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Chapter 28
The Cold War and American Globalism (1945-1961)
-July 16, 1945
-“Deer” team leader Allison Thomas parachutes into Northern Vietnam with 5 other
members of Office of Strategic Services (OSS)
-Mission: work with Vietminh (Vietnamese Nationalist Organization) to sabotage
Japanese forces that seized Vietnam from France
-Ho Chi Minh
-Head of Vietminh
-greeted OSS
-“We welcome 10 million Americans” – Minh
-“Forget the Communist bogy” – Thomas to OSS hq
-Joined French Communist party after WWI
-Hoped to use it as a vehicle for Vietnamese independence
-During WWII, Vietminh rescued American pilots & harass French & Japanese forces
-1945
-Ho met with US officials in China
-Hoped US would favor request for liberation
-Diagnosed by US nurse with malaria and dysentery
-Named “OSS Agent 19”
-Sign of friendship between US and Vietnam
-Mercy Team
-2nd OSS unit led by Cpt. Archimedes Patti
-Landed in Hanoi August 22
-Minh praised US
-US decided to led French determine fate of Vietnam
-September 2, 1945
-Ho Chi Minh declares independence for Democratic Republic of Vietnam
-Inspired by US
-Late September
-Minh realizes the US has armed forces against them (the Vietminh)
-Wound up fighting against US in longest American war
-Feb 16, 1956, Minh asks US for assistance
-US rejects appeal b/c Minh is communist
-Cold War
-US believed Soviets were directing worldwide communist conspiracy against peace, free
market capitalism, and political democracy
- Soviets felt that a militarized, economically aggressive US sought nothing less than
world domination
-bipolar contest over spheres of influence (over world power)
-took millions of lives, trillions of dollars, spawned fears of doomsday, &
destabilized nation after nation
-Third World
-“West” = 1st world
-“East” = 2nd world
- nonwhite, nonindustrial countries located in southern half of the world (Asia, Africa,
Middle East, Latin America) = 3rd World
-Vietnam was third world
From Allies to Adversaries
Decolonization
-Financial constraints and nationalist rebellions forced imperial states to set their colonies free
-Britain exited India & Pakistan in 1947
-Burma & Sri Lanka (Ceylon) in 1948
-US released Philippines in 1946
-Dutch left Indonesia in 1949
-Lebanon (1943), Syria (1946), Jordan (1946) gained independence in middle east
-New emerging third world countries were potential new allies
-Both for US and USSR
-military bases, resources, markets
Stalin’s Arms
-Soviets
-committed to seeking ultimate victory over capitalists
-most concerned with preventing homeland invasion
-USSR hard to defend
-3x size of US
-only 10k miles of coastline
-Siberia (vital mineral resources)
-6k miles from Moscow
-vulnerable to encroachment by Japan and China
-Stalin wanted his presence known
-wanted to expand USSR borders to include Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and part of
Poland
-pressed the Turks to grant him naval bases and access out of the black sea
US Economic and Strategic Needs
-US homeland
-very well protected
-virtually immune from attack
-fixed capital intact, plentiful resources, lone holder of the atomic bomb
-US was strongest power in the world at the end of the war
-No time for complacency
-USSR could take advantage of situation in Europe and seize land there and in Asia
-US pushed for forward bases and rapid reconstruction of nations like Germany and
Japan
-Soviets
-refused to join International Monetary Fund (IMF)
-IMF created at 1944 Bretton Woods Conference
-devised by 44 nations to stabilize trade and finance
-World Bank
-opened in 1945
-US was largest donor
Stalin and Truman
-Stalin
-No wish for immediate war
-Huge Russian losses in WWII
-Well aware of USSR weaknesses
-Believed Germany would rise again and threaten USSR
-Clinically paranoid
-Truman
-a bit big-headed
-constantly exaggerated that he “knocked the socks off the communists” in Korea
-Protested to Soviet commissioner of foreign affairs that Soviets were not fulfilling the
Yalta agreement
-Commissioner V.M. Molotov stormed out of the White House
Beginning of the Cold War
-1917
-Bolshevik Revolution
-Hostile response from western powers
-1945
-Soviets refused to allow exiled Polish govt. to be a part of the communist government
that Moscow sponsored
-Moscow initially allowed free elections in Hungary and Czechoslovakia
- Cold war accelerated, US influence in Europe expanded
-Soviets encourage Communist coups in both nations
-1 exception: Yugoslavia
-US reviving Germany
-Soviets bitter about this
-Germans had inflicted massive suffering on the Russians in the past.
