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Afghanistan
THE AFGHAN WAR
The roots of the war lay in the overthrow of the centrist Afghanistan government in April 1978 by left-wing military officers, who
then handed power over to two Marxist-Leninist political parties, the Khalq (“Masses”) and Parcham (“Flag”), who together had
formed the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan. Having little popular support, the new government forged close ties with the
Soviet Union, launched ruthless purges of all domestic opposition, and began extensive land and social reforms that were bitterly
resented by the devoutly Muslim and largely anti-Communist population.
Muslim tribal-based insurgencies arose against the government, and these uprisings, along with internal fighting and coups between
the Khalq and Parcham governmental factions, prompted the invasion of the country by about 30,000 Soviet troops in December 1979
with the aim of propping up the Soviet Union’s new but faltering client state.
The rebellion of the Muslim rebels, or mujahedeen (literally, “strugglers”), grew in response, spreading to all parts of the country. The
Soviets initially left the suppression of the rebellion to the Afghan army, but the latter was rapidly depleted by mass desertions and
remained largely ineffective throughout the war.
The Afghan War quickly settled down into a stalemate, with about 100,000 Soviet troops controlling the cities, large towns, and major
garrisons and the mujahedeen roaming relatively freely throughout the countryside. The Soviet troops tried to crush the insurgency by
various tactics, but the guerrillas generally eluded their attacks.
The Soviets then attempted to eliminate the mujahedeen’s civilian support by bombing and depopulating the rural areas. Their tactics
sparked a massive flight from the countryside; by 1982 some 2.8 million Afghans had sought asylum in Pakistan, and another 1.5
million had fled to Iran.
The mujahedeen were eventually able to neutralize Soviet air power through the use of shoulder-fired antiaircraft missiles supplied by
the United States. The mujahedeen were fragmented politically into a handful of different groups, and their military efforts remained
uncoordinated throughout the war.
The quality of their arms and combat organization gradually improved, however, owing to experience and to arms shipments sent by
the United States and other countries via Pakistan. In 1988 the United States, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the Soviet Union signed an
agreement for the withdrawal of Soviet troops and the return of Afghanistan to nonaligned status.
In April 1992, various rebel groups, together with newly rebellious government troops, stormed the besieged capital of Kabul, and the
communist president, Mohammad Najibullah, was ousted from power. A new transitional government, sponsored by various rebel
factions, proclaimed an Islamic republic.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1499983/Soviet-invasion-of-Afghanistan
Chile
COUP D’ETAT IN CHILE
Chile was known for its stability in Latin America compared to its neighbors until the 1960s. By then the Cold War began to affect the
mountainous nation, and Chile became a part of the Alliance for Progress. The alliance was meant as a way to keep socialistic
revolutions from taking hold in Latin America. However, the Alliance for Progress was scorned by conservatives in many of the
countries that signed it, including Chile. During the 1960’s, Eduardo Frei served as president of Chile. Frei was endorsed by the
Johnson administration and he sought to pass radical reforms. However, the more industrialized Chile became, the more Labor Unions
asked for higher wages. The Labor Unions were not satisfied with the wages they received, leading to higher prices and more
inflation. Furthermore, the Chilean youth adopted a Leftist view and began to protest the government with labor unions, both leaning
towards the Communist Party in Chile.
In 1970, the Socialist Party won the presidency with Salvador Allende Gossens. Allende had promised a republic to the people of
Chile and said he would provide reforms that would make the working class more equal. President Nixon told his advisers, namely
Henry Kissinger, that he wanted Allende out of power. The only way for Allende to be overthrown was by the Chilean military rising
up against him. Kissinger sent a cable to the CIA office in Chile saying that agents were to continue instigating a military coup.
However, the CIA wasn’t truly necessary in Chile. After three years, the Chilean people were standing against the president. Allende
nationalized the copper industry and other industries. He froze prices and raised wages to try and stop inflation, which only raised
inflation. On top of his reforms, the CIA was running propaganda against Allende.
