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(Communication) Theory and Research
---What is the definition of ‘theory’ in the context of communication research?
A theory predicts, explains, and evaluates.
---What is the definition of a model in the context of communication research? It
is a representation to show the construction or appearance of something.
---Can you identify the main communication models, their evolution and their
significance? Aristotle’s Model of Communication: [Invention, Arrangement,
Style, Delivery] Speaker discovers rational (logos), emotional (pathos) and
ethical (ethos) proofs (pistis), arranges those proofs strategically, clothes the
ideas in clear and compelling words, then delivers the product appropriately.
Laswell (1948): Who- Communicator, says what-message, in which channelmedium, to whom-receiver, with what effect?- effect. Shows the basic
communication, but does not consider noise, so not as relevant in modern
times.
Shannon-Weaver (1949): Sender- info source, encoder- transmitter. Channel
(has noise), decoder- reception, receiver- destination, feedback (goes to front
of cycle) New noise variable, and can apply beyond person A and person B.
Could apply to TV. Still missing the frame of reference.
Schramm (1954): Venn diagram-looking, both with field of experience. The
middle ground is Signal. Left is Source, then to encoder. Right is decoder, to
Destination. Frame of reference same as field of experience. We interpret
information based on that field of experience. Overlap is where you can
communicate effectively between sender and receiver.
Katz and Lazarfeld (1955): Step 1) Source – message – mass media – [Opinion
Leaders] – Step 2) Public Addition of opinion leaders and mass media. Opinion
leaders filter messages from mass media, then convince public. Linked
personal dynamics to mass communication.
Westley and MacLean (1955): X1, X2, …Xn go to A to C to B. C is also exposed
to other X’s and B and C send feedback to A and C. X’s are messages and this
model illustrates how people can be introduced to different messages at once
and send feedback to each other.
Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1968): Attempt to illustrate the nature of
communication is dynamic. Messages from person A to Person B go up and
down to each other.
Thayer (1968): nonlinear, dynamic communication model. Arrows spin around
randomly: originator, receiver, acquiring, processing, generating, disseminating.
Devito (2003): Much closer to modern communication model. Adds
environment, called communication context. Effect  source-encoder,
receiver-decoder Messages through channels and noise  sourceencoder, receiver-decoder Effect
More contemporary, has noise, channels, communication context. Effect
variable can be at receiver and decoder end. Shows that communication is
ongoing. Communication Paradigm: Regardless of which model: Sender 
message  Receiver = Effect
Anomaly: Message sent is not message received
---What are the key components associated with conducting (communication)
research? Hypothesis: If A, then B. Data. Data Analysis. Theory/Model:
published and validated. Research Paradigm: What did this model do to
contribute to our understanding?
Interpersonal Communication
---What is the definition of interpersonal communication and its key variables?
A relationship is formed whenever reciprocal message processing occurs: that
is, when two or more individuals mutually take account of and adjust to one
another’s verbal or nonverbal behavior. This reciprocal message processing,
which we can call interpersonal communication, is the means through which
relationships of all types are initiated, develop, grow, and sometimes
deteriorate.
---What is the Johari window and its significance?
Open self: info about you know, and that others people. Blind self: info about
you that others know, and you don’t know. Hidden self: info about you know,
and no one knows. Unknown self: info about you that you don’t know, other
people don’t know. Shows different personalities (communication style).
Closed Communicator: Rarely discloses, rarely seeks feedback
Blind Communicator: Excessively discloses, rarely seeks feedback
Hidden Communicator: Rarely discloses, seeks excessive feedback
Open Communicator: Excessively discloses, seeks excessive feedback
---What are the main characteristics of relationships and their significance?
Inclusion: the need for mutual interest and acknowledge us
Control: the need for influence and power, for others to respect our abilities
Affection: the need to give and receive love
Characteristics- Duration, contact frequency, sharing personal information,
support, interaction variability (how many things you do together),
relationship goals. Defined by the breadth and depth of relationships;
Reciprocity: the return of openness from one person to another. Trust: Based
on our perception of their integrity, motives, consistency, and discretion.
---What are the components and significance of the Knapp and Vangelisti ?
It has two main parts- the relationship forming and the relationship dissolving.
Initiating, experimenting, intensifying, integrating, bonding
Differentiating, circumscribing, stagnating, avoiding, terminating
---What is the ‘onion model’ and what is its significance in an interpersonal
communication context? AKA Social penetration model. Circumference is
breadth, and inside of onion is depth. The breadth is family, religion, habits,
hobbies, career, and politics.
---What are the different types of power in communication? Can you identify
examples of each in a relationship context?
Reward power: one party holds something that’s valuable to the other
Coercive power: can force other to do something
Legitimate power: vest on individual based on career
Expert power: someone is subject matter expert
Referent power: respect, like a priest
Persuasive power: influence to get someone to do something
---What are the different types of conflict in relationships?
Conflict is the interpersonal process that occurs whenever the actions of one
person interfere with the actions of another.
1. Destructive conflict (emotional): latent, unexpressed, needs
centered, personality focused, compromises interdependence,
selfish identity goals, inflexible process
2. Constructive conflict (cognitive): manifest, expressed, interests
centered, behavior focused, bolsters interdependence, professional
goals, flexible process
---What is emotional intelligence? Perceive, appraise, and express emotions,
Access and generate feelings when they facilitate thought, Understand emotion
and emotional knowledge, Regulate emotions to promote emotional and
intellectual growth.
---What was the significance of Daniel Goleman’s work? There are social
intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, and interpersonal intelligence.
---What are the main premises of Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love?
Romantic: intimacy and passion- Fatuous: passion and commitment Companionate: commitment and intimacy - Love is an emotion.
