Download 5. Blood and lymph

MINISTRY OF HEALTH CARE OF THE REPUBLIC OF
UZBEKISTAN
TASHKENT MEDICAL ACADEMY
DEPARTMENT OF “HISTOLOGY AND MEDICAL BIOLOGY”
Subject: Histology
THEME: BLOOD AND LYMPH
The text of the lecture
Tashkent - 2012
Lecture: Blood and lymph - 2 hours.
Knowledge of the morphology of blood to your doctor of any profile. Blood
is a tissue responsive to variations in the physiological condition of the body.
The blood is part of the blood. Blood system includes: 1) blood, 2) hematopoietic
organs, 3) lymph. All components of the blood system develops from the
mesenchyme. Blood is localized in the blood vessels and heart, lymph - the lymph
vessels. Bodies of blood are: red bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen,
lymph nodules, digestive tract, respiratory tract and other organs. Between all
components of the blood there is a strong genetic and functional relationship. The
genetic link is that all components of the blood system stem from the same source.
The functional relationship between the blood and the blood is that blood
continuously for several days killed millions of cells. At the same time of the blood
under normal conditions, a same number of blood cells, ie, the level of blood cells
differ consistently. Balance between loss and formation of new blood cells
provided by regulation of the nervous and endocrine systems, and interstitial
microenvironment in regulation of the blood itself.
What is the microenvironment? This stromal cells and macrophages, which
are around developing blood cells in the organs of hematopoiesis. In the
microenvironment produced hemopoetins that stimulate the process of
hematopoiesis.
What is "interstitial regulation"? The fact is that in the mature granulocytes
produced keylons that inhibit the development of young granulocytes.
There is a close relationship between the blood and lymph. This relationship can be
demonstrated as follows. In the connective tissue is the main intercellular
substance (interstitial fluid). In the formation of intercellular substance is involved
blood. How so?
From plasma in connective tissue come water, proteins and other organic
matter and mineral salts. This is the main intercellular substance of connective
tissue. Here, next to blood capillaries are blind-ended lymphatic capillaries.
Blindly ending - which means that they look like rubber cap eye dropper. Through
the wall of lymphatic capillaries enters the main substance (drained) in their lumen,
ie, the components of the intercellular substance coming from the plasma pass
through the connective tissue, penetrate into lymphatic capillaries and converted
into lymph.
In the same way from the blood capillaries into the lymph may enter and
blood cells, which are of lymphatic vessels may be recycled back into the blood.
There is a close relationship between lymph and blood bodies. Lymph from lymph
capillaries enters the bearing lymph vessels draining into the lymph nodes. Lymph
nodes - this is one of the varieties of hematopoiesis. Lymph passes through lymph
nodes, purified from bacteria, bacterial toxins and other harmful substances. In
addition, the lymph nodes in the lymph flowing received lymphocytes.
Thus, lymph, free from harmful substances and enriched lymphocytes, enters
into larger lymphatic vessels, and then in the right breast and lymph ducts that
empty into the veins of the neck, ie, purified and enriched lymphocytes basic
intercellular substance returns to the blood. From the blood and the blood came
back.
There are close links between the connective tissue, blood and lymph. The
fact is that as between the connective tissue and lymph occurs metabolism, and
between lymph and blood, too, by the metabolism. Exchange of substances
between blood and lymph is only through the connective tissue.
The structure of the blood. Blood refers to the tissues of the internal
environment. Therefore, as in all the tissues of the internal environment, it consists
of cells and intercellular substance. Intercellular substance is blood plasma to the
cellular elements include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. In other tissues,
the internal environment of the intercellular substance is semifluid consistency
(loose connective tissue) or dense texture (dense connective tissue, cartilage and
bone tissue). Therefore, the internal environment of different tissues have different
functions. The blood carries the trophic and protective functions, the connective
tissue - support-mechanical, trophic and protective, cartilage and bone tissue support-mechanical and mechanical protection function.
Blood cells constitute about 40-45%, everything else - blood plasma. The
amount of blood in the human body is 5-9% of body weight.
