Download JULIUS CAESAR: A superb general and politician, Julius

JULIUS CAESAR: A superb general and politician, Julius Caesar (c.100 BC – 44 BC
/ Reigned 46 – 44 BC) changed the course of Roman history.
Although he did not rule for long, he gave Rome fresh hope and a whole dynasty of emperors.
Dangerous times
Born into an aristocratic family in around 100 BC, Julius Caesar grew up in dangerous times.
Rome could not yet handle its own size and power. The nobility were widely discredited and
order had given way to chaos. The only clear alternative was military dictatorship.
Caesar allied himself against the nobility. As his career took off, he won a number of political
offices, not always by reputable means. By 63 BC, he had become a well-known, but
controversial figure.
Viva Espana
Despite his notoriety, he was appointed governor of Farther Spain. This was a lucrative
position, because it offered him the chance to plunder the local inhabitants at will. He returned
to Rome in 60 BC and, the following year, was elected consul, the highest office in the
republic.
Now holding real power, Caesar allied himself with two key people, Pompey and Crassus.
Pompey was a war hero who had been badly treated by the Senate, while Crassus was a
multimillionaire. The two men were rivals but Caesar was able to bridge the gap between them
and the three men formed the powerful ‘first triumvirate’.
I predict a riot
As consul, Caesar wanted to pay off Pompey’s soldiers by allocating them public lands. This
was unpopular, so to get the measure through he engineered a riot and used the chaos to get
his own way. He then used his power to secure the governorship of Gaul (modern day France
and Belgium).
Gaul gave Caesar a power-base to recruit soldiers and conduct the military campaigns that
would make his name and secure his fortune.
Conquering Gaul
Between 58 and 50 BC, Caesar used his expertise in military strategy, along with the Roman
army’s training and discipline to conquer and subdue the rest of Gaul, up to the river Rhine.
When battling foreign enemies, Caesar was ruthless. Besieging rebels in what is now the
Dordogne part of France, he waited until their water supply ran out and then cut off the hands
of all the survivors.
Under threat back home
He now turned his attention back home. His triumvirate was badly strained. Pompey was
increasingly jealous of Caesar’s success and Crassus still hated Pompey. After Crassus was
killed in battle, Pompey and Caesar drifted apart, ultimately finding themselves on opposing
sides.
By now, Caesar was very successful, but he had many enemies and found his position and his
life under threat. He believed the only way he could protect himself was by seizing power. In
January, 49 BC, he led his troops across the Rubicon River into Italy and started civil war.
Civil war
Caesar scored some early victories and, by 46 BC, was dictator of Rome. After a year spent
eliminating his remaining enemies, he returned home. Generous in victory, he was kind to his
defeated rivals, giving them all amnesties and even inviting some to join him in government.
Yet his position remained insecure. Without a son of his own, he needed an heir. Caesar
quickly adopted his great nephew, Augustus. He also moved fast to strengthen the northern
borders of the empire and tackle its enemies in the east.
At home, he reformed the Roman calendar, tackled local government, resettled veterans into
new cities, made the Senate more representative and granted citizenship to many more
foreigners.
Beware the Ides of March
But his rule would be cut short. Old enemies joined forces with some of his supporters, fed up
of his dictatorial style. On March15, 44 BC, the Ides of March, Caesar was assassinated in the
Senate.
Although his own rule was unremarkable, his victory in the civil war replaced a republic, ruled
by the consuls and the Senate, with an empire, reigned over by emperors and their hereditary
successors. It was the start of a brand new age for Rome.
Augustus: Adopted by Caesar, Augustus (c.62 BC – 14 AD / Reigned 31 BC – 14
AD) had to fight for his throne. His long rule saw a huge expansion in the Roman
Empire and the beginnings of a dynasty that, over the next century, would transform
Rome, for better and worse.
The man who would become one of Rome’s greatest leaders had an unpromising start in life.
Despite prophesies of future greatness , Augustus was a sickly child in a family with few
connections.
His father died when Augustus was four. His prospects were bleak: Rome was dangerous,
engulfed by civil war between power-hungry factions. One of these was led by his great-uncle,
Julius Caesar.
A bit of luck
Then Augustus got a lucky break. In 46 BC, Caesar won the civil war and was named dictator
of Rome. To secure his position, he needed an heir. With no son of his own, he adopted
Augustus.
