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Geophysical Research Letters
Supporting Information for
What caused the mysterious 18th century tsunami that struck the southwest Taiwan
coast?
Linlin Li1 , Adam D. Switzer1,2 , Yu Wang1, Robert Weiss3 , Qiang Qiu1,2 , Chung-Han Chan1 ,
Paul Tapponnier1,2
1.Earth
Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798
2Asian
School of Environment, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798
3Department
of Geosciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, USA, 24061
Contents of this file
Text S1 to S6
Figures S1 to S4
Tables S1 to S2
Introduction
Text S1 contains details of historical records, including three original records and comparison of
these with one widely cited Russian tsunami catalog. S1 ends with a synthesis of the event
based on the different historical records.
Text S2 presents the evaluation of potential volcanic sources and a discussion of the possible
connections between the historical accounts and geological evidence in SW Taiwan.
Text S3 introduces how we specify fault parameters in the synthetic fault models.
Text S4 emphasizes the tsunami risk in southern China from northern Manila trench
earthquakes.
Text S5 explains how we specify the parameters for tsunami earthquake.
Figure S1 1856 map of Taiwan published by the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in 1896
Figure S2 Nested grid used in earthquake scenarios
Figure S3 The spatial distribution of seismicity based on Taiwan instrumental record. Based on
the cross-section, we set the dip angle of the Manila Trench near the surface as 10˚
Figure S4 Fault geometries of synthetic splay fault model with magnitude a, 7.7 and b, 7.6
(subfigures) and maximum tsunami wave height
Table S1 Calculated fault length/width and used values in this study
Table S2 Fault parameters for synthetic splay fault models
1
Text S1.
With the exception of the fourth record, we cautiously only include those which we deem as the
original sources (Record 1 – Record 3) in an attempt to avoid being misled by second-hand
information which might contain misinterpretations. The reason we also include the fourth
record is because it is the very influential, highly cited catalog yet it is a misleading one.
Record 1 by Chen [1830]
The 1781 tsunami event was originally collected in Taiwan Interview Catalogue [Chen, 1830].
The description of this event was later included in Source Materials on the History of Natural
Disasters in Ching Taiwan [Hsu, 1983] and China Historical Disastrous Sea-surge Record [Lu,
1984] . Here I write down the original report in classical Chinese and English translation.
Original report in classical Chinese: “乾隆四十六年四、五月間，時甚晴霽，忽海水
暴吼如雷，巨排空，水漲數十丈，近村人居被淹，皆攀援而上至尾，自分必死，不
數刻，水暴退，人在竹上搖曳呼救，有強力者一躍至地，兼救他人互相引援而下，
間有牧地甚廣及附近田園溝壑，悉是魚蝦，撥刺跳躍，十里內村民提籃挈筒，往爭
取焉。聞只淹斃一婦，婦素悍，事姑不孝，餘皆得全活。嗣聞是日有漁人獲兩鼊，
將歸，霎時間波濤暴起，二物竟趣，漁者乘伐從竹上過，遠望其家已成巨浸，至水
汐時，茅屋數椽，已無有矣 (道光十年二月二十日恩贡生林師聖報)”
Translation (revised from Mak and Chan [2007]): In around the 4th and 5th month, 46th
Qianlong year, the weather was fine. Suddenly the sea roared like thunder. Giant wave
appeared. Water rose for tens of zhang high (1 zhang approx. equals to 3-1/3 m).
Villagers nearby were all submerged. They climbed upwards and thought they would die
soon. After a few quarters, the wave ebbed quickly. People were swinging on top of
bamboos, crying for help. One strong man jumped to ground, and helped others getting
down. Gazing lands, farmlands and gullies were full of leaping fishes and shrimps.
Villagers nearby rushed to collect them by baskets. It was heard that people all survived
except one woman who is not filial to her mother-in-law. Later it was heard that a
fisherman got two turtles on that day. When he was about to go home, the wave rose
suddenly, he lost the turtles. The fisherman sailed on top of bamboos on raft, watching
their homes submerged from far. When the wave ebbed, the rafters of the thatched
roofs were all gone. (Reported by Confucian scholar Lin Shi-sheng on the twentieth of
the 2nd month, Daoguang year)
Record 2 by Mallet [1854]
“On 22nd (May, 1782) the sea rose with great violence on the coast of Formosa and the
adjacent part of China, and remained eight hours above its ordinary level; having swept
away all the villages along the coast, and drowned immense numbers of people. No
shock is mentioned”.