By 1973, the Chilean Congress and Judiciary stood against Allende. They claimed that his government went against the Chilean
constitution. The military then stormed his palace and Allende died while armed. Although the U.S. appeared to have no involvement
in the coup, many historians and analysts have claimed that Kissinger played a part in the death of Gen. Rene Schneider, since the
general was against a military overthrow of Allende.
Sources:
“Henry Kissinger, US Involved in 1970 Chilean Plot.” Global Policy Forum. September 9, 2001. Global Policy Forum. 3 Jun 2008 ,
http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/general/2001/0909cbskiss.htm>.
Smitha, Frank E. “Chile, to Chile to 1970.” Chile, to the Overthrow of Allende in 1973. 2002. 3 Jun 2008 ,
http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch24y.htm>.
“The Memory of the Bloody Military Overthrow in Chile — September 11th, 1973.” The Memory of the Bloody Military Overthrow
in Chile . September 10th, 2003. 3 Jun 2008 , http://www.neue-einheit.com/english/is/is2003/is2003-43e.htm>.
Cuba
The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world ever came to nuclear war. The United States armed forces were at their highest
state of readiness ever and Soviet field commanders in Cuba were prepared to use battlefield nuclear weapons to defend the island if it
was invaded. Luckily, thanks to the bravery of two men, President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khrushchev, war was averted.
In 1962, the Soviet Union was desperately behind the United States in the arms race. Soviet missiles were only powerful enough to be
launched against Europe but U.S. missiles were capable of striking the entire Soviet Union. In late April 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita
Khrushchev conceived the idea of placing intermediate-range missiles in Cuba. A deployment in Cuba would double the Soviet
strategic arsenal and provide a real deterrent to a potential U.S. attack against the Soviet Union.
Meanwhile, Fidel Castro was looking for a way to defend his island nation from an attack by the U.S. Ever since the failed Bay of
Pigs invasion in 1961, Castro felt a second attack was inevitable. Consequently, he approved of Khrushchev's plan to place missiles on
the island. In the summer of 1962 the Soviet Union worked quickly and secretly to build its missile installations in Cuba.
For the United States, the crisis began on October 15, 1962 when
reconnaissance photographs revealed Soviet missiles under construction
in Cuba. Early the next day, President John Kennedy was informed of the
missile installations. Kennedy immediately organized theEX-COMM, a
group of his twelve most important advisors to handle the crisis. After
seven days of guarded and intense debate within the upper echelons of
government, Kennedy concluded to impose a naval quarantine around
Cuba. He wished to prevent the arrival of more Soviet offensive weapons
on the island. On October 22, Kennedy announced the discovery of the
missile installations to the public and his decision to quarantine the
island. He also proclaimed that any nuclear missile launched from Cuba
would be regarded as an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union
and demanded that the Soviets remove all of their offensive weapons
from Cuba.
During the public phase of the Crisis, tensions began to build on both sides. Kennedy eventually ordered low-level
reconnaissance missions once every two hours. On the 25th Kennedy pulled the quarantine line back and raised military readiness to
DEFCON 2. Then on the 26th EX-COMM heard from Khrushchev in an impassioned letter. He proposed removing Soviet missiles
and personnel if the U.S. would guarantee not to invade Cuba. October 27 was the worst day of the crisis. A U-2 was shot down over
Cuba and EX-COMM received a second letter from Khrushchev demanding the removal of U.S. missiles in Turkey in exchange for
Soviet missiles in Cuba. Attorney General Robert Kennedy suggested ignoring the second letter and contacted Soviet Ambassador
Anatoly Dobrynin to tell him of the U.S. agreement with the first.
Tensions finally began to ease on October 28 when Khrushchev announced that he would dismantle the installations and return the
missiles to the Soviet Union, expressing his trust that the United States would not invade Cuba. Further negotiations were held to
implement the October 28 agreement, including a United States demand that Soviet light bombers be removed from Cuba, and
specifying the exact form and conditions of United States assurances not to invade Cuba.
http://library.thinkquest.org/11046/days/index.html
Egypt
The Soviets began a thrust in midyear 1970 that deepened their military involvement in Egypt. According to intelligence, they did this
by “flying combat air patrols over the Suez Canal and manning the missile batteries against Israeli planes” in the Egyptian-Israeli War
of Attrition.
