings on uniforms, Jews Star of David, very bad
conditions, brutal punishments
Inmates also used for medical experiments: Dr. Mengele came 1943 (age 32), using
1.500 sets of identical twins for research about the biology of racial differences
End of Auschwitz
-
1944: most Jews in German-occupied Europe killed
2nd November: Himmler order forbidding further annihilation of Jews
-
17th January 1945: Germans ordered evacuation with Russians in their back, 6.000 left ,
2.800 when Russians arrived
1.130.000 Jews killed (Hoess in Nuremberg trials)
Other Deaths
-
rid of all “racially undesirables” ( Sinti & Roma - 200.000, Jehovah’ Witnesses - 6.000,
criminals, homosexuals etc.)
10mio. Non-Jewish Russian civilians in course of war and many other people
Forced Labour
-
by 1944: 25% of the workforce = foreign workers, foreign workers’ treatment
determined by their racial origins
many Polish and Russian: forced labour camps
working conditions depended on type of job
The Situation in 1945
-
inmates of camps forced to move to camps further to west, on marches many died of
diseases, cold, hunger
by 1944-45 Dachau (used for non-Jewish prisoners, not equipped to kill larger numbers
of people) full with Jews, starved to death or killed by diseases
last weeks of war, Germany collapsed, conditions got worse and worse
allied soldiers shocked by what they say
Key Terms: SA, SS, SD, Gestapo (Lina)
The SA:






Sturmabteilung
Paramilitary combat organisation
Important for the rising of power of the NSDAP
Interfered in assemblies of political opponents
Led by Goering
Dissolved in 1934 after the Night of the Long Knives
The SS:








Full title: Schutzstaffel / Defence Unit
Set up in 1925 as Hitler´s personal guards
Himmler appointed leader in 1929
Played a key role in carrying out the Night of the Long Knives
Replaced the SA after this as the main military unit of the Party
Intended to represent the German elite
Members carefully screened to ensure racial and biological purity
By 1935 200000 members





Main duties: enforce the party´s racial policy & run the concentration camps
Two particularly infamous units: the Death´s Head Unit & the armed Waffen SS
Death´s Head Unit: ran concentration camps
Armed Waffen SS: set up in 1940,eventually replace the army
Both units really brutal & ruthless
The Gestapo:








Geheime Staatspolizei/ The secret state Police
Set up by Goering in Prussia, 1933
Soon replaced all the existing political police in Germany
Himmler in charge after 1933
By 1936 established as part of Himmler´s SS empire
Main duty: enforce political conformity
Made use of “protective custody”
Relied on denunciations by ordinary German people
The SD:





Sicherheitsdienst
Set up by Himmler in 1931
International security service for the SS
Increasingly given the job of intelligence
Reports: covering issues such as the popularity of the party, the situation of the Church
 Provides us with a valuable source of evidence about the Third Reich
Einsatzgruppen (Lina)






In conquered areas of the USSR  SS to do “special tasks”
Einsatzgruppe = ca. 100 men (police officers, ordinary people)
Divided into several “Einsatzkommandos”
Officers of the Einsatzkommandos: strong, tall, handsome
Task: kill Communistic leaders (most likely to be killed at this time) & Jews (also killed
by local people)
Not sure if order for genocide was given
Different evidence for this at the trial of Nuremberg
Increasing personnel of the Einsatzgruppen end of 1941
Over 6000 men on Soviet territory
Routinely killing started (people had to dig trench, kneel down, killed by shot in the
back of the head)
Interpreted their task as an extermination of all Soviet Jews
Got help from Baltic States & the Ukraine
Führer – Führerstaat – Führerprinzip; Hitler myth; working towards
the Führer (Lina)
Führerstaat-Führer-Führerprinzip:


Führer in the middle of everything
Every part of the government was centred towards the Führer
Hitler myth:

Built up on people´s desire for strong leadership



Presented Hitler as an almost Godlike figure
Goebbels claimed it was the biggest part of propaganda achievements
Everything Hitler did was carefully worked over
Photographs with Hitler wearing glasses were censored
Any hint of human failing was covered up