Functions of blood: 1) transport, 2) respiratory, and 3) trophic, 4) protection, and 5)
homeostatic (maintain constant internal environment).
Blood plasma contains 90-93% water, 6-7.5% of the proteins, among them albumin, globulins and fibrinogen, and the remaining 2.5-4% are other organic
matter and mineral salts. At the expense of salt is maintained constant osmotic
pressure of blood plasma. If removed from the blood plasma fibrinogen, the serum
remains. Blood plasma has a pH of - 7.36.
Erythrocytes. Red blood cells are in 1 liter of men's blood 4-5.5 h1012,
women have slightly less, ie, 3.7-5h1012. The increased number of red blood cells
called polycythemia, low - eritropeniey.
Red blood cells have a different shape. 80% of all red blood cells are
biconcave erythrocyte shape (diskotsity), they have thicker edge (2-2.5 mm), and
the center thinner (1 mm), so the central part of the erythrocyte is lighter.
In addition, there are other discocytes forms: 1) planocytes 2) stomatocytes 3)
bifosses 4) Saddles 5) spherical, or spherocytes 6) echinocytes, which has
branches. Spherocytes and echinocytes - are cells that complete their life cycle.
Discocytes diameter can be varied. 75% have a diameter of 8.7 discocytes um,
they're called normocytes, 12.5% - 4.5-6 microns (microcytes), 12.5% - more than
8 mm (macrocyte).
Erythrocyte - it akaryote or postcellular structure, it lacks the nucleus and
organelles. Cytolemma erythrocyte has a thickness of 20 nm. On the surface
plasmolemma can be adsorbed glycoproteins, amino acids, proteins, enzymes,
hormones, drugs and other substances. The inner surface of plasmolemma
localized glycolytic enzymes, Na +-ATPase, K +-ATPase. This adjoins the surface
of hemoglobin.
Cytolemma erythrocytes is composed of lipids and proteins in approximately
equal amounts of glycolipids and glycoproteins - 5%.
Lipids are two layers of lipid molecules. The composition of the outer layer
consists of phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, in the inner layer phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine.
Proteins are membrane (glycophorin and protein band 3)-membrane
(spektrin, protein band 4.1, actin).
Glycophorin its central end is connected to the "nodal complex", passes
through a layer bilipid cytolemme and transcends it, is involved in the formation of
glycocalyx and performs the function of the receptor.
Protein band 3 - transmembrane glycoprotein, its polypeptide chain often
runs in one direction and another in bilipid layer forms a hydrophilic pores in this
layer, through which the anions are HCO3-and Cl in a time when red blood cells
give C02 and HCO3-anion is replaced by an anion Cl. Membrane protein spektrin
is given thread a length of about 100 nm, consists of two polypeptide chains
(alpha-and beta-), with one end connected to the actin filaments' nodal complex ",
the function of the cytoskeleton, which is preserved thanks to the correct form
discocytes Spectrin associated with protein band 3 with protein ankirina.
"Nodular complex" consists of actin, a protein band 4.1 and all proteins
spectrin and glycophorin.
Oligosaccharides of glycoproteins and glycolipids form a glycocalyx. They
determine the presence of agglutinogens on the surface of red blood cells.
Agglyutiiogeny erythrocytes - A and B.
Agglutinins of blood plasma - the alpha and beta.
If the blood at the same time would be "foreign" agglutinogen A and
agglutinin alpha or "foreign" agglutinogen and agglutinin in beta, there will be
bonding (agglutination) of erythrocytes.
Blood group. On the content of agglutinogens of red blood cells and plasma
agglutinins are 4 blood types:
Group 1 (0) - no agglutinogens, is agglutinins alpha and beta;
Group II (A) - is agglutinogen A and agglutinin beta;
Group III (B) - is agglutinogen and agglutinin in alpha;
Group IV (AB) - is agglyutiiogeny A and B, no agglutinins.
On the surface of red blood cells in 86% of people have the Rh factor agglutinogen (Rh). In 14% of people do not have the Rh factor (Rh negative).
Transfusion of Rh-positive blood of Rh-negative recipient formed Rh antibodies,
which cause hemolysis.