This was a fantastic opportunity for a young man from nowhere. Almost at once, however,
Caesar was dead – murdered by his own advisors. Augustus was just 19, but immediately
threw himself into the backstabbing world of Roman politics .
Claiming the throne
He formed a strategic alliance with Marc Antony, a successful and ambitious general. Over the
next few years, they defeated their enemies in Rome and chased the survivors to Greece,
where they finished them off in two of the bloodiest battles in Roman history.
The killing over, the empire was theirs and they divided the spoils. Augustus kept Rome, while
Antony took Egypt. There he fell under the spell of Cleopatra, Egypt’s beautiful queen.
Trouble in Egypt
Romans feared that Cleopatra wanted the throne for herself and his relationship with her
made Mark Antony a hated man in Rome. His alliance with Augustus disintegrated but, before
Antony and Cleopatra could strike Rome, Augustus attacked.
The Battle of Actium in 31 BC destroyed three-quarters of the Egyptian fleet. Cleopatra and
Marc Antony killed themselves and, finally, the Roman Empire now included the land of the
pharaohs.
Local hero
Back home, Augustus was a hero. At the age of 32, he had become Rome’s first Emperor,
promising to restore peace and security.
Winning the war had been difficult, but was nothing compared to the challenge of winning the
peace. He had divorced his wife and married his pregnant mistress, Livia. Many immediately
suspected him of wanting to create a dynasty to rule Rome for generations to come.
A charm offensive
To avoid Caesar’s fate, Augustus charmed the Senate and the people by pretending to give up
power. But a series of disasters panicked Romans. They became convinced that only he could
save them and begged the Senate to vote him absolute ruler.
Augustus agreed, but did so cleverly. He convinced Romans that he was ruling in the best
traditions of the republic, but actually was an absolute ruler creating a dynasty. The Romans
bought it.
Growing older
During his reign, Augustus achieved a lot. He expanded the empire, adding Egypt, northern
Spain and large parts of central Europe before invading Germany. At home, he spearheaded a
conservative approach that used the glory of Rome’s past as a blueprint for its future.
But problems remained. His moral conservatism had clashed with the public promiscuity of his
daughter, Julia. He was forced to banish her.
What’s more, Augustus was growing older and weaker. Despite his successes, the plotting
continued. Everything that Augustus had worked so hard to achieve was in danger of
collapsing as he faced crisis after crisis, both at home and abroad.
Nevertheless, Augustus clung onto power for another 10 years. When he died, in 14 AD, the
Senate declared him a god. With his two grandsons already dead, power passed to his
stepson, Tiberius.
So what did he do?
Augustus had ended 100 years of civil war and achieved over 40 years of internal peace and
prosperity. His vision and power had expanded the Roman Empire to become far more than a
collection of countries. Instead, it was a diverse society and enormous marketplace in which
people across Europe, north Africa and the Middle East could trade and travel under Rome’s
protection.
He had won over the Senate and founded a dynasty. But this would feature as many villains as
heroes, and would take Rome on a roller-coaster ride into assassination, insanity and terror.
Tiberius: Never the preferred heir, Tiberius (42 BC – 37 AD / reigned 14 – 37 AD)
soon showed why Augustus had wanted someone else.
His political inability, poor judgment and jealousy led Rome into a dark age of political purges,
murder and terror.
Tiberius had waited a long time to be emperor and had made many sacrifices. In 11 BC,
Augustus had forced him to divorce his much-loved wife and marry Julia, the emperor’s
daughter. The two did not get on.
A bad start
Even so, Tiberius only became heir after the death of Julia’s two sons. He knew he was not the
preferred successor but, with Augustus dead, it was time for him to step up and claim power.
This was tricky, because the Senate didn’t trust him. Tiberius tried to mimic Augustus and
feigned reluctance.
This was a disaster. He didn’t have the same political skills as Augustus and gave out mixed
signals. This only caused further resentment and, although he did become emperor, his
position was weak. Tiberius knew this himself, saying that governing Rome was like “holding a
wolf by the ears”.
Military mutiny
He was soon to face his first test. Fed up with life in cold, northern Europe, two armies were
mutinying and threatened to march on Rome.
With an empire built on force, this was any emperor’s worst nightmare. Tiberius sent his
young, charismatic nephew, Germanicus, to sort the situation out.