-Soviets protested US was meddling in eastern Europe
Atomic Diplomacy
-practice of maintaining a nuclear monopoly to scare the Soviets into diplomatic concessions
-Atomic bomb gave US bargaining power
-could serve as deterrent to Soviet expansion
-Secretary of war Henry L. Stimson felt the Soviets would become suspicious and
distrusting
-Truman refused to turn the weapon over to an international control authority
-Baruch Plan
-provided for US abandonment of atomic monopoly
-world’s fissionable materials would be brought under authority of international agency
-Would force Soviets to shut down their nuclear program
-weapons race ensues
Warnings from Kennan and Churchill
-February 1946
-Stalin gives speech saying the world is threatened by capitalist acquisitiveness
-Churchill delivers speech in Fulton, Missouri
-Soviets erected an “iron curtain”
-split Eastern and Western Europe
-UN security council established
-5 nations held seats
-US, USSR, Great Britain, China, and France
-could not prohibit discussion of any issue but could veto any proposed action
-Truman fired Secretary of Commerce Henry Wallace
-Challenged Truman’s “get tough” policy
-“the tougher we get, the tougher the soviets get”
Truman Doctrine
-Requested $400 million in aid to Turkey
-congressional approval wouldn’t come easy
-Tried to scare the public into agreeing with him
-Said communism imperiled the world
-“I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are
resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”
-Request was approved 67-23
Inevitable Cold War?
-US and USSR sought to fill power vacuum after armistice
-nations had a history of hostility and tension
-both were militarily powerful
-divided sharply by differing political economies
-Neither side’s leadership wanted war
-both hoped spirit of cooperation could be maintained
Containment in Action
Lippmann’s Critique
-The Cold War by Walter Lippmann (1947)
-the war was a “strategic monstrosity”
-failed to distinguish between vital and peripheral areas
-President put too little emphasis on diplomacy
-American diplomats pursued a range of objective
-economic reconstruction
-fostering a political environment friendly to the US
Marshall Plan
-European nations couldn’t afford American goods
-June 1947
-Sec. of State George C. Marshall announces US will finance European recovery program
-Launched in 1948
-$12.4 billion to Western Europe
-ended in 1951
-Europeans had to spend the money in the US on American-made goods
National Security Act
-July 1947
-Created office of Secretary of Defense
-oversees all branches of military, National security council, and CIA
-Stalin forbade communist satellite governments in eastern Europe to accept Marshall Plan aid
-ordered communist parties to thwart the plan
-also created Cominform
-organization designed to coordinate communist activities around the world
-1948, communist coup in Czechoslovakia ensured full Soviet control of the country
Berlin Blockade and Airlift
-June 1948
-US, France, and Britain agree to fuse German zones
-Soviets cut off Western land access to Berlin
-In response, Truman orders massive airdrop of food, fuel, and supplies to Berlin
-Soviets lift blockade in May 1949
-Truman beats Thomas E. Dewey in election of 1948 during Berlin crisis
-April 1949
-12 nations sign defense treaty and establish NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
-First US-European military alliance since 1778
-an attack on any of the 12 nations was an attack on all
-many felt NATO would provoke war, not deter it
-NATO treaty ratified 82-13’
-US began spending billions on Defense Assistance Act
-Cold War outlook was favorable for Truman
Twin Shocks
-One and Two
-US recon aircraft detect unusually high radioactivity in the atmosphere
-Soviets had detonated an atomic bomb (US nuclear monopoly erased)
-At the same time, Communists in China complete their conquest
-World’s largest countries now ruled by communists
-1950
-Truman gives go ahead for Hydrogen bomb development
-NSC-68
-document that appealed for a much enlarged military budget and mobilization of public
opinion
The Cold War in Asia
Chinese Civil War
-Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-Shek) became an unreliable partner after WWII
-began rejecting US advice
-his government had become corrupt, inefficient, and out of touch
-Jiang also subverted US efforts to negotiate a cease-fire and a coalition government
-Mao Zedong
-Chinese communist leader
-speculation as to whether or not he was just a Soviet puppet or an Asian Tito
-Asian Tito: communist, but independent
-leaned to the Soviet side during the Cold War
-resented Soviet refusal to aid communists in civil war
-Stalin offered no help, “not even a fart”
-September 1949
-Jiang fled to Formosa (Taiwan) and Mao proclaimed the People’s Republic of China in
Beijing
-Truman was hesitant to acknowledge the new govt.