At tsitolemme erythrocytes adsorb excess of amino acids, so the amino acid
content in the blood plasma remains at the same level.
The composition of the erythrocyte is about 40% of solid matter, everything
else - water. 95% of solid (dry) of a substance is hemoglobin. Hemoglobin consists
of protein - globin and iron-containing pigment - heme. There are 2 types of
hemoglobin: a) hemoglobin A, ie, hemoglobin adults, and 2) hemoglobin F (fetal) hemoglobin of the fetus. In the adult human body contains 98% hemoglobin A, in
the fetus or newborn - 20%, the rest of fetal hemoglobin.
After the death of macrophage phagocytized erythrocyte spleen. In the
macrophage hemoglobin breaks down into bilirubin and hemosiderin containing
iron.
Hemosiderin iron passes into the blood plasma and plasma protein combines
with transferrin also contain iron. This compound is phagocytized by macrophages
special bone marrow. Then, these macrophages transfer molecules of iron to
developing red blood cells, why they are called cells.
Erythrocyte energy provided by glycolytic reactions. At the expense of
glycolysis in the erythrocyte synthesized ATP and NAD-H2. ATP is necessary as
an energy source, through which are transported through cytolemma various
substances, including ions K +, Na +, which saved the optimal balance between the
osmotic pressure of blood plasma and red blood cells, and provides the correct
form of the erythrocytes. NAD-H2 is required to maintain hemoglobin in the active
state, ie, NAD-H2 prevents the transformation of hemoglobin to methemoglobin.
Methemoglobin - this is a strong connection hemoglobin with any chemical. This
hemoglobin can not carry oxygen or carbon dioxide. In heavy smokers of the
hemoglobin contained about 10%. It is absolutely useless to the smoker. For
unstable compounds include hemoglobin oxyhemoglobin (hemoglobin compound
with oxygen) and carboxyhemoglobin (the compound of hemoglobin with carbon
dioxide). The amount of hemoglobin in 1 liter of blood of a healthy person is 120160, the
In human blood is 1-5% of young erythrocytes - reticulocytes. In
reticulocytes remnants of EPS, ribosomes and mitochondria. When subvital color
in reticulocyte visible remnants of these organelles as reticulofilamentose
substance. From this the name of the young red blood cell - reticulocyte. In
reticulocytes on the remains of EPS by globin protein synthesis necessary for
formation of hemoglobin. Reticulocytes ripen in the sinusoids of bone marrow or
peripheral blood vessels.
The life span of an erythrocyte is 120 days. After this process is disturbed in
erythrocytes glycolysis. This is disruptive to the synthesis of ATP and NAD-H2,
erythrocytes at the same time loses its shape and becomes ehinotsit or annulocyte;
disturbed permeability of Na + and K + across cytolemma, which leads to
increased osmotic pressure inside the erythrocyte. Increasing the osmotic pressure
increases the flow of water inside an erythrocyte, which then swells and ruptures
cytolemma, and hemoglobin released in the blood plasma (hemolysis). Normal red
blood cells also can undergo hemolysis when the blood type, distilled water or
hypotonic solution, as this will decrease the osmotic pressure of blood plasma.
After hemolysis of red blood cell hemoglobin goes, there is only tsitolemma.
Hemolyzed red blood cells are red blood cells are called shadows.
If you violate the synthesis of NAD-H2 hemoglobin converted to
methemoglobin.
With the aging of red blood cells on their surface sialic acid content is
reduced, which support a negative charge, so the red blood cells can stick together.
In senescent erythrocytes varies skeletal protein spektrin, resulting in red blood
cells lose their discoid shape and become spherocytes.
At tsitolemme old red blood cells appear specific receptors capable of
capturing autolytic antibodies - IgG1 and IgG2. The result is a complex consisting
of the aforementioned receptors and antibodies. These complexes are the signs by
which macrophages recognize these red blood cells and phagocytose them.
Typically, death occurs erythrocytes in the spleen. Therefore, the spleen is
called the graveyard of red blood cells.