Irritatingly successful
Sure enough, Germanicus hit the spot, rallying the troops before leading them to victory
against the Germanic tribes. Having turned a highly dangerous situation into a great victory,
Germanicus was a hero.
Still insecure, the last thing Tiberius wanted back in Rome was a war hero with a claim to the
throne. He appointed Germanicus to be governor of the remote eastern provinces. Once more,
Germanicus was annoyingly successful, loved by Romans and locals alike.
It’s a mystery
This success brought Germanicus new enemies and he died in mysterious circumstances in 19
AD. Many thought he had been poisoned and blamed Tiberius. He denied it, but the whispers
refused to go away.
Although Tiberius was now more secure, he was not happy. He despised his plotting, toadying
courtiers, saying they were “fit to be slaves”. In turn, his mood swings set the Senate against
him.
Bad judge of character
This mutual contempt led Tiberius to go elsewhere for advice. But he went to the wrong place,
choosing Sejanus, a cavalry officer and “small town cheat”. Tiberius was impressed by
Sejanus. He praised him as "the partner of my labors" and gave him command of the
Praetorian Guard, which protected the emperor.
Sejanus abused this trust and his position. He increased his power by concentrating the guard
in a single camp , and began to persecute potential rivals. Many were tried for treason and
executed.
V for vendetta
Warning that Germanicus’ family was plotting against the emperor, Sejanus exiled the dead
hero’s widow before killing her two elder sons. Only the youngest, Caligula, was spared.
All this time, Tiberius did nothing. He was now an old man and had retreated to Capri, where
he was safe from his enemies and could pursue a number of diversions, including astrology
and drinking wine. Cut off from Rome almost completely, only Sejanus was allowed to visit
regularly.
Change in fortunes
Just when Sejanus appeared ready to seize power for himself, it went horribly wrong. In 31
AD, Tiberius turned against him in favor of Caligula, the only surviving son of Germanicus. He
sent a secret message to the Senate condemning Sejanus. They captured him, strangled him,
and dumped his body in the river Tiber.
Still in Capri, Tiberius continued to rule, with Caligula now his heir. When he died in 37 AD,
Rome welcomed the news. Little did they know what was yet to come.
Caligula: Seen as a welcome breath of fresh air when he took the throne, Caligula’s
(12 – 41 AD / Reigned 37 – 41 AD) eccentricities soon became terrifying and he was
murdered after just five years in power.
After the unhappy years of purges and treason trials, Rome welcomed its new emperor. The
youngest son of the war hero, Germanicus, Gaius Caesar had grown up around soldiers and
his nickname, Caligula, meaning "little boots," had stuck.
High hopes
As a child, Caligula had suffered enormously. His mother had been exiled and his two elder
brothers executed on flimsy treason charges. As the grown mascot of Rome's army and the
only surviving son of a charismatic father, many hoped Caligula would breathe new life into
Rome.
At first, Caligula lived up to expectations. He brought back many people exiled by Tiberius and
ceremoniously burned the records of the treason trials held by Sejanus.
Mad or bad?
Seven months after taking power, however, Caligula fell ill. Although he recovered, he began
to act very strangely. Was he mad or just pretending? Some believe that he suffered from
epilepsy, but historians are divided.
Dressed in silk robes and covered in jewels, Caligula pretended he was a god. He forced
senators to grovel and kiss his feet and seduced their wives at dinner parties.
Dangerous to know
Then his eccentricities became more murderous. He restored the hated treason trials of his
predecessor, executing both rivals and close allies, including the head of the Praetorian Guard,
his personal protection squad.
At other times, his cruelty was more random. In one instance, he was about to sacrifice an
animal as a sacred offering to the gods. He raised his mallet to kill the animal and brought it
down hard. At the last moment, however, he turned and struck a priest standing nearby, who
died instantly.
The situation gets worse
All this time, Caligula was spending vast quantities of money. His extravagance soon emptied
Rome’s treasury, which Tiberius had greatly increased. Still spending, but now short of cash,
he began blackmailing leading Roman families and confiscating their estates.
In 40 AD, he led an army north into Gaul, robbing its inhabitants before marching to the shore
to invade Britain. Just as the army was about to launch its attack, he ordered them to stop
and gather seashells. He called these the spoils of the conquered ocean.