Many people separated Hitler from the NSDAP
Hitler was still really popular
NSDAP got unpopular during the Second World War
Myth depended on some real political successes
Crucial to the success of the regime
After 1936 Hitler began to believe in this myth himself
Working towards the Führer:





Hitler´s power regarded as something above and beyond that of a normal head of
state
Everyone was answerable to Hitler, no matter in which position
Hitler seen above party politics and beyond the law
Several people appointed by Hitler for the same job
Only way to achieve power: find a way of pleasing Hitler, try to get into Hitler´s
favor
Result: ungainly struggle between ambitious Nazis
Ende des Rechts- und Verfassungsstaates 1933/34 (Julia)
Impact of Wall Street Clash => Unemployment:
-
-
collapse of American Stock Exchange in October 1929 (Germany had received American
loans after 194 for reparations, now had to be repaid, no further loans given): disastrous
effect on German economy ( never had fully recovered from war & hyperinflation)
winter 1928-1929: unemployment: 2.5 mio. people, following winter over 3 mio.; have
economically active population without work in winter times
1931-1932: thousands of small family firms collapsed, smaller farmers = bankrupt; diseases
reappeared, infant mortality increased, incomes fell, people lived in constant fear of
unemployment
 Grand Coalition
-
political weaknesses of Weimar political system = more apparent
1928: Herman Müller (Social Democrat) appointed as Chancellor of Grand Coalition (5
political parties: SPD, Centre Party, BVP, DDP, DVP)
- decision-making = difficult, economic crisis lighted the differences between parties
- fundamental problem for government: deficit in Reich budget! => spending more money
then receiving
- not helped by inadequacy of unemployment scheme (unable to pay enough benefits to
unemployed people) => government forced to invest, worsening the budget
- parties split along class lines over this issue (SPD: wanted to raise the level of contributions
to scheme whilst protecting workers & unemployed as far as possible; right-wing parties
like DVP: wanted to lighten tax burden, reduce value of unemployment benefits)
 result: political deadlock, co-operation between the parties denied
-
Müller: unable to muster enough support in Reichstag to pass laws, turned to Hindenburg
for help
Müller wanted Hindenburg to grant him to use of Article 48 (Head of State: rule without
Reichstag in times of emergency) so that Reichstag support was unnecessary
Hindenburg refused (Müller belonged to SPD, therefore represented left-wing Hindenburg
distrusted)
Müller resigned in March 1930
 Nationalist opposition
-
-
1929: right-wing parties united against Young Plan (reparations should be reduced to 37
mio. Marks, allied troops were meant to withdrew in 1930s)
was denounced by Nazis as another example of foreign powers dictating Germany’s
fortunes
two parties (DNVP&NSDAP) joined together calling for plebiscite, proposed ‘Freedom
Laws’ (required government to end all co-operation with international powers over
Rhineland occupation & reject any obligations implemented by Versailles Treaty)
plebiscite = failure (13.8% in favor of Nazis proposal), but NSDAP became more popular &
financial backing from association with DNVP; free publicity in Hugenberg’s newspaper
stream of anti-Weimar propaganda was unleashed, during 1929: Nazis did well in local
elections
 The Collapse of democracy
Key players:
President Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934)
- Hero in 1st WW, was made supreme military commander in 1916
- After war retired, was persuaded in 1925 to candidate as president of right-wing coalition
- Succeeded; other parties & states in Europe feared that with him there would be a return
to authoritarian rule
- 1st five years: acted within limits of Weimar Constitution
- from 1930: influenced by aristocratic army officers (they wished to weaken new Republic
& gain more power for themselves)
- he was getting old ( it was said he would even sign a sandwich paper because he thought it
to be an official paper)
- distrusted Hitler, but was persuaded to appoint him as Chancellor in 1933
1.8 Brüning as Chancellor
- following Müller in March 1930, Hindenburg appointed Brüning heavily influenced by von
Schleicher
- Schleicher encouraged the creation of a cabinet excluding the SPD (despite the fact that it
remained the largest party in Reichstag)
- 1st step towards eliminating the left wing from German politics
- left Brüning with inadequate support in Reichstag, not able to pass laws without support of
SPD
- Brüning wanted to go back to a more authoritarian style of government, wanted to bypas
Reichstag completely by using Article 48 (enforce laws by Presidential Decree)
- Reactions from parties showed Brüning would face a deadlock in Reichstag
-
1st crisis occurred on July 1930: Reichstag rejected part of Brüning’s finance bill
which was intended to balance the budget
-
-
Brüning used Article 48 to bypass Reichstag, Reichstag passed motion demanding that the
decree should be withdrawn and Brüning’s reponse was to dissolve Reichstag, call for new
election
Extremely risky strategy, given the Nazi successes in recent local elections
If Brüning had not called for new elections, Nazis wouldn’t have had opportunity to
increase seats from 12 to 107 in Reichstag
1.9 The election of 1930
- most significant feature about 1930: growth of two extreme parties: KPD & Nazis
- both benefited from electorate’s impatience with the government’s slow response to
economic crisis
- Brüning faced opposition from at least 64% of Reichstag deputies
- DNVP also refusing to work with Brüning, SPD remained outside government
- Brüning continued to rely on Article 48 to pass laws
Presidential Election
- April 1932, President Hindenburg was re-elected for 2nd term, main rivals were Hitler/
Thälmann (leader of KPD)
- 1st round, Hindenburg polled 49% of voters, just failing to secure an overall majority
- failure of left to agree to a joint candidate created bizarre situation: socialists & Centre
Party supporters voted for right-wing Hindenburg to simply keep out Hitler
1.10 Why did Brüning fall?
- series of decrees was issued in 1931, which reduced wages and public salaries to level of
1927 ( in some cases pensions/benefits fell by 9%)
- unemployment rate over 6 mio. people in February 1932: got almost nothing at all
- those who had work faced decreasing living standard
- Hindenburg’s confidence in Brüning was decreasing, because Schleicher was urging him to
create an even more right-wing government
- Schleicher thought Nazis should be included in government if it was to have support at all
in Reichstag, began secret meetings & negotiations with Hitler
- Finally Hindenburg withdrew his permission for usage of Article 48, Brüning forced to
resign in May 1932
Conclusion
-
Wall Street Crash: key factor in fall of Weimar Rebuplic
Democracy in Germany effectively ended in 1930 with frequent use of Article 48 Grand
Coalition
Nazi Party grew in strength btw. 1930 and 1932, reasons: economic crisis, fear of
communism, weakness of other radical parties, tactics and strengths of Nazi Party itself
Hitler get into power ‘through the back door’, although success in elections made it
possible
Key Persons: Adolf Hitler (Lina)