The United States, in turn, augmented its arms sales to Israel, convincing Egypt’s new president, Anwar Sadat, that America held all
the cards and was the only force that could possibly influence prospects for peace in the Middle East.
Gartoff says that the ensuing disillusionment with his Soviet backers over the provision of advanced weapons, as well as the
perceived inadequacy of Moscow’s diplomatic and military support, led Sadat to expel “the approximately 20,000 Soviet military
advisers and technicians in Egypt, as well as the Soviet reconnaissance aircraft based there, and [he] sharply curtailed any Soviet use
of military facilities in his country ….
Sadat had decided that he could not rely on the Soviets to help him recover occupied Egyptian territory. Meanwhile, he prepared for a
limited war with Israel as a means of reopening the occupation issue.
Like Cuba in 1959, Egypt transferred loyalty from one superpower to another in the midst of the Cold War conflict, and, gradually, the
US replaced the Soviets as Egypt’s main military supplier.
As the US gained influence in Egypt and the Middle East, the superpower sought to exclude the Soviet Union from regional affairs,
particularly from the evolving peace process.
Although Egypt’s shifting allegiances did not prevent — and may, in fact, have spurred — the Yom Kippur War of 1973, Sadat’s
actions ultimately contributed to the successful negotiation of a peace agreement for the Middle East.
http://www.coldwarstudies.com/2010/06/10/egypt-transfers-loyalty-from-the-ussr-to-the-us-in-the-middle-of-the-cold-war/
Ethiopia
SOMALIA, ETHIOPIA, AND THE OGADEN WAR
In a blink of an eye, everything can change. It happened when Mengistu Haile Mariam was appointed to chairman of the military and
head of state of Ethiopia on February 11, 1977. Throughout the rest of Mariam’s first year of reign, Ethiopia tried to suppress its
opponents and enemies. Maxamed Siyaad Barre, president of Somalia, realized that Ethiopia was having major opposition against its
own military and government, causing a lot of confusion and warfare.
Barre used this opportunity to attack Ethiopia. His army consisted of 50,000 soldiers (15,000 from the Western Somalia Liberation
Front, and 35,000 regular Somalians). These soldiers started to go into the Ogaden, the eastern territory of Ethiopia, in May through
June of 1977. They weeded their way into Ethiopian day-to-day life, having a huge effect on what they did. In July of 1977,
treacherous warfare broke out.
Mariam’s armed forces consisted of only 24,000 soldiers with limited weapons. Predictably, Barre had over twice as many fighting
men and women as Mariam. The resulted was obvious: after two long months of fighting, Barre controlled ninety percent of the
Ogaden. He started pushing his military units and forcing Mariam’s units into non-Ethiopian territories and countries.
Allies of Ethiopia saw this as a huge threat and helped out. North Korea, Cuba, and the Soviet Union supported Mariam and his troops
by giving Ethiopia dozens helicopter pilots, thousands of soldiers, weapons and military aid. Finally, after thirteen long, bloody
months, Ethiopia (with help from its allies) gained back control over the Ogaden, and the Ogaden war was finally over.
Sources:
"Eastern Africa, history of." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online School Edition. 2 June 2008,
http://school.eb.com/eb/article-37519>.
"Ethiopia." Library of Congress Country Studies (1991) 2 Jun 2008, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgibin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+et0179)>.
"Somalia." Library of Congress Country Studies 2 Jun 2008, http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-12043.html>.
http://www.coldwar.org/articles/70s/SomaliaEthiopiaandTheOgadenWar1977.asp
Iran
OVERTHROW OF THE IRANIAN GOVERNMENT
One of the best known covert actions of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was its role in the 1953 overthrow of the
Iranian government headed by Mohammed Mossadegh and the subsequent installation of the Shah in to power. While it is
true that the coup was successful in large part due to CIA money, materials and strategy, it is also true that the CIA did not
act alone. To the contrary, the British plotted the coup and did not propose making the overthrow a joint venture with the
CIA until a year after the government began discussions on this prospect.