General characteristics of leukocytes. The number of leukocytes in 1 liter
of blood of a healthy person is a 4-9h109. Elevated white blood cell count is called
leukocytosis, low - leukopenia. Leukocytes are divided into granulocytes and
agranulocytes. Granulocytes are characterized by the presence in the cytoplasm of
specific granules. Agranulocytes specific granules do not contain. Blood stained
with azure-eosin by Romanovsky-Giemsa; If the color of blood granulocytes
granules stained by acid dyes, such is called eosinophilic granulocyte
(acidophilus), and if basic - basophilic, and if the acidic and basic - neutrophilic.
All white blood cells have a spherical or globular shape, they all move in a
fluid with prolegs, they circulate in the blood a short period of time (several hours),
then pass through the wall of the capillaries in the connective tissue (stroma
organs), which perform their functions. All white blood cells perform a protective
function.
Granulocytes. Neutrophillic granulocytes have a diameter of 8.7 m drop of
blood, the smear - 12-13 microns. In the cytoplasm of granulocytes contain 2 types
of beads: 1) the azurophilic (nonspecific, primary), or lysosomes, constituting 1020%, and 2) specific (secondary), which are colored and acidic and basic dyes.
Azurophilic granules (lysosomes) have a diameter of 0.4-0.8 mm, they
contain proteolytic enzymes, which have an acid reaction: acid phosphatase,
peroxidase, acid protease, lysozyme, arilsulfataza.
Specific granules are 80-90% of the granules, their diameter is 0.2-0.4 mm,
and stained with acidic and basic dyes, and because they contain acid and basic
substances and enzymes: ALP, alkaline proteins fagotsitin, lactoferrin, lysozyme.
Lactoferrin 1) binds a molecule of Fe and bacteria and glues 2) inhibits the
differentiation of young granulocytes.
The peripheral cytoplasm of neutrophils did not contain granules, there are
filaments consisting of contractile proteins. Because of these filaments emit
pseudopods granulocytes (pseudopodia), participating in phagocytosis or in the
movement of cells.
The cytoplasm of neutrophil granulocytes stained weakly oxyphilic, poor
organelles, contains inclusions of glycogen and lipid.
The nuclei of neutrophils have a different shape. Depending on this
distinction segmented granulocytes, stab, and the young.
egmented granulocytes neutrophilic constitute 47-72% of granulocytes. They
are called so because their nuclei are composed of 7.2 segments, connected by thin
bridges. The structure of nuclei is heterochromatin, the nucleolus is not visible.
One of the segments may deviate satellite (satellite), a sex chromatin. The satellite
has the shape of a drum stick. Satellites are available only in neutrophil
granulocytes of women or the female type hermaphrodites.
Stab neutrophil granulocytes have a nucleus in the form of a curved rod-like
Russian or Latin letter S. Of granulocytes in the peripheral blood contains 3-5%.
Young neutrophilic granulocytes ranged from 0 to 1%, the youngest, beanshaped nuclei contain.
Neutrophils perform several functions. On the surface of granulocytes
tsitolemmy have Fc receptors, and Cs, so that they can englobe complex antigens
with antibodies and complement proteins. Complement proteins - this group of
proteins involved in the destruction of antigens. Neutrophils phagocytose bacteria,
produce biooksidanty (biological oxidants), isolated bacteriocyte proteins
(lysozyme) that kill bacteria. For the ability of neutrophils to perform phagocytic
function of E. Metchnikoff named them macrophages. Phagosomes in neutrophils
treated first enzyme specific granules, and then merge with azurophilic granules
(lysosomes) and subjected to final machining.
In neutrophilic granulocytes contained keylony that inhibit DNA replication
of immature white blood cells and thereby inhibit their proliferation.
The life span of neutrophils is 8 days, from which they are 8:00 circulate in the
blood, then migrate through the wall of the capillaries in the connective tissue and
there for the rest of his life performing certain functions.
