Download practice exercises/tests - Unimaid, Centre for Distance Learning

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
EDUCATION
PHE 108: PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED
ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
Published
UNIT: 2
2007 ©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any
form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in
writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of
Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do
most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit is
different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers have
made efforts to make the study material rich enough but learners need
to do some extra reading for further enrichment of the knowledge
required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and
where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to guide the
selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers
and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help
in improving access to University education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
iii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify your study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction,
objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be
available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center expects
you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further you could
supplement the study with more information from the list of
references and suggested readings available in the study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help
you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood
the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the
study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the center.
You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In addition,
you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
iv
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
1
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
PHE 108:
UNIT: 2
PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES UNITS: 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
PREFACE
-
-
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
-
-
-
-
-
iii
-
-
-
-
-
iv
-
-
1
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
TOPIC: 1.
DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS,
PHYSICAL ACTIVITES AND EXERCISE --
2.
COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
3.
PRINCIPLES AND PHASES OF TRAINING
PROGRAMMES
-
3
-
-
-
-
4.
INTERVAL TRAINING -
-
-
3
5.
WEIGHT TRAINING
-
-
-
-
3
12
3
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
2
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
3
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
1.0
TOPIC:
DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS,
PHYSICAL ACTIVITES AND EXERCISE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
1.2
OBJECTIVES
1.3
IN-TEXT
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
1.3.1 DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY -
-
5
-
1.3.2
5
1.3.3
6
1.3.4
1.3.5
-
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
1.4
SUMMARY
1.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
7
1.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
1.7
SUGGESTED READING
-
-
-
-
-
7
-
4
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
1.0
TOPIC: DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS, PHYSICAL
ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
For quite sometimes, physical fitness has been defined in
various ways. For example, during the first part of the twentieth
century definition of physical fitness emphasized muscular
strength. By the 1970s and 1980s, definition of physical fitness
centered on cardio-respiratory fitness through aerobic
activities/exercises. As interest in physical fitness continues to
be divergent, definition of physical fitness also continues to be
divergent. Nowadays, definition of physical fitness focuses on
attributes, which are important to health, such as cardiorespiratory endurance, musculo-skeletal
fitness (muscular
strength, muscular endurance and flexibility), and body
composition as well as other traits that are important to skill
development (skill proficiency) such as coordination, agility,
balance, speed and power. In this unit, contemporary definitions
of physical fitness that focus on both attributes that are
important to skill proficiency and health are outlined.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. State at least three different definitions of physical
fitness.
ii. Identify the key concepts in the various definitions of
physical fitness.
iii. Define physical activity and exercise.
1.3
IN-TEXT
1.3.1
DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
The United State Department of Health and Human
Services (1996) defined physical activity as any bodily
movement produced by skeletal muscles, which results in energy
expenditure. The energy expenditure can be measured in
kilocalories (Kcal) or kilojoules (kj). A Kilocalorie is a unit of
work or energy which is equal to the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of one kilogramme of water by one degree
Celsius. One kilocalorie is equivalent to 4.184 kilojoules.
5
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
The Various ways of measuring physical activity can be
classified into four general categories, namely calorimetry,
physiological markers, mechanical and electronic motion
detectors and occupation and electronic motion detectors
occupation and leisure- time survey instruments. Calorimetry is
direct heat exchange measure in an insulated chamber or suit or
indirect measurement through measurement of oxygen
consumption and carbondioxide production. Measurement of
physical activity through physiological markers involves heart
rate monitoring and the use of doubly labeled detector water
(DLW). Mechanical and electronic motion detectors as means of
measuring physical activity requires the use of pedometers inshoe
step
counters
electronic
motion
sensors
and
accelerometers. Occupational and leisure – time survey
instruments that are used to measure physical activity include
job classification, activity diaries or records and physical activity
recall questionnaire.
Human beings perform physical activity in order to sustain
life. However, the amount of physical activity performed by
individuals varies considerably from one person to another,
based on personal lifestyles and other factors such as levels of
physical fitness.
Exercise is not synonymous with physical activity (United
State Department of Health and Human services, 1996;
Bouchard, Shephard and Stephens, 1994; Caspersen, Powell and
Christenson 1985). Exercise is defined as physical activity that is
planned, structured, repetitive and purposive, in the sense that
improvement or maintenance of physical fitness is an objective.
All conditioning and sports activities are considered exercise
because they are performed to improve or maintain physical
fitness.
1.3.2 DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
The World Health Organization (1971) defined physical
fitness as the ability to perform muscular work satisfactorily.
During a workshop sponsored by the Center for Disease Control
and Prevention, a group of experts defined physical fitness as a
set of attributes that people have or achieve that relates to the
ability to perform physical activity (Caspersen, Powell and
Christenson, 1985). The American College of Sports Medicine
6
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
(1990) viewed physical fitness as the ability to perform
moderate to vigorous levels of physical activity without undue
fatigue and capability of maintaining such ability throughout
life. The President’s Council on physical fitness and Sports
(1991) defined physical fitness as the ability to carry out daily
task with vigour and alertness, without undue fatigue and with
ample energy to enjoy leisure- time pursuit and meet unforeseen
emergencies. Clarke (1967) defined physical fitness as the ability
to last, to bear up, to withstand stress, and persevere under
difficult circumstances where an unfit person would give up.