But before the CIA involvement in the overthrow of Mossadegh is discussed, it would be beneficial to examine the events
that led the British to decide that Iran needed a new government.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, Great Britain began a new wave of imperialism, focusing on areas in the
Middle East strategic to enhance their trade. Persia (which wasn’t known as Iran until 1935) was one of the countries in
which Britain gained enormous power and influence. This power was derived from its control of Persia’s main export
product, oil, through the Anglo Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). Iranian oil had become crucial to Great Britain during
World War II, and Britain’s control over the oil in the postwar years was an essential source of revenue for the British.
Not only did the company (and Britain by extension) make money from the sale of oil, but also from the taxes it levied on
Iran. In 1950, AIOC made 170 million pounds from oil sale and an amount equal to 30% of the profits in taxes.
Of course this wealth was acquired at the expense of the Iranians, whom had no control over their largest export, were
only receiving around 10% of the profits made from their resources and worked the oil fields for very little pay. It
therefore should have come as little surprise when Mossadegh announced his plan to nationalize Iranian oil production
when he became Prime Minister in 1951. This plan was made law in May of 1951, only a month later.
Even though he had said he would offset the losses of the AIOC, this new law led to the British decision to remove
Mossadegh from power. The only offers that would appease the oil company were either a new oil settlement or payments
to make up for profit losses that the company would face. But Mossadegh’s spirit of nationalism was strong and he
remained firm on his stance.
The British policymakers felt that they had three ways in which they could handle the threat of nationalization of Iranian
oil production: they could stop oil production and hope that the negative economic consequences would bring the Iranians
back to the discussion table, they could plot a coup to install a government friendly to British interests or they could take
direct military action.
The British did halt the oil production. No oil was produced from this time until the 1953 coup, and the impact on the
Iranian economy was disastrous. This, however, was not enough to break the will of Mossadegh. Britain did begin
preparations for war with Iran, but abandoned this idea when they realized that they could not get sufficient military
personnel to the area quickly and it was a possibility that Iran could defend itself against the small amount of troops that
were already there.
So the British decided to supplement their economic pressure with the installation of a new Iranian government.
Government discussions concerning the logistics of the coup began in September of 1951, and in November of 1952 MI6
and the Foreign Office Team approached the CIA to discuss cooperation in the coup. Until the Eisenhower administration
the US government was in favor of Mossadegh, as they viewed his government as a balance to Soviet influence in the
area. But Eisenhower’s administration was weary of nationalism in the third world, sympathetic to “oil interests” and
concerned with what it perceived as the spread of communism. Due to this policy shift, the CIA agreed to help MI6.
The CIA and MI6 came up with the strategy to stage a mass demonstration in the streets of Tehran. The protesters, who
were paid to protest using MI6 and CIA funds, were depicted as Tudeh (Iran’s communist party) supporters in the media.
This way the military, supplied with guns, trucks and cars from the US military, would have a “suitable pretext” for
coming into the city - to save Iran, a very religious society, from the threat of takeover by the godless communists.
The successful coup occurred in August of 1953, and the Shah assumed power as had been planned. The Shah’s
dictatorship, marked by repression and torture of the Iranians, lasted nearly 26 years. He was ousted from power in 1979
by Muslim fundamentalists led by Ayatollah Khomeini.
http://www.coldwar.org/articles/50s/iranian_overthrow.asp
Nicaragua
IRAN CONTRA AFFAIR (1983 - 1988)
The Iran Contra Affair began as an internal U.S. confrontation between Ronald Reagan and the Democratic Congress. In 1984, the
Boland Amendment passed, which said that the CIA and Department of Defense could not give militaristic aid (specifically in
Nicaragua). The conflict began in 1985, while Iran and Iraq were at war with each other. Reagan had hopes that if he were to supply
Iran with United States military supplies and weapons, then the relations with Iran may be strengthened, and in turn would lead to
improved relations with Lebanon and a stronger U.S. position in the Middle East. Reagan was also hoping that if he were to place the
U.S. in good standings with Iran, he may be able to release seven American hostages who were being held captive by Iranian
terrorists.