Meanwhile, Caligula still wanted to become a god. The same year, he ordered his statue to be
erected in the Temple at Jerusalem. This would have been highly controversial in a region
already prone to revolt. Luckily, Herod Agrippa, who ruled Palestine on behalf of Rome,
managed to persuade Caligula to change his mind.
A solution is found
His behavior was making Caligula seriously unpopular among Rome’s elite. Plots against his
life soon became commonplace. In 41 AD, four months after he returned from Gaul, he was
murdered by his closest advisors, including members of his Praetorian Guard. To prevent
reprisals, they also killed his wife and daughter. Dead but certainly not mourned, Caligula was
succeeded by his uncle, Claudius, the most unlikely of emperors.
Claudius: Disfigured, awkward and clumsy, Claudius (10 BC – 54 AD / Reigned 41 –
54 AD) was the black sheep of his family and an unlikely emperor. Once in place, he
was fairly successful, but his poor taste in women would prove his undoing.
Nobody expected Claudius to become emperor. Although he was the only surviving heir of
Augustus and was the brother of the war hero, Germanicus, Claudius was a figure of fun.
The black sheep
Left disfigured by a serious illness when he was very young, Claudius was also clumsy and
coarse , and was the butt of his family’s jokes. When he dozed after dinner, guests pelted him
with food and put slippers on his hands so that he’d rub his eyes with his shoes when he woke
up.
Caligula’s murder in 41 AD changed everything for Claudius. Unexpectedly, the family fool had
become emperor. Discovered trembling in the palace by one of his own soldiers, he was
clearly reluctant and afraid.
He had good reason: like his predecessors, Claudius could never be too sure of his position.
Supported mainly by soldiers and courtiers, he had a rocky relationship with the Senate. Many
senators supported the abortive rebellion in the Balkans in 42 AD and they featured in many
of the plots against his life.
Surprisingly popular
Despite these dangers, Claudius worked hard at his job, starting work just after midnight
every day. It began to pay off: he made major improvements to Rome’s judicial system,
passed laws protecting sick slaves, extended citizenship and increased women's privileges.
He also treated his people with unusual respect, apologizing to visiting pensioners when there
were not enough chairs. Hardly surprising, then, that Suetonius wrote how this sort of
behavior endeared him to the people.
Conquering the Brits
Claudius had some real successes. Britain had resisted Roman rule for over a century, but was
conquered by Claudius, who created client kingdoms to protect the frontier. He had succeeded
where Caesar had failed. This was the most important addition to the empire since the time of
Augustus.
Trouble and strife
Even this success, however, was not enough to protect him from political danger. Here, his
worst enemies would turn out to be his own wives.
Claudius had simply awful taste in women. Although he adored his wife, Messalina, she was
extravagant and promiscuous, with a particular weakness for the servants.
Claudius tried to turn a blind eye to her many affairs, but in 48 AD Messalina took a new lover,
Gaius Silius, a nobleman. Their relationship was widely thought to be cover for a plot and
Claudius was urged to take action: “Act fast or her new man controls Rome!"
Permanent separation
Silius was killed and Messalina fled to a friend's villa to decide how to get herself out of
trouble. It was too late. The emperor was hosting a dinner party when he heard that his wife
had died. Without asking how, he called for more wine.
The next year, Claudius decided to marry again, surprising Rome by choosing his own niece,
Agrippina.
Oh dear
This was a bad mistake. Determined to make the most of her luck and happy to use any
means necessary, Agrippina was about the only woman who could make Messalina seem a
good catch.
Agrippina began her quest for power by persuading Claudius to bring back Seneca from exile
so that he could become tutor to her own son, Nero, the boy she planned to make an
emperor.
Speeding things up
Gradually Agrippina removed all her rivals and convinced Claudius to disinherit his own son,
Britannicus. With Nero now heir, the only remaining obstacle was Claudius himself. Agrippina
took drastic action: as Tacitus reports, her weapon of choice was poisoned mushrooms,
delivered by a faithful servant.
Claudius appeared on the brink of death, but began to recover. Horrified, Agrippina signed up
the emperor's own doctor to her cause. While pretending to help Claudius vomit his food, the
doctor put a feather dipped in poison down his throat. As Tacitus said, "Dangerous crimes
bring ample reward."
Claudius was dead. Nero was Emperor. This would prove interesting.