-overall chose not to recognize the govt.
Vietnam’s Quest for Independence
-American officials had not so nice things to say about French colonial policy
-Yet they still rejected Ho Chi Minh’s appeals in favor of establishing French colonial
policy
-Mainly to ensure cooperation in the Cold War
-Truman Administration was weary of Ho Chi Minh’s communist policies
-Felt Ho was an “agent of international communism” who would assist Soviet and
Chinese expansionism
-1946
-war between French and Vietminh breaks out
-US keeps hands off approach (for 3 years at least…)
-1945-1954
-US gave France $2 billion to help try and keep Vietnam within its empire
The Korean War
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U.S. would fight another large-scale military conflict in Korea
North Korean military force moved across the 38th parallel into South Korea on June 25, 1950
o Soviets armed the North and America armed the South
Kim Il Sung (north communist leader) and Syngman Rhee (south’s president) sought to reunify
their country
Stalin backed the attack only when Mao Zedong backed North Korea’s army and Kim Il Sung
predicted an early, easy victory
U.N. Security Council voted to defend South Korea
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Stalin gave little support to North Korea and China during the war
Truman ordered General MacArthur to send arms and troops to South Korea and for the 7th Fleet
to patrol the waters
MacArthur became commander of U.N. forces in Korea
North Koreans pushed the South Koreans and Americans to the southern tip of South Korea
within a few weeks of the beginning of war
Marines landed ashore at Inchon on September 15, 1950
o Operation was success; troops liberated South Korean capital of Seoul and pushed North
Koreans back to the 38th parallel
Truman defined U.S. war goal as reuniting Korea and stopping communism
Soviets did not aid North Korea, but Chinese sent troops on October 25th
Tens of thousands of Chinese troops counterattacked on November 26th and drove U.S. troops
south
MacArthur wanted to attack China and smash the communism in Asia
In April of 1951 Truman, backed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, fired MacArthur
o MacArthur returned home a hero
U.S. officials announced that only those North Korean and Chinese POWs who wished to go
home would be returned
o North Koreans then denounced forced retention
Armistice was finally signed in July 1953
Stalin died in March 1953
America and Korea agreed to let a panel of neutral nations decided the POW question
o Given the choice of staying or leaving
The North Korean-South Korean border was set near the 38th parallel with demilitarized zones
between the two
54,246 Americans dead and 103,284 wounded
Close to 5 million Asians dead
Dwight Eisenhower elected as president in 1952
$69.5 billion war debt
Korean war had an even greater effect on the foreign policy
o No U.S. reconciliation with China
o South Korea and Formosa would become major recipients of U.S. aid
o Alliance with Japan strengthened
Australia and New Zealand joined the U.S. in a mutual defense agreement (ANZUS Treaty 1951)
Military budget shot up to $44 billion in 1953
Unrelenting Cold War
 Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles sustained Truman’s Cold War policy
 Eisenhower served as army chief of staff and NATO supreme commander
 Dulles had considerable influence on foreign policy
 Dulles believed containing communism was too defensive and wanted countries freed of Soviet
rule
 “massive retaliation” referred to administration’s plan for the nuclear obliteration of Soviet State
of China is they took aggressive actions
 Eisenhower and Dulles emphasized airport and nuclear weaponry
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o Had massive stockpiling of nuclear weapons
“brinkmanship” was not backing down in a crisis
Eisenhower used the CIA as an instrument of foreign policy
o CIA headed by Allen Dulles
o CIA launched covert operations to destroy 3rd world governments (Iran, Guatemala)
Soviets began increasing their own intelligence and researching nuclear weapons
Launched first intercontinental ballistic missile and propelled satellite Sputnik into outer space
NAS was created in 1958
Eisenhower did not want any military conflict with Soviet Union or china
o Sought to enhance view of U.S. in the “People to People campaign “ (Propaganda War)
Nixon, VP at the time and Nikita Khrushchev debated over communism in the “kitchen debate”
Revolts against Soviet power erupted in Poland and Hungary