This “arms-for-hostages” proposal was in direct violation of the Boland Amendment passed only a year prior. One specification of the
deal made in July 1985, was that over 500 anti-tank missiles would be sent to Iran from Israel in exchange for American Reverend
Benjamin Weir. Ironically, the initial trade of arms for three hostages had somewhat backfired as those released were replaced by
three more. More trade of military weapons for hostages continued, resulting in the release of all of the American hostages and an
accumulation of over 1500 American missiles of various types in Iranian hands.
Approximately thirty million dollars were recorded as received from the Iranians; however, only about twelve million of this ended up
in the proper hands. This lead to great suspicion in Washington — where did the rest of the money go? As it turned out, the money
that was gained from selling the arms to Iran was used to support American contras in Nicaragua who were fighting the Sandinistas: a
leftist political party founded by Augusto Cesar Sandino, a former insurgent leader. Reagan’s goal was to help the contras against a
power that he deemed as a Communist threat. The funding and the process used to get it were in clear defiance of Boland Amendment.
The Reagan administration had gotten around the laws of the amendment by using the National Security Council, whose actions were
not restricted by the terms of the amendment. In charge of the affair were Robert McFarlane, John Poindexter, and Oliver North:
leaders and staffer of the NSC respectively.
Eventually, the world learned of Reagan’s actions regarding the Iranian arms deals through a Lebanese newspaper and a great deal of
questioning arose. Though Reagan denied any knowledge of what was occurring in Nicaragua, Mr. North stated that both Reagan and
his Vice President Bush knew of the events and their cover-up. As of yet, there has been no evidence which connects Reagan and the
contra scandal. Eventually, North and Poindexter were pardoned from criminal charges under the condition that they testify in front of
then Senate. Later, in 1992, the president at the time (Bush) pardoned others, including Weinberger, involved in the scandal who kept
information secret or aided the affair in other ways — defined as charges of lying to Congress. Overall, the entire event was a blow to
Congress and its ability to oversee all of its departments. Additionally, Reagan lost face with his public as many were upset about his
dealing with terrorists.
Sources: “Iran-Contra Affair.” Infoplease. 2007. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Midlothian. 08 Apr. 2008. Keyword: Iran
Contra.
Wolf, Julie. “People & Events the Iran-Contra Affair.” PBS American Experience. 2000. PBS. 8 May 2008 .
http://www.coldwar.org/articles/80s/IranContraAffair.asp
Iraq
The Iran-Iraq war: 25 years on
By Roger Hardy : BBC Middle East analyst
Iraq invaded Iran on 22 September 1980, triggering a bitter eight-year war which destabilized the region and
devastated both countries.
The then Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein claimed as a reason for the invasion a territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab,
the waterway which forms the boundary between the two countries.
However, the conflict was rooted in regional rivalry.
Saddam Hussein felt directly threatened by the Islamic revolution which had brought Ayatollah Khomeini to power
in Iran the year before.
The ayatollah, for his part, saw Saddam as a brutal Sunni tyrant oppressing his country's Shia majority, and did not
disguise his desire to see him toppled.
Thus, for Saddam Hussein, the war's purpose was pre-emptive: to overthrow the Khomeini regime before that regime
could overthrow him.
He believed that Iran was in turmoil and that his forces could achieve quick victory.
It was a monumental mistake.
War of attrition
By 1982 Iranian forces had regained the territory they had lost and pushed across the border into Iraq. Khomeini
rejected an Iraqi offer of a ceasefire.
So although Baghdad had started the war, it was Khomeini who prolonged it.
The conflict turned into a war of attrition, with each side showing a marked disregard for the human cost:
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Khomeini sent thousands of young Iranians to their death in "human-wave" attacks.
Saddam used chemical weapons against the Iranians and, in 1988, against his own people - the Kurds of
Halabja - whom he considered a treacherous fifth column.
In the "war of the cities", both sides pounded their adversary's civilian population from the air.
In the "war of the tankers", each side attacked oil tankers and merchant ships in the Gulf in a bid to deprive
the other of trade.