Eosinophilic granulocytes. They are only 1-6% of peripheral blood in a
drop of blood has a diameter of 8.9 microns, and a blood smear on the glass to get
the diameter of 13-14 microns. The composition of eosinophilic granulocytes are
specific granules that can be colored only by acid dyes. Form of granules oval,
their length is 1.5 microns. In the crystalloid granules are structures consisting of
plates, layered on each other in the form of cylinders. These structures are
immersed in an amorphous matrix. In the granules contain major alkaline protein,
eosinophil cationic protein, acid phosphatase and peroxidase. In eosinophils, there
are more small granules. They contain and arylsulfatase, a factor that blocks the
exit of histamine from granules of basophilic granulocytes and tissue basophils.
The cytoplasm is eosinophilic granulocytes stained weakly basophilic,
poorly developed organelles contain the total value.
The nuclei of eosinophilic granulocytes have a different shape: segmented,
rod-shaped and bean. Segmented eosinophils often consist of two, at least - of the
three segments.
Eosinophil function: involved in limiting the local inflammatory response,
are capable of weakly expressed phagocytosis, phagocytosis by isolated biological
oxidants. Eosinophils are actively involved in allergic and anaphylactic reactions
when the body of foreign proteins. Participation of eosinophils in allergic reactions
is to fight hystamine. Eosinophils are struggling with histamine in 4 ways: 1)
destroy histamine by hystaminase 2) identify a factor that blocks the exit of
histamine from basophilic granulocytes, and 3) histamine phagocytize 4) capture
the histamine receptors and by holding it on its surface. At tsitolemme have Fcreceptors capable of capturing IgE, IgG, IgM. There are Cs receptors and receptors
C4.
Active participation of eosinophils in anaphylactic reactions carried out by
arylsulfatase, which is released from the small grains, destroys anaphylaxis, which
is released basophilic leukocytes.
Life expectancy of eosinophilic granulocytes was several days in the
peripheral blood, they circulate 4-8 hours.
Increasing the number of eosinophils in peripheral blood is called
eosinophilia, decrease - eosinopenia. Eosinophilia occurs when the body appears to
foreign proteins, foci of inflammation, antigen-antibody complexes. Eosinopenia
observed under the influence of adrenaline, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
cortico-roidov.
Basophilic granulocytes. In the peripheral blood are 0.5-1% in a drop of
blood has a diameter of 8.7 microns, in a smear of blood - 11-12 microns. In their
cytoplasm contains basophilic granules having metachromasia. Metachromasia this is a property of structures to be painted in a color that is not characteristic for
the dye. For example, the azure stains structures in purple, and granules of
basophils stained them purple. The composition of the granules are heparin,
histamine, serotonin, chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid. The cytoplasm contains
peroxidase, acid phosphatase fataza, ghystidinedecarboxylase, anaphylaxis.
Histidine decarboxylase, an enzyme marker for basophils.
Nuclei are stained slightly basophil have sublobular or oval in shape, their
outlines indistinct.
Organelles in the cytoplasm of basophils total value of mild, it is colored
slightly basophilic.
Basophilic granulocyte functions appear in the phagocytosis of weakly
expressed. On the surface of basophils have receptors of the class E, which can
hold immunoglobulins. The main function of basophils is associated with heparin
and histamine contained in their granules. Thanks to them, basophils participate in
the regulation of local homeostasis. With the release of histamine increases the
permeability of the intercellular substance and the main wall of the capillary,
increased blood clotting, increased inflammatory response. When you select a
heparin reduces blood clotting, the permeability of the capillary wall and the
inflammatory response. Basophils to respond to the presence of antigens, while
increasing their degranulation, ie, the release of histamine from the granules, there
is increased swelling of the tissue by increasing the permeability of blood vessels.
Basophils play a pivotal role in the development of allergic and anaphylactic
reactions. On the surface there is IgE-receptors for IgE.
Agranulocytes. Lymphocytes 19-37%. Depending on the size of
lymphocytes are divided into small (diameter less than 7 mm), medium (diameter
of 8-10 mm) and large (diameter 10 mm). The nuclei of lymphocytes often round,
rarely concave. The cytoplasm is weakly basophilic, contains a small amount of
organelles common values, there are azurophilic granules, ie, the lysosomes.