Nero: Sensitive and handsome, Nero (37 – 68 AD / reigned 54 – 68 AD) started out
well as emperor. But his early promise gave way to wild extravagance and murder.
His rule ended as violently as it had begun.
When he became emperor, Nero was a young man who enjoyed the theater, music and horse
racing. His dominating mother, Agrippina, had already murdered Claudius to see her son on
the throne. She quickly poisoned Nero’s main rival, Claudius’ son, Britannicus.
But Nero didn’t want to be controlled by his mother. Encouraged by his former tutor, the
writer and philosopher Seneca, he began to make his own decisions. Relations with his mother
became frosty and in 56 AD she was forced into retirement.
Early hope dashed
Nero started well. He ended secret trials and gave the Senate more independence. He banned
capital punishment, reduced taxes and allowed slaves to sue unjust owners. He provided
assistance to cities that had suffered disasters, gave aid to the Jews and established open
competitions in poetry, drama and athletics.
However, like Caligula before him, Nero had a dark side. His impulses began as simple
extravagance. Before long, however, stories were circulating that he seduced married women
and young boys, and that he had castrated and "married" a male slave. He also liked to
wander the streets, murdering innocent people at random.
Getting rid of mother
Both Seneca and Agrippina tried hard to control Nero. Seneca tried to be subtle, but his
mother was not. Relations between mother and son grew worse and Nero decided to kill her.
He invited her to travel by boat to meet him at the seaside resort where he was staying. When
their reunion was over, Agrippina left for home. She was never meant to get there, but the
murder attempt failed and Agrippina swam to safety.
Finishing the job
Annoyed that his plot had failed, Nero abandoned subtlety and sent some soldiers to complete
the job. He claimed that his mother had been plotting against him, but fooled nobody. Rome
was appalled. Matricide – the murder of one’s own mother – was among the worst possible
crimes.
The omens
Tolerance of Nero’s depravity ebbed away and Rome faced a series of bad omens. Tacitus
wrote, “Unlucky birds settled on the Capitol, houses fell in numerous earthquakes and the
weak were trampled by the fleeing crowd."
Worse was yet to come. The Great Fire of Rome lasted for six days and seven nights. It
destroyed or damaged 10 of Rome’s 14 districts and many homes, shops and temples.
Sing-along with Nero
Nero offered to house the homeless, but it was too late. A rumor had spread of Nero’s
behavior during the fire: although he hadn’t fiddled while Rome burned, he had been singing.
With Nero’s mother dead and his tutor retired, the emperor was beyond anyone’s control.
Rome was now victim to the arbitrary desires of a mad tyrant: there was only one solution.
Murder and mayhem
In 65 AD, one plotter, a freed slave named Epicharis, found a dissatisfied officer who had
access to the emperor. She secretly asked him to kill Nero.
Instead, the officer betrayed Epicharis and she was captured. Rather than give up the names
of her fellow plotters, she killed herself. Not knowing who was involved, Nero redoubled his
guard and unleashed terror on Rome. Huge numbers of people, including Seneca, were
executed or forced to kill themselves.
Public enemy
But Rome had had enough. A revolt in the northern territories quickly spread and the Senate
declared Nero a public enemy. This meant that anyone could kill him without punishment.
Terrified, Nero fled to the country with his few remaining slaves and killed himself. Without
any heirs, the Roman Empire now had no leader. With the ultimate prize up for grabs, rival
generals began moving their troops towards Rome and civil war.
Vespasian: Vespasian (9 – 79 AD / ruled 69 – 79 AD) worked hard to restore law,
order and self-respect to Rome after the civil war. He established the new, Flavian
dynasty.
Born to a Roman knight and tax-collector, Vespasian was a man of relatively humble origins
and played on these roots to great political advantage.
Distinguished service
Vespasian’s early career was spent mainly in military service. After distinguishing himself
during the invasion of England in 43 AD, he was given his first military command. Further
success led to more honors and, in 51 AD, he became consul in Britain.
In 63 AD, Vespasian was appointed proconsul in Africa. Here, he controlled the budget so
tightly that, on one occasion, the locals pelted him with turnips.
Out of Africa
Four years later, in 67 AD, Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the Jewish rebellion in
Judaea. His success here, where others had failed, meant that, by 68 AD, Vespasian was one
of Rome’s most successful generals. His humble origins had led Nero to believe that he was no
threat. While Nero was alive, this was true.