In fact, the tanker war served to internationalize the conflict.
After repeated Iranian attacks on its vessels, Kuwait appealed to outside powers for protection - and both the United
States and the Soviet Union stepped in.
This helped turn the tide against Iran.
Seeing that their country was exhausted and isolated, Iranian officials urged Khomeini to accept a ceasefire.
When he finally did so, in July 1988, he likened it to drinking a cup of poison.
Counting the cost
The economic and political fallout was immense. At least half a million people died, and upper estimates stretch to
1.5 million.
Neither side had achieved its war aims. Khomeini had not overthrown Saddam. Saddam had not overthrown
Khomeini or forced him to re-draw the border in Iraq's favor.
Although the Iraqi leader sought to claim victory, in reality he had merely staved off defeat - and even that had
required a good deal of outside help.
Iraq's economic plight was one of the factors that led Saddam to take the fateful decision to invade Kuwait in 1990.
And on that occasion the Western and regional powers which had come to his aid in fighting Iran united in opposing
him.
For Iran, the consequences were no less dire.
The war not only exacted a heavy human and material cost. It extinguished much of the zeal of the Islamic
revolution. It led Iranians to question more sharply the capabilities of their clerical leadership.
With Khomeini's death shortly after the end of the war, the country entered a new and more introspective era.
The Iran-Iraq war left a painful legacy. Few modern conflicts have been so long, so bloody and so futile.
IRAN-IRAQ WAR DATES
September 1980
Iraqi forces invade Iran
June 1982
Iran counterattacks, rejects ceasefire offer
May 1984
Iran attacks Gulf shipping, escalating Tanker War
1985
Bombing of civilian centers in War of the Cities
July 1987
UN resolution 598 calls for ceasefire
July 1988
US carrier shoots down Iranian civilian airliner, claiming it thought it was a fighter
August 1988
Ceasefire agreed
Story from BBC NEWS: http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/middle_east/4260420.stm
Vietnam
The Vietnam War was a long, bloody conflict that ended with the United States’ first major military upset. It had huge
ramifications, nationally and globally.
The French had occupied Indochina since the 1800s. At the First Indochinese War, which lasted from the late 1940s to the
mid 1950s, Communist forces defeated American-aided French troops in Vietnam. President Eisenhower, reacting to the
Communist show of might, tried to establish an anti-Communist government just south of the 17th parallel. A proAmerican named Ngo Dinh Diem came to power. Since he resisted the Communist movement’s insurgent tendencies, he
was supported by the United States Government. Diem was also supported by Catholics in Vietnam. However, the large
non-Christian population of Vietnam rebelled at Diem’s authoritarian manner. The U.S. began to send large amounts of
military aid to Diem’s regime. This was done under the reasoning that force was needed to protect South Vietnam, to halt
the spread of Chinese Communism, and to keep Diem in power.
By this time, anti-Diem groups had banded together to form the Viet Cong, a group against which the U.S. centered a
major strategic policy program. The Viet Cong, by 1960, had evolved into the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam
(NLFSV.) Since guerrilla warfare, propaganda, and recruiting were the Viet Cong’s tactics, American strategists devised
"strategic hamlets," relocation sites designed to keep Vietnamese isolated from Viet Cong influence. However, this plan
backfired as the relocated Vietnamese became disgruntled, rebelled from the hamlets, and eventually joined the Viet Cong
in droves.
With this, American military presence in the region increased dramatically. At the start of Kennedy’s presidency, about
2,000 American troops were in Vietnam, compared to upwards of 15,000 by 1963. Simultaneously, more military
advisors, training, and equipment were being provided to Diem’s Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN.)
Diem was quickly becoming a strain on American and Vietnamese strategy. So when a group of top ARVN officers
plotted to overthrow him, the U.S. gave covert assistance. On November 1, 1963, Diem and his brother, Ngo Dinh Nhu,
were killed in the coup.
Weeks later, President Kennedy was assassinated, leaving the formidable matter in the hands of his successor, Lyndon B.
Johnson. In 1964, two U.S. Navy vessels were allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. In
retaliation, (though critics claim it was to gain political support) the President ordered air strikes against North Vietnam.