Record 3 by Perrey [1862]
(Translation from French to English by P. Tapponnier, 15 Nov. 2014 with the following comment,
“Because the original words used are important, I tried to stay as close as possible to the French
text, rather than polish the English”.)
Translated excerpt of Perrey’s report:
2
1782 – On May 22nd, the sea rose to a prodigious height on the coast of Fo-Kien, and
covered almost entirely, for 8 hours, the island of Formosa, which is distant by more
than 50 leagues (Fujian, actually distant from Taiwan by ≈ 150 ± 30 km; 1 league equals
approximately 3.2 - 3.4 km). The waters as they withdrew left in place of most
habitations only heaps of debris under which part of the huge population of that island
remained buried. The emperor of China, eager to assess personally the effects of this
disaster, went out of the capital; while traveling through the provinces, the cries of his
people, excited by some mandarins, reached his ears, and it is said that he made justice
of it by beheading more than 300 (Gazette de France, 12 August 1785, after Letters from
China).
The following is an excerpt from J. L. Ab Indagine L. M. (Philosophisch-und
Physikalische-Abhandlungen…, pages 150-155, paragraphs 116 and 117, Nurnberg, 1784,
in-8°):
“Mr. Bertin, State Minister of France, received from a missionary in Beijing a letter
stating that in October 1782 a volcano erupted in the island of Formosa, located near the
coasts of China; that fearful eruption, which nothing announced, was accompanied by
underground commotions so violent that the whole island was shaken and ruined. The
waves of the sea, which were pushed from the east to the west, covered and nearly
submerged the entire island, such that nothing was left to see except at the foot of the
mountains. This flooding and the tremors lasted more than 8 hours. The three principal
cities of this unhappy island (the names of which we cannot tell here), and 20 villages or
small towns were buried under the debris, and what had escaped was entrained by the
violence of the waters. More than 40 000 inhabitants, indigenous and Chinese, found
their death in this disaster. All the promontories of land that jutted out to sea were
carried away and replaced by embayments or by foundered terrain occupied by water.
The forts of Seeland and Pingkchingi disappeared with the hills upon which they were
built. In one word, there is nothing left but a water-plain….”
Unfortunately, the news given by the journals regarding this unhappy event are far from
concordant. The Minister of War would have received from a Chinese national who
spent several years in Paris a letter in which it would be said: “In December 1682, several
volcanic mountains erupted in the island of Formosa. These frightful eruptions were
accompanied by an underground movement that shook the entire island and by a rise of
the waters of the sea which, rolling from the east to the west, submerged it entirely.
The earthquake lasted for eight hours. More than 40 000 people perished.”
Finally, a second letter sent from Beijing to Versailles would confirm the disaster
suffered by the island of Formosa. The misery of several thousand inhabitants, following
that flood, would be, we might easily conceive, above all description.
The emperor of China would have written to the Viceroy of the province of Feu-Kim
(Fukien?) the following letter: “The news of the disaster which struck my island of RayOnan (Formosa) has reached my ears. I order that you let me know very accurately the
damage suffered by the unfortunate survivors, and report it at once to me so that I can
promptly send succour. The houses and all habitations destroyed by the waters shall be
rebuilt at my expenses and all damage repaired. All the unfortunate will receive, out of
my coffers, all the help they need. Such help will be granted to all, without exception.
Any omission would distress me. You know that my eye sees them all, and that my heart
loves them all. Tell them that they can count on my succour, that I am their prince and
their father. The warships and shops destroyed by the force of the storm and the waves
3
of the sea shall be reconstructed at the state expenses. Oppress no one, I forbid, and let
me know how my will was obeyed.”
Hence, as the author brings to our attention, three distinct months, October, December
and May, are mentioned; the epoch when the island of Formosa was ruined thus
remains uncertain. But, from the letter written by the Beijing missionary in 1783 to Mr.
de Bertin, it results that following the eruption of underground fires, the sea rose to
quite extra-ordinary height on the coasts of China, that the entire island was submerged
for several days, and that the waters then withdrew, without leaving any trace of either
men or four-legged animals.
History offers no example of another disaster comparable to that of Formosa, save that
of Messina, in the year 1783.
Record 4
Tsunami Catalog by Soloviev and Go [1984]
The Russian catalog recorded historical tsunami event on the Western Shore of the Pacific
Ocean occurring between 173 and 1968. The English version was translated by Canadian
Translation of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/69881.pdf).