Death changes everything
But then Nero died. After the murder of Galba, civil war was inevitable. What’s more,
Vespasian had as good a claim to the throne as his two main rivals, Otho and Vitellius.
In July 69 AD, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by his troops, as well as legions in Egypt
and Syria. He marched on Rome. Once in Italy, they found themselves facing Vitellius’ army:
for the first time in 100 years, their enemy was Roman.
Battleground Rome
By morning, Vespasian’s army had won the battle. They ransacked a nearby town and
marched on, reaching Rome in December. The city became a battleground, with its citizens
caught in the crossfire.
Around 50,000 people were killed before the battle was over. Vespasian had won and, with no
one left to fight, he was proclaimed emperor by the Senate.
Might equals right
Vespasian was honest about the source of his power – military strength. Using his new
position to grant himself more powers, Vespasian immediately began talking up his humble
origins and publishing the divine omens he claimed had predicted his spectacular rise. Finally,
he wasted no time establishing his dynasty, insisting that his two sons – Titus and Domitian –
would succeed him.
Next on the agenda was the need to restore war-torn Rome to something approaching its
former glory. One of the first jobs was to raise money: Nero’s extravagance and the civil war
had almost ruined Rome.
Rebuilding Rome
By raising taxes and reclaiming public land, Vespasian was able to fill the city’s vaults with
cold, hard, cash. He used some of this money on a massive building program, which included
temples, a theater and early work on what would become the Colosseum.
He then turned his attention to the army. In a wholesale reorganization, he restored discipline,
removed officers loyal to Vitellius and ended the war in Judaea. In Britain, he conquered Wales
and northern England.
An average Joe
All the time, Vespasian was changing the traditional image of the emperor. He approached his
work with an earthy humor and common sense unusual in someone of his rank.
More importantly, he provided the first real stability since Claudius, 20 years earlier. Although
he had gained his position through violence and was still a military dictator, he legitimized
himself and his dynasty by offering Rome a stable, peaceful future.
Becoming a god
By 79 AD, Vespasian was dying, but his sense of humor remained intact. "Oh dear!" he joked,
mocking the Roman tendency to turn dead emperors into gods, "I think I'm becoming a god."
Vespasian had brought Rome through bitter civil war and left the empire stronger than ever.
But by declaring, "My sons will succeed me, or no one will”, Vespasian had ignored history and
his own experience. Like his predecessors, he insisted on tying Rome to the lottery of
hereditary rule.
Domitian: The two sons of Vespasian Titus and Domitian (ruled 79 – 81 AD, and 81
– 96 AD respectively) could not have been more different as emperors.
Although Titus had a reputation for ruthlessness, he would prove to be a fair ruler. His brother
Domitian, however, returned Rome to tyranny and fear.
Like father, like son
Vespasian’s eldest son, Titus, was already a successful politician and general before his father
became emperor. He had seen action in Britain and commanded a legion in Judaea under his
father.
When Nero died, Titus had actively encouraged his father to claim the throne. When Vespasian
left Judaea to march on Italy, he left Titus in charge of his campaign against the Jewish rebels.
Second-in-command
Here Titus proved his abilities. He successfully crushed the rebels and, in 70 AD, captured and
destroyed the temple in Jerusalem. When he returned home to Rome, he was made
commander of the Praetorian Guard. He led the military arm of Vespasian’s dictatorship and
was effectively head of state.
This role, along with his reputation for ruthlessness, did nothing for his popularity. His
relationship with his mistress Berenice, a Jewish princess, didn’t help. Romans remembered
Marc Antony and Cleopatra and they were not prepared for another marriage to Eastern
royalty.
A pleasant surprise
Given the bloodshed by which Vespasian had gained the throne and Titus’ own reputation,
Romans had good reason to fear this succession. But there was no need. Power was handed
over peacefully and Titus was a surprisingly good ruler.
Good-looking, cultivated and friendly, Titus was a calm and fair emperor. Much of his
popularity was won through his generosity. This included financial aid after the eruption of
Vesuvius in 79 AD and reconstruction work in Rome after a fire the following year.
He also completed work on the Colosseum and opened it with 100 days of games, wisely using
this to calm the Roman mob during a time of economic hardship.