Born 20th April 1889 in Braunau
Broke up his school education after his father’s death (1903)









Lived with his mother till she died in 1907
Interested in design and paint
Failed to be accepted at the academy of arts in Vienna (not enough talented)
Settled to Munich in 1913 to escape the Austrian military service
Registered as a volunteer at the beginning of WW1 in 1914
Got the Iron Cross (“Eisernes Kreuz”) of the 1st and the 2nd grade because he was
wounded several times
After war Hitler attended to policy
Worked as speaker on educations (high elocutionary talent)
July 1921 he became first chairman of the “Deutsche Arbeiterpartei”
Party re-named
(NSDAP)










into
“Nationalsozialistische
Deutsche
Arbeiterpartei”
9th Oktober 1923 Hitlerputsch
Convicted to 5 years in prison; ejected premature already at the end of 1924
In prison: wrote his book “Mein Kampf” (political aims, ideologies)
Wanted to restore power of NSDAP (power lost while he was in prison); at first not
successful
Power restored in 1930 due to the global economic crisis (“To what extent and why did
the Nazi Party gain support from 1930-1933?”)
Appointed Chancellor 30th January 1933 by Hindenburg
After Hindenburg´s death (2nd August 1934) Hitler combined the function of the
Reichskanzler and the Reichspräsident under the title “Führer und Reichskanzler”
Invaded Poland 1st September 1939
3rd September 1939 : declaration of war on Germany by France & Great Britain
Committed suicide 30th April 1945 after he lost the War
Hermann Göring (Kirstin)
-
extrovert
fame for achievements in WWI as pilot
joined NSDAP in 1922
in charge of SA
Prime and Interior Minister of Prussia
found “Gestapo” and first concentration camps
Commander- in- Chief of air force
1936: control of Four Years Plan
second man after Hitler
sentenced to death in Nurnberg trials
committed suicide in his cell
Heinrich Himmler (Lina)