1782, May 22 (1682, December ?). An earthquake which affected all the Taiwan Island
and caused great destruction, was accompanied by tsunami waves, which ran into the
coast of the island in an east-west direction. “almost the entire island” was flooded for a
distance of more than 120 km (30 leagues). The tremors and tsunami waves lasted 8
hours. The three main cities of the island and 20 villages were first destroyed by the
earthquake and then by the tsunami. Retreating, the water left buildings, at best, as piles
of debris. “Not a single living soul was left.” More than 40,000 residents died. Many ships
were smashed or sunk. In place of the capes, jutting into the sea, which were washed out,
fresh scarps and gulfs filled with water were formed. Zelandia Fort (Anpin) and
Pingkchingi Fort were washed away together with the hills on which they stood.
A discussion about the nature and limitations of these records
Here we rank the significance of these records: 1) The Chinese record is ranked highest, as it is
the only local record and it is based on a collection of interviews from survivors. The
phenomena described in this record (e.g., “The weather was fine”, “the sea suddenly roared like
thunder”, and “sea retreat quickly, exposing leaping fishes and shrimps”) are typical of historical
accounts of tsunami and are important in confirming the nature of this event; 2) Record 3 by
Perrey [1862] ranks second in importance as the contemporary secondary accounts that are
cited verbatim in it give the most detailed description of tsunami phenomena and disaster. We
emphasize here that the translation of record 3 given by one of our co-authors Paul Tapponnier
is one of our contributions to the tsunami research community in this region. We are the first
group to fully read, translate and report this French record. During our investigations of this
historical event we found that no one (including Taiwanese researchers) appeared to have
actually read this French record although it has been cited in some publications [Li et al., 2006;
Mak and Chan, 2007; Okal et al., 2011; Yang, 1987]:all of these publications directly attribute the
cause to earthquake without mentioning the claims of volcanic eruptions that are prominent
features of the accounts that are cited by Perrey. In view of its importance, here we present an
analysis of the French historical record:
4
The volcanic source is likely to reflect pre-plate tectonic interpretations of seismicity - The
beliefs of that epoch, were that any catastrophic event with a deep earth origin was considered
to be linked to volcanic fire. Therefore, the volcanoes are noted as an underlying general cause
but they are not described. Nor are any volcanic phenomena, fire, rains of incandescent stones,
flows of molten rocks, etc. It is therefore arguable that one should discard the volcano part of
the reports as just part of the belief of the day. However, an alternative interpretation of this
feature of the accounts is presented in section S2.
Second, it seems clear that the disaster (particularly the tsunami) had some effect on the coasts
of China, particularly that of Fujian, as well as those of Taiwan. Clearly also, the disaster
originated close to Taiwan, where the maximum horror particularly impressed the reporters of
the time, and thus it is more lengthily and vividly described there. That the waves propagated
from east to west, and that there were permanent changes to the Taiwanese coastline are both
indicative of a source close to the Taiwanese shore.
Third, there can be little doubt that the tsunami was coincident with a large earthquake, with
violent shaking, both of which are mentioned several times as such. The reported duration of
shaking, 8 hours, probably related to the most perceptible, large aftershocks, which usually are
more numerous and stronger in the first day or so after a large earthquake.
Finally, it seems justified to regard the letter by the missionary to the French state minister of
war as one of the most reliable reports. The Jesuit missionaries at the court of Qianlong were
scholars, particularly versed in scientific matters. The record 2 by Mallet [1854] ranks third and
although very brief, it is still very important. As it is independent information published in 1854
in London and hence both earlier than Perrey’s report and written in different language. It
presented as cross-validation for Records 1 and 3.
The tsunami Catalog by Soloviev and Go [1984] is included as a fourth record because it is the
most widely cited catalog among all these records. Almost all tsunami catalogs published later
include and accept the fourth record without further inquiry. However, this record is clearly a
translation from the letters received by Minister Bertin and the Minister of War as reported by
Perrey; But it is not a complete translation. Record 4 omits the volcanic eruption which is
repeatedly mentioned in Perrey’s report, and interprets the cause as a giant earthquake. This
record almost certainly leads people to the conventional idea that a giant earthquake on the
Manila trench generated the 1782 event. There are also other mistakes in record 4, like the “30
leagues” which is the term used to describe the distance between Fu-Kien and Taiwan Island in
Perrey’s report, but it is explained in here as the flooding distance.