Death and Domitian
Against all expectations, Titus was a benevolent ruler. However, his reign was short-lived –
just two years after he took the throne, he was dead. Rome now faced a very different
dictator.
Domitian, Vespasian’s youngest son, was already known
for wild excess. In 70 AD, his actions during military
service in Germany had required a pardon from his father.
It was even rumored that he had helped speed his brother
Titus towards his death.
“Master and God”
Bust of Domitian
As emperor, Domitian was hated by the Roman
aristocracy, largely because of his cruelty and showiness.
He insisted on being addressed as “master and god.” He
held games every four years, as the Greeks did. He would
attend these in Greek dress and a golden crown. His
fellow judges had to wear crowns that featured images of
the gods and Domitian himself.
A revolt in Germany in 89 AD was put down with extreme brutality; in Rome, this was used as
an excuse to terrorize senators and other leading figures. Proving himself every bit as bad as
Nero and Caligula, Domitian launched treason trials, and executed or banished even his
mildest critics.
Domitian had wisely given the army a large pay rise in 84 AD and this certainly helped secure
his position. But it was not enough. In 96 AD, he was murdered by a group that included
senior Praetorian Guards, palace officials and even the emperor’s own wife. The army was
furious, but Rome was happy enough. The latest in a long line of tyrants had also been
deposed.
Trajan: Domitian’s murder marked the end of the Flavian dynasty and changed the
rules of succession. Nerva and Trajan (ruled 96 – 98 AD, 98 – 117 AD) were not born
to rule, but were chosen for the job. The results were remarkably successful.
Nerva became emperor immediately after Domitian’s murder in 96 AD. He had a lifetime of
service to Rome and its emperors, and had served as consul twice, in 71 and 90 AD.
Now he was called to higher office. He immediately promised an end to the tyranny of
Domitian’s rule, swearing that he would never execute any senator, whatever the provocation.
Promises, promises
This promise was soon stretched to its limits. Domitian had bought the army’s loyalty with
large pay rises and when he was murdered, it was furious. Seeking revenge, the Praetorian
Guard stormed the palace and demanded that those responsible be executed.
Nerva faced the soldiers, offering his own life by baring his neck to their swords. The soldiers
just laughed and went on to kill many of his friends and allies. Astonishingly, Nerva thanked
them for carrying out justice, but he had been badly humiliated. His will broken, he died soon
afterwards.
A sharp turn
At this point history took a sharp turn. Shortly before
Nerva died, Roman generals had debated who should be
the next emperor. They chose Trajan, a former army
commander, senator and governor of Upper Germany.
The first emperor to have been born outside Italy, Trajan
came from southern Spain. His nomination by the
generals was a bold and important move, signaling that
educated and wealthy men from all over the empire were
eligible for the highest office.
Bust of Trajan the Emperor
Expanding the empire
It was also very successful. As emperor, Trajan expanded the Roman Empire to become larger
than ever before. He conquered Dacia (now part of Romania), which provided land for Roman
settlers and rich pickings from gold and salt mines.
He then attacked the Parthians, Rome’s old enemy in the East, who lived in what is now part
of Iran. By 115 AD, he had captured the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon and had reached the
Persian Gulf.
The Roman Empire now stretched across Europe and the Middle East, from the borders of
Scotland to southern Spain. It included North Africa, western and central Europe, and what is
now Israel, Turkey, Lebanon, Syria and parts of Iran and Iraq. It would never be bigger.
Good governance
Back home, Trajan was just as busy. He treated the Senate with respect and tried to find
competent and honest officials to rule the provinces.
With the army, Trajan was fair but strict, ordering the execution of the Praetorian Guard who
had defied Nerva. With the Christians, he ignored those who wanted them persecuted and,
instead, treated them like other citizens, punishing them only when they deserved it.
Welfare and public works
He was generous to Rome’s population, giving out cash and increasing the number of poor
citizens who could receive free grain. Trajan also began a massive program of public works,
building bridges, harbors and aqueducts. Finally, he reduced taxes and started a new welfare
program for poor children. This work brought him acclaim from many, including the statesman
and author, Pliny the Younger.
Trajan held onto power until 117 AD. His civilized rule set the tone for future generations; his
expansion of the Roman Empire made it a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic melting pot that is still
relevant today, 2,000 years later.