With electron-microscopic study found four types of lymphocytes: 1) low light,
75%, their diameter is 7 mm, around the nucleus is a thin layer of cytoplasm,
indistinct, containing poorly developed organelles, the total value (mitochondria,
Golgi complex, granular EPS, lysosomes), 2) the small dark cells, is 12.5%, the
diameter of 6.7 microns, the nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio is shifted toward the nucleus
around which a thin layer of still more strongly basophilic cytoplasm, which
contains a significant amount of RNA ribosomes, mitochondria, other organelles
are absent, and 3) the average is 10-12%, their diameter is about 10 microns,
slightly basophilic cytoplasm, it contains ribosomes, EPS, Golgi complex,
azurophilic granules, the nucleus is circular in shape, sometimes with a concavity,
contains nucleoli, a loose chromatin, and 4) plasma cells make up 2%, the diameter
of 8.7 microns, the cytoplasm stained weakly basophilic, the nucleus is about
achromatophilous area - the so-called patio, which contains the Golgi apparatus
and cell center in the cytoplasm of well-developed granular EPS, as a chain girdle
kernel. Function of plasma cells - produce antibodies. Functionally, the cells are
divided into B-and T-and O-lymphocytes. B lymphocytes are produced in the bone
marrow, differentiation are in the bursa of Fabricius analogue.
Function of B lymphocytes - the antibody, ie, immunoglobulins.
Immunoglobulins of B lymphocytes are their receptors, which may be concentrated
in certain locations may be diffusely scattered over the surface of tsitolemmy can
move on the cell surface. B cells have receptors for antigen and sheep erythrocytes.
T lymphocytes are divided into T helper, T suppressor and T-killer cells. T-helper
and T suppressor regulates humoral immunity. In particular, under the influence of
T-helper cells increases proliferation and differentiation of B lymphocytes and
antibody synthesis in B lymphocytes. Under the influence of lymphokines
allocated T-suppressors, B-lymphocyte proliferation and antibody synthesis is
suppressed. T-killer cells are involved in cellular immunity, ie, they destroy the
genetically foreign cells. By the killers are cells that kill foreign cells, but only in
the presence of antibodies to them. On the surface of T lymphocytes have receptors
for erythrocytes mouse.
On-cells are undifferentiated and to reserve lymphocytes.
Morphological differences of B-and T-lymphocytes is not always possible. At the
same time in B-lymphocytes is better developed granular EPS in the nucleus has
loose chromatin and nucleoli. Best of all T-and B-lymphocytes can be
distinguished by means of immune reactions and immunomorphological.
The life span of T lymphocytes from several months to several years, Blymphocytes - from several weeks to several months.
Blood stem cells (SCC) is morphologically indistinguishable from small dark
lymphocytes. If the CCM fall into the connective tissue, they differentiate into
mast cells, fibroblasts, etc.
Monocytes. Constitute 3-11%, the diameter of a drop of blood is equal to 14
microns, in a blood smear on the glass - 18 mm, slightly basophilic cytoplasm
contains organelles, the total value, including the well-developed lysosomes or
azurophilic granules. The kernel is often bean-shaped, at least - a horseshoe-shaped
or oval. Function - phagocytic. Monocytes circulate in the blood of 36-104 hours,
and then migrate through the capillary walls into the surrounding tissue and there
differentiate into macrophages - macrophages glial nervous tissue, stellate cells of
liver, lung alveolar macrophages, osteoclasts of bone tissue, skin epidermis
vnutriepidermalnye macrophages and macrophage phagocytosis, etc. When
produce biological oxidants. Macrophages stimulate the proliferation and
differentiation of B and T lymphocytes, are involved in immunological reactions.
Platelets. Add up to 1 liter of blood 250 300h1012, are particles of the cytoplasm
of giant cells detached from the bone marrow - megakaryocytes. Platelet diameter
of 2-3 microns. Platelets are made up of gialomera, which is their foundation, and
chromomeres, or granulomera.
Cytolemma plasma cells covered by a thick (15-20 nm) glycocalyx forms of
intussusception in the form of tubules extending from tsitolemmy. This is an open
system of ducts through which the platelet-released their contents, and from the
plasma of various substances act. In cytolemma are glycoproteins - receptors.