Organizational Communication
---What are the models of organizational communication and the implications
for the communication processes within the organization? direction of
messages, style of messages (informal/formal), trust, expectations and
relationships between management and employees, decision-making,
responding to different communication styles, organizational culture,
organizational communication obstacles.
---What are the different communication patterns in the workplace ?
Formal Communication:
Downward: management to employees, loses 80% of its content. Employee
performance appraisals, job instructions, job rationale, policy and procedures,
motivational appeals
Upward: employees to management. Employee work, achievements and
progress, employee opinions and feelings, outlines of work problems, ideas for
improvement
Horizontal: equal ranking. Coordinating tasks, solving complex problems,
sharing information, resolving conflicts, empowering teams
Informal Communication: Indicates the health of the group, employee
satisfaction, indicates employee concerns, is accurate, and travels quickly.
---What are they main obstacles to organizational communication? Obstacles
are communicator anxiety, inadequate preparation, vague instructions,
jumping to conclusions, bypassing, harassment, and communication tech
Harassment: when an employer, supervisor, coworker singles out a person due
to a person’s age, race, color, creed, ancestry, nationality, disability, sex,
conviction record, marital status, sexual orientation.
Sexual Harassment: unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors,
and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitutes sexual
harassment when submission or rejections affects employment, interferes with
work performance, and creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work
environment. 1. Quid pro quo: promise of rewards or threat of job 2. Hostile
work environment: conditions are intimidating or offensive
Group Communication
---What is the definition of a group? A group involves more than 2 people,
usually engaged in synchronous interaction, actively working toward a common
goal. Resistance to change reduced, decisions usually superior, decisions more
readily accepted, hostility reduced, productivity increased, greater morale,
responsibility shared.
--- What are the different group development stages (Tuckman’s model)? How
can we identify which stage is each group in?
Learning groups: to share and exchange information. Self-maintenance groups:
beyond sharing info, aims to promote well-being of organization. ProblemSolving groups: solves specific problems in time frame.
Effective teams are well organized, received periodic training, examine
assumptions and opinions, evaluate possible solutions, able to operate virtually,
manage cultural diversity, and avoid groupthink. Groupthink: illusion of
invulnerability, shared stereotypes, rationalization, illusion of morality, selfcensorship, illusion of unanimity, direct pressure, mind guarding. -To avoid
Groupthink: bring in outside experts, ask members to be critical evaluators,
leader should voice opinions after others, provide second chance to rethink
choices.
Three-Dimension Theory: Autocratic leadership style: decision made
exclusively by leader. Short decision making, takes a long time to implement.
Democratic leadership style: joint-effort in reaching style. Medium decision
making, short implement.
Laissez-faire leadership style: employees consider their own choices. Long
decision making, medium implement.
Situational Contingency Theory: situation dictates leadership style. Leadership
depends on leader-follower relations, position of power, and task structure.
Situational Leadership Theory: delegating, participating, telling, coaching styles
Transformational Leadership: inspire followers, articulate a vision, provide plan
for attaining vision, mobilize commitment.
---What are the different responses to conflict (in groups and elsewhere)?
Two types of conflict:
A-Type Conflict: occurs when relationships and trust are weak.
C-Type Conflict: occurs when relationships and trust are strong. Members are
willing to debate.
Intercultural Communication
---How can we define the term ‘culture’? Is there a difference when defining this
term from a communication perspective? Where one belongs as a group,
including set of norms and set of traditions. “That complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities
and habits acquired by members of a society.”
The communication perspective includes the fact that behavior patterns that
link and give a common identity to a particular group of people at a particular
point in time.
---What are the characteristics of a culture? How can we identify those
characteristics in a specific culture? Complex/multifaceted, invisible, subjective,
and subject to change.
---What are some obstacles to effective intercultural communication?
Ethnocentrism, prejudice (intense, symbolic, tokenism, arms-length),
stereotyping, classifying in and out groups.
---What are the stages of cultural adaptation?
---What is international communication? Can you provide examples?
It is communication in transnational networks that provide links between
societies. Communication style expectations, culturally diverse conflict styles,
cultural styles, languages and code, interaction rituals, gendered culture.
---How can we define the term ‘communication’? Is there a universal/widely
accepted definition? Human Communication is the process through which
individuals in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies respond to and
create messages, and create and use information to relate to the environment
and one another. Universally, an accepted definition is “information
transmitted from source to receiver). Communication is a connection and
transfer of information, and communications is an academic study and a
technology.
Separable and non-separable offense. Separable are major infractions for which
the possible sanctions include suspension or expulsion. Non-separable offenses
are less severe and don’t include suspension or expulsion. ---What are your
rights if you are accused of violating the Academic Integrity Policy? The right
to appeal for 10 days.
---Can you identify two key theories related to trust, expectations and
communication? Pygmalion Effect (Self-fulfilling prophecy) : Positive
expectations  positive results. Negative expectations  negative results
---In what ways is language a symbol system? system of symbols shared by a
group to communicate. Words are not reality; they merely represent reality.
---What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? No two languages are ever similar to
be considered as representing the same reality. The determinist believes
language determines reality because it conditions us to process experience in a
certain way. The relativist believes language influences, but does not
determine, thought. The nonbeliever does not believe it influences thought,
citing grammar common to languages.
---What is the difference between denotative versus connotative meanings of
words? Denotative meaning refers to a word’s dictionary definitions; limited
number of meanings. Connotative meaning is subjective, and have a virtually
limitless number of connotative meanings.
---What is the definition and components of non-verbal communication?It is
all intentional and unintentional messages that are not written, spoken, or
sounded. facial expressions and gestures (Kinesics/Haptics), personal
experience, distance and personal appearance (Proxemics), physical
environment, time (chronemics). A dictionary has a denotative meaning