Another issue needs to be clarified is the occurrence time of this event, as three different time
were reported in Record 3 (1782 May 22nd, October 1782, December 1682). We tend to believe
that the occurrence year should be 1781/1782 is as it was written on two of the three original
sources (record1 and record2). Similar tsunami occurrence location and phenomena reported in
record1- record3 suggest they are reporting the same event. The same belief reflects on the
tsunami catalog organized by other researchers [Li et al., 2006; Yang, 1987].
5
Text S2.
Though described in the historical literature [Perrey, 1862], the geographical locations of
current or recently active volcanoes in or near Taiwan do not favor the claim that a volcanic
eruption caused the 1781/1782 Taiwan tsunami and most likely merely reflect the scientific
opinions of the day. Nonetheless we will here consider a volcanic source before examining
other features of the geology of SW Taiwan that provide an alternative explanation for the
mentions of volcanoes and other features of the contemporary accounts of the event.
Two groups of volcanoes could potentially pose a volcanic tsunami hazard in Taiwan (Fig. 1). In
the northeast region, the Tatun Volcano Group, Kueishantao [Belousov et al., 2010; Chen et al.,
2010; Chen et al., 2001; Konstantinou et al., 2007] and some submarine volcanoes in the Ryukyu
Arc and Okinawa Trough [Lin et al., 2007]; and to the south in the Luzon strait, 4 active volcanos
including Batan, Babuyan, Didicas, Camiguin [Paris et al., 2014]. The specific mechanisms by
which volcanic eruptions can form tsunamis are diverse and complex [Kusky, 2008]. Among
multiple mechanisms implied in the generation of volcanic tsunamis, pyroclastic flows, flank
failures and caldera subsidence are the only source mechanisms likely to generate large scale
tsunamis [Paris et al., 2014]. As the wave length generated by such mechanisms is relatively
small compared with the one with a great seismic source, the associated tsunamis tend not to
travel very far, but to decay in height quickly [Kusky, 2008]. In such cases, volcanoes in the
northeast region would only generate locally high tsunami waves in the northeast region other
than the southwest coast which is in the opposite side of the island. This could also explain why
5 historically recorded volcanic eruption events did not cause inland damage [Chen and Shen,
2005]. Tsunamis generated by the active volcanoes in the Luzon straits would affect Luzon
Island more since they are all geographically far away from Taiwan (> 200 km) and nearer to
Philippines. As no tsunami event was recorded in Philippines during the suspected occurrence
time [Wiegel, 1980] , it seems unlikely that the 1781 Taiwan tsunami was generated by any of
them. Moreover, for the tsunamis generated in the eastern offshore Taiwan, Hengchun ridge
would play a blocking role by constraining most of the wave energy on the eastern side. Such
blocking effect makes tsunami sources in the eastern side hardly capable of generating large
tsunami waves on the western Taiwan coast.
On the other hand, the volcanic eruptions may have been real, only the “volcanoes” refer to
mud volcanoes instead of magmatic volcanoes. This is likely considering the geomorphic
characteristics in SW Taiwan where numerous mud volcanoes exist both onshore and off SW
Taiwan, especially in the upper Kaoping slope [Chen et al., 2014]. If the reports of “volcanic
eruptions” cited in Perrey [1862] are accepted, they may relate to coseismic eruption of mud
volcanoes. Although the mud volcanic eruptions themselves could not be the main tsunami
generators in terms of their relatively small scale (65 m to 345 m in height) and shallow
locations (365 m- 760 m water depth) [Chen et al., 2014], their existence are strong evidence for
the development of elevated pore fluid pressures in the thick sediment of the coastal fan delta
and submarine slopes.
Such high pore fluid pressures would have increased the susceptibility of submarine slopes
offshore SW Taiwan to instability and landsliding as a result of seismic shaking. Such
phenomena may explain some of the accounts reported in the historical records, for example,
the disappearance of two ancient forts: The formation of mud volcanoes are directly associated
with the mud diapirism which in turn related to the overpressure in sedimentary layers,
compressional tectonic forces and gas-bearing fluids [Chen et al., 2014]. The disappearance of
two ancient forts reported in Perrey [1862] might related to the diapiric intrusion in the Tainan
6
basin and coseismic liquefaction and subsidence [Chen and Liu, 2000; Huang et al., 2006].
Furthermore, previous studies suggest that Tainan Tableland can be interpreted as a mud
diapiric dome [Chen and Liu, 2000; Huang et al., 2006]. Therefore, it is likely that the two
ancient forts were built well above such mud diapirs which collapsed or deflated during the
seismic event.
Text S3.