Born 7th Oktober 1900
Grew up in Catholic milieu
Registered as volunteer (in 1917) for the first world war
Studied agriculture after the war
Joined the NSDAP in 1923, participated at the Hitlerputsch (9th November 1923)
Joined the “Schutzstaffel” (SS)
Absorbed the SS (300 men) & built it up to a elite formation within the SA in 1929








he was responsible for the black uniform and the special swastika armband to
distinguish the SS from the SA
When Hitler came to power he became “kommissarischer Polizeipräsident” in Munich
Leader of the political police and die Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei)
His job to liquid the top management of the SA (Röhm-Putsch)
“Reichsführer” of the SS  directly subordinated to Hitler
From 1936  control over the whole police of Germany
In the last months of the war: tried to contact the west allies to end the war at the
western front Wanted to join west powers to fight together with them against the
SU
Ejected by Hitler out of all his agency and out of Hitler´s testament because of this
Dressed up like a “Feldpolizist”
Got into British imprisonment
 Committed suicide when they found out who he was (23th May 1945)
Reinhard Heydrich (Lina)









Born 7th March 1904
Son of a middle-class musician
Too young to fight in WW1
Joined the navy in 1922
Joined the NSDAP and the SS in 1931
Became Hitler´s deputy in 1933
Was appointed head of the Reich Central Office for Jewish Emigration
Was given the responsibility for the mass murders of Jews
Was assassinated by a member of the Czech resistance in 1942
Joseph Göbbels (Lina)












Born 29th October 1897
Studied philosophy, history of art and science of literature
Came to the NSDAP in 1924 (first belonged to the socialist leftern wing)
Turned towards Hitler later on
Became “Gauleiter” of Berlin-Brandenburg in 1926
One of the best known persons of the NSDAP due to his demagogic and elocutionary
talents
Became “Reichspropagandaleiter” of the NSDAP in 1929
His task was to establish Hitler´s position and power (Reichsminister für
Volksaufklärung und Propaganda)  used radio, press and film for this  created the
“Führermythos”
One of the most important figures concerning the consolidation of the nationalist
dictatorship
Responsible for “events” like the “Bücherverbrennung”, the “Reichskristallnacht” and
the day of Potsdam
Was appointed Reichskanzler in Hitler´s testament, but:
Committed suicide together with Hitler on the 1st May 1945
Alfred Hugenberg (Kirstin)
-
-
before WWI: civil servant and banker
“Reichstag” deputy for DNVP
1929 joined with Hitler against Young Plan
owned newspaper which Hitler used for propaganda
1932: Minister for Economics and Food
Heinrich Brüning (1885-1970) (Julia)
-
Member of Centre Party, Reichstag deputy from 1924-1933
Kept left-wing out of government, he couldn’t pass any laws through Reichstag
Wanted to reform the constitution and go back to monarchy
Failed to resolve economic crisis
Forced to resign in 1932, emigrated to America
Franz von Papen (1879-1969) (Julia)
-
-
Born in wealthy noble family, joined army; became captain of General Staff in 1913
After war: entered politics (representing extreme right-wing of Centre Party), never
achieved place in Reichstag, but represented interests of landed aristocrats in Prussian
Landtag (state parliament)
After supporting Hindenburg in presidential election of 1932, was appointed as Chancellor
in May 1932
Papen failed to gain support in Reichstag, was dismissed in months, replaced by Schleicher
As revenge: Papen persuaded Hindenburg to sack Schleicher and appoint Hitler as
Chancellor with himself as Vice-President
Kurt von Schleicher (1882-1934) (Julia)
-
Another aristocratic army man, was stage-managing the events between 1930 and 1932
Born in old Prussian family, joined Hindenburg’s regime in 1903, became close friend o
Hindenburg’s son
Within 1920’s achieved success in Defence Ministry (combined interests in politics and
army), from this powerful position could talk Hindenburg into giving von Papen up
Replaced von Papen in December 1932 as Chancellor
Attempt to gain support in Reichstag backfired, providing von Papen with opportunity for
revenge, forced to resign within two months
Murdered by Nazis in 1934