Johnson also gained support in Congress, which on August 7, 1964, passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, essentially
granting the President limitless military power.
The air strikes increased, becoming more and more frequent, and often more deadly. Bombers used napalm, a potent
jellied form of gasoline that burns long and is difficult to extinguish. Because of the nature of guerrilla warfare, it was
difficult to distinguish between military and civilian targets, so both were attacked. To further the strategy of peasant
isolation from Viet Cong influence, a tactic of destroying jungle and ground cover was used. Defoliant chemicals like
Agent Orange were used to kill trees and thick brush, and napalm bombings were implemented to clear the countryside,
causing civilians to flee to cities under U.S. and ARVN protection.
By the mid- to late 1960s, the Viet Cong was receiving generous quantities of aid from China and the Soviet Union. In
1968, they staged the Tet Offensive. A huge, well-orchestrated attack was mounted at about 120 strategic targets,
including a U.S. Air Force station, 36 provincial capitals, and even the American embassy in South Vietnam’s capital of
Saigon. The Viet Cong was repelled, suffering heavy losses, but they had made their point: The Viet Cong was able to
dominate all of Vietnam, if the U.S. was taken out of the equation.
To many, the war was becoming unpopular in the United States. Massive protests and peace rallies were beginning to take
place, many at major universities and colleges. The Johnson was losing its credibility with a great deal of Americans.
The military, in late 1967-early 1968, requested 100,000 more U.S. troops, with the possibility of more requests. President
Johnson refused, and also cut back bombing runs on North Vietnamese targets. Johnson then, in March of 1968,
announced that he would no run for reelection. Richard Nixon won the presidential election in 1968.
Nixon was able to start peace negotiations, which briefly satisfied the strong appetite for peace felt by millions. The talks
were held in Paris. The United States’ and Vietnam’s internal problems, however, soon dominated the talks, which lasted
until 1973. By June of 1969, the NLFSV and other rebel groups organized a Provisional Revolutionary Government,
which gained the rebels a place at the bargaining table. In the fall of 1969, Nixon’s administration began to withdraw
troops from Vietnam. Bombing raids, though, were intensified.
The war was soon to shift from Vietnam to neighboring Cambodia and Laos. In a coup in March of 1970, a Communist
regime (Khmer Rouge) took power in Cambodia. In April of the same year, President Nixon ordered an invasion of
Cambodia, coupled with extensive air strikes. With the invasion of Cambodia, the North Vietnamese were forced to use
more supply routes through Laos. In February of 1971, ARVN troops invaded Laos in a disastrous raid. The fighting
lasted for 45 days, and killed or wounded more than half of the ARVN’s force.
South Vietnam’s president, Nguyen Van Thieu, continued the mistakes his predecessors had made, banning elections,
stifling free speech, and giving himself more military authority.
Through 1971 and 1972, Nixon continued his Vietnamization plan, withdrawing troops, increasing air attacks, and
stepping up naval bombardment. To force the Communists to accept American terms, Nixon again increased bombing,
this time on North Vietnamese towns and ports. These bombing missions also repelled the beginning Communist invasion
of South Vietnam.
On January 27, 1973, a cease-fire was signed in Paris by the United States, North and South Vietnam, and the Viet Cong.
Two months later, the last American forces left Vietnam. Without U.S. intervention, however, the peace negotiations
disintegrated, and war resumed. North Vietnam began to conquer the south. In April, President Ford asked Congress for
$722 million in aid for Vietnam. However, Congress only appropriated $300 million. This money was mostly used to
evacuate South Vietnamese from Communist-occupied Saigon.
The war ended on April 30, 1975, with the South Vietnamese surrender. The Communists renamed Saigon as Ho Chi
Minh City. 2.7 million Americans served in the war. 58,000 of them were killed. Another 365,000 were wounded. The
South Vietnamese lost upwards of one million soldiers, while the North had between 500,000 and a million deaths. Scores
of civilians were killed, and 10 million became refugees. The bombs and defoliants used in the war scarred the
countryside, permanently in some cases.