Glycoprotein capture of plasma von Willebrand factor. This is one of the key
factors for blood clotting. A second glycoprotein, is a receptor of fibrinogen and is
involved in platelet aggregation.
Gialomer - platelet cytoskeleton is represented actin filaments located under
cytolemme and microtubular beams adjacent to and located tsitolemme circularly.
The actin filaments are involved in reducing the amount of thrombus.
The dense tubular system consists of platelet tubes, similar to smooth EPS. On the
surface, this system is synthesized by COX and prostaglandins in these ducts are
connected and divalent cations are deposited ions Ca2 +. Calcium helps adhesion
and aggregation of platelets. Under the influence of cyclooxygenase Arach-dons
acid decomposes into prostaglandins and thromboxane A 2, which stimulates
platelet aggregation.
Granulomer includes organelles (ribosomes, lysosomes, microperoxysome,
mitochondria), organelle components (EPS, Golgi complex), glycogen, ferritin,
and special pellets.
Specific granules are presented in the following three types:
Type 1-alpha-granules have a diameter of 350-500 nm, which contain proteins
(thromboplastin), glycoproteins (thrombospondin, fibronectin), growth factors and
lytic enzymes (cathepsin).
Type 2 - beta-granules have a diameter of 250-300 nm, which is a dense
bodies contain serotonin, coming from the blood plasma, histamine, adrenaline,
calcium, ADP, ATP.
Type 3 - granules with a diameter of 200-250 nm, presented lysosomes
containing lysosomal enzymes, and microperoxysome containing peroxidase.
Distinguish between five types of platelets: 1) young 2) mature, and 3) Old 4),
degenerative, and 5) giant.
Platelet function - involved in the formation of blood clots in damaged blood
vessels. In the formation of a blood clot occurs: 1) the selection of external tissue
factor of blood coagulation and platelet adhesion, 2) platelet aggregation and
allocation of domestic clotting factor, and 3) under the influence of thromboplastin
prothrombin converted into thrombin, fibrinogen under the influence of which falls
in the thread and fibrin clot is formed, which is clogging the vessel stops the
bleeding.
When injected into the body of aspirin inhibited thrombus formation.
Hemogram. This is the number of blood cells per unit of volume (1 liter). In
addition, determine the amount of hemoglobin and erythrocyte sedimentation rate,
expressed in millimeters for 1 hour.
Wbc. This is the percentage of white blood cells. In particular, segmented
leukocytes neutrophil contains 47-72%, stab - 3-5% of young - 0.5%; basophilic
granulocytes - 0.5-1%, eosinophilic granulocytes - 1-6%, 3-11% monocytes;
lymphocytes - 19-37%. In pathological conditions of the organism increases the
number of young granulocytes and stab neutrophil - this is called a "shift to the left
of the formula."
Age-related changes in the content of blood cells. In the body of a newborn
in 1 liter of blood contains red blood cells 7h1012 6, to the 14th day - the same as
in adults, a 6-month decreases the number of erythrocytes (physiological anemia),
the period of puberty, reaches adulthood.
Significant age-related changes undergoing maintenance neutrophilic
granulocytes and lymphocytes. In the body of a newborn of their number to the
number of adults. After that, the number of neutrophils begins to decrease,
lymphocytes - to increase, and the 4th days of the content of both is the same (first
physiologic decussation). Then the number of neutrophils continued to decline,
lymphocytes - to grow, and to 1-2 years in the number of neutrophils is reduced to
a minimum (20-30%) and lymphocytes increased to 60-70%. After that, the
content starts to decrease lymphocyte, neutrophils, - increase, and 4 years in the
number of those and other equalized (second physiologic decussation). Then the
number of neutrophils continued to increase, lymphocytes - to diminish, and the
period of puberty, the content of these formed elements is the same as an adult.
Lymph consists of lymphoplasme and blood cells. Lymphoplasme include
water, organic matter and mineral salts. Blood cells by 98% composed of
lymphocytes, 2% - other blood cells. The value of lymph is to update the basic
fabric of intercellular substance and its purification from bacteria, bacterial toxins
and other harmful substances. Thus, lymph differ from blood containing less
protein and more lymphoplasme lymphocytes.