Two sets of empirical formulas (S.1 - S.4) specially proposed for subduction zone events are
used to calculate the rupture length and width for a given earthquake moment magnitude
[Blaser et al., 2010; Papazachos et al., 2004]. The rupture areas are then divided into a number
of subfaults, each having dimensions of 20 km × 20 km.
Scaling relations proposed by Blaser et al [2010] :
(S.1)
(S.2)
Scaling relations proposed by Papazachos et al [2004] :
(S.3)
(S.4)
Once the fault length and width are determined, the averaged slip
is calculated based
on its relationship with seismic moment
and the relationship between seismic moment and
moment magnitude
(S.5-S.6):
(S.5)
(S.6)
The strike angle of each subfault follows the orientation of Manila Trench. We specify the dip
angle for all the subfaults as 10° based on seismological knowledge (Fig. S2). The rake angle of
each subfault is set to 90°, since the greatest vertical seafloor deformation could be achieved in
this way.
Text S4.
Two interesting geophysical phenomena can be observed in our simulations. Firstly, although
the azimuth of the ruptured fault directs most tsunami energy southwestward to the deeper
parts of the South China Sea, all modeling (Fig. 2) indicates that tsunami waves refract
significantly near Dongsha Island due to the continental slope of the passive margin and
propagate towards southeast China. This implies that even though the southeast Chinese coast
is not directly facing any of the predicted rupture patches, any tsunami generated from the
northern segments of the Manila trench may cause tsunami wave heights of several meters
along the southern Chinese coast. This area of the China Sea is home to globally relevant deep
water port infrastructures, several nuclear power plants, and 5 coastal cities with populations
exceeding 5 million people. Secondly, as the orientation of the northern segment of the Manila
Trench points toward Tainan (Fig 1.) and tsunami propagate perpendicular to the trench line,
directivity effects would partly spare Tainan and Kaohsiung from excessive damage from
tsunami of pure megathrust origin. In contrast, the coastal region in the southernmost part of
Taiwan, including Donggang and Kenting lie in the direct path of tsunamis, with modeled wave
heights reaching ~5 m from a shallow megathrust earthquake of Mw>8.2.
7
Text S5.
Unexpectedly large tsunamis generated by “tsunami earthquakes” are commonly characterized
by abnormal slow rupture velocity and relatively low energy release at high frequencies [Polet
and Kanamori, 2000], as exemplified by the 2006 Java and 1996 Chimbote, Peru earthquakes
[Bourgeois et al., 1999; Fritz et al., 2007]. Regarding the nature of potential tectonic
environments for the generation of “tsunami earthquake”, several different models consider
the disparity between magnitude and tsunami waves, with lower rigidity in the source region
(e.g. sediment layers or an accretionary prism), a favored explanation for abnormally large
tsunami waves in such events [Polet and Kanamori, 2000; Seno, 2002]. To compare tsunamis
generated by an ordinary earthquake and a tsunami earthquake, we maintained a consistent
Mw 8.2 earthquake, and used the same fault geometry in Fig 3b but replaced the commonly
used 3×1011dyne/cm2 shear modulus of the crust, with 2×1011dyne/cm2 reflecting “soft”
properties of marine sediments. In this scenario the slip value increases 1.5 times and the
tsunami wave height increases dramatically on both the southwest Taiwan coast from
Donggang to Kenting (~5m) and the southeast China coast from Macau to Shantou (~ 2m).
Figure S1. 1856 map of Taiwan published by the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in 1896.
The three main cities which marked by red circles are suspected affected locations mentioned
in historical records.
8
Figure S2. Nested grid used in earthquake scenarios
9
Figure S3. The spatial distribution of seismicity based on Taiwan instrumental record. Based on
the cross-section, we specify the dip angle of the Manila Trench near the surface as 10˚.
Figure S4. Fault geometries of synthetic splay fault model with magnitude a, 7.7 and b, 7.6
(subfigures) and maximum tsunami wave height.
10
Blaser et al., 2010
Papazachos et al., 2004
Used values Estimated
Mw Length (km) Width (km) Length (km) Width (km) length width
slip (m)
7.8
120
53
126
61
120
60
2.89
8.2
201
81
208
81
200
80
5.17
8.4
262
100
269
94
260
100
6.35
8.6
340
124
346
108
340
120
8.08
Table S1. Calculated fault length/width and used values in this study
Mw
7.7
7.6
Length (km)
100
68
Width (km)
20
20
Dip (degree)
45
45
Slip (m)
7
7
Table S2. Fault parameters for synthetic splay fault models
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