Soviets crushed the rebellions
Soviets wanted all of Berlin united, but the U.S. refused to five up West Berlin or its ties with
NATO
On May 1st a U.S. U-2 spy plane was shot down in Soviet airspace
o U.S. refused to apologize fort eh incident
In early 1955, Congress passed the Formosa Resolution
o Allowed president to deploy American forces to protect Formosa
o Congress gave president the power to declare war in doing so
China exploded its first nuclear bomb in 1964
The Struggle for the Third World
 Eisenhower began to focus on the expansion of communism in 3rd world countries
o Decolonization accelerated rapidly in 3rd world countries after WWII
 With emergence of new countries, power was redistributed
 By late 1940s the Soviet-American rivalry increasingly shifted to the 3rd world
 Many of the countries were looking to end the economic, military, and cultural hegemony of the
west
o Learned to play off American and Soviet Union against each other to gain more aid and
arms
 U.S. directed foreign aid, propaganda, developmental projects toward the third world
 American leaders said the 3rd world countries needed Western-induced influences to enjoy
economic growth, social harmony, and political moderation
o Said 3rd world countries were dependent on the U.S.
o Compared 3rd world countries to weak women (passive and servile)
 Race attitudes and segregation practices in the U.S. influenced relations with the 3rd world
countries
 Secretary of State Dulles said that racial segregation was a “major international hazard”
 When U.S. attorney general appealed to the supreme court to strike down segregation in schools,
he cited the humiliation of the dark-skinned diplomats
 U.S. broadcasted Brown v. Board of Education decision all over the world in 35 different
languages
 Hostility of the United States toward revolution also obstructed its quest for influence in the third
world
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Many of the 3rd world revolutions threatened American Cold War allies and U.S.
investments, markets, and military bases
Americans believed 3rd world peoples craved modernizations
o Many “developmental” programs were launched
In the 1950s the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller foundations sponsored a Green Revolution in 3rd
world countries
o Dramatic increase in agricultural production
American leaders often sponsored Advertisements and propaganda aimed at developing nations
o U.S. Information Agency (USIA) did this job
Many advertisements depicted Soviets as evil and showed Americans economic success
o Showed well-paid Americans, democracy, and freedom
Peoples of third world countries envied the consumer goods, rock music, economic status, and
education opportunities of America
Americans were however blamed for the poverty in the developing nations because of how much
they wasted and how large U.S. corporations took from these people
Eisenhower often used covert means to get 3rd world countries to side with U.S.
CIA overthrew Jacobo Arbenz Guzman in Guatemala in 1954 because he supported communism
Fidel Castro and his rebels overthrew Fulgencio Batista in Cuba in 1959
Castro sought to decrease American influence and trade in Cuba
Eisenhower ordered the CIA to overthrow Castro after he signed a trade treaty with the Soviets
Eisenhower broke diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 right before he left office
o CIA failed in overthrowing Castro in 1961
United Nations votes to make Palestine into 2 parts: Arab and Jewish states
U.S. extended recognition to Israel, so did Soviet Union
American policy in the middle-east centered around protecting Israel and cementing ties with
Arab oil producers
Egyptian leader Gamal Abdul Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal and became a hero to his
people
o To counter Nasser, U.S. tried to “build up” King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia
Eisenhower Doctrine stated that the U.S. would intervene in the Middle East if any govt. was
threatened by communism
Vietnamese gain independence on May 7, 1954 when French surrender
Peace talks in Geneva brought Cold War and nationalist contenders together
Vietnam was separated at the 17th parallel, but was scheduled to be reunified after the elections in
1956
o U.S. believed the Geneva agreements ultimately meant communist victory
o U.S. supported Ngo Dinh Diem in South Korea
Vietcong was created in 1960 by southern communists
U.S. continued to support the non-communist Southern Korea