According to him physical fitness is the opposite to being
fatigued from ordinary efforts, to lacking the energy to enter
zestfully into life’s activities and to becoming exhausted from
unexpected, demanding physical exertion. He explained that
physical fitness is a positive quality, extending on a scale from
death to abundant life.
A synthesis of these definitions of physical fitness would
show that vigour and energy to perform work and exercise and
sustain them are the key concepts in the definition of physical
fitness.
1.4
SUMMARY
Whereas physical activity is defined as any bodily
movement produced by skeletal muscles, which results in energy
expenditure, exercise is physical activity that is planned,
structured, repetitive and purposive, directed at improving or
maintaining physical fitness.
All conditioning and sports
activities are therefore considered as exercise because they are
performed to improve and/or maintain physical fitness.
Energy expenditure of physical activity can be measured through
the use of calorimetry, physiological markers, mechanical and
electronic motion detectors and occupational and leisure – time
survey instruments.
Physical fitness is the ability to carry out daily task with
vigour and alertness, without undue fatigue and with ample
energy to enjoy leisure - time pursuits and meet unforeseen
emergencies. Physical fitness reflects one’s ability to last, to
bear up, to withstand stress and persevere under difficult
circumstances. It is therefore a positive quality.
7
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
1.5
SELF -ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.6
UNIT: 2
Define physical activity and exercise.
Explain why all conditioning and sports activities are
considered exercise.
State any four general ways of measuring physical
activity.
State any three definition of physical fitness.
Identify the key concepts in defining physical fitness.
REFERENCES
American College of Sports Medicine (1994). The
recommended
quantity and quality of exercise for developing and
maintaining
cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness in health, adults.
Medicine and Sciences in sports and Exercise 22: 265- 274.
Bouchard, C. Shephard, R. J and Stephens, T. (1994). Physical
activity,
fitness and health: International Proceedings and Consensus
Statement. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Caspersen, C.J., Powell, K. E. and Christenson, G. M (1985).
Physical
activity, exercise and physical fitness: Definition and
distinction for health related research. Public Health Report
100: 120 - 131.
Clarke, H. H. (1967). Application Of Measurement To Health And
Physical
Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice - Hall
inc.
President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (1971).
Physical Fitness Research Digest (Series 1, No 1). Washington, D.
C.
United States Department of Health and Human Services (1996).
Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General.
Atlanta, G. A:
8
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
U. S., Department of Health and Human Services, Center
for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for
Chronic Disease
Prevention and Health Promotion.
1.7
SUGGESTED READING
Fox, E.L, Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M. L. (1993). The
Physiological Basis For Exercise And Sports. Madison:
Brown and Benchmark.
Neiman, D.C. (1999). Exercise Testing And Prescription. A
Health Related Approach. 4th ed. California: Mayfield Publishing
Company.
9
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
2.1
INTRODUCTION
2.2
OBJECTIVES
2.3
IN-TEXT
-
2.3.1
5
2.3.2
5
2.3.3
6
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
2.3.4
2.3.5
-
2.4
SUMMARY
2.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
7
2.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
2.7
SUGGESTED READING
-
-
-
-
-
7
-
10
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
2.0
TOPIC: COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
2.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
Although there are divergent views on the elements that
constitute physical fitness, the common test parameters or
measures can be classified into two categories. The first
category comprises those parameters that are actually essential
for health and fitness, while the second category consists of
elements that enhance skill proficiency in sports and exercise.
Accordingly, components of physical fitness can be grouped into
two, namely health - related and motor performance- related
components. In this unit, the elements that constitute both
health - related and motor performance - related components
will be discussed.
2.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. Distinguish between health - related components and
motor performance - related components of physical
fitness.
ii. Identify the components of both health - related and
motor performance- related physical fitness.
iii. Explain each of the components of health - related
and motor performance- related physical fitness.
2.3
IN-TEXT
2.3.1
HEALTH-RELATED COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
The American College of Sports and Medicine (1995)
defined health - related physical fitness as a state characterized
by an ability to perform daily tasks or activities with vigour and
a demonstration of traits and capacities that are associated with
low risk of premature development of the hypokinetic diseases
(those that are associated with physical inactivity). Such traits/
qualities and capabilities are essential to health and /or work
capacity. It is important to develop the components of health related fitness and insist for their prominence in schools,
worksites and community programmes.
The elements that constitute health - related physical
fitness are:
11
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
a) Cardiorespiratory endurance,
b) Musculoskeletal fitness (flexibility, muscular strength
and muscular endurance).
c) Body composition. (Neiman, 1999)
2.3.2 CARDIORESPIRATORY ENDURANCE
This element is sometimes referred to as circulorespiratory
fitness. It is defined as the ability to continue or persist in
strenuous tasks involving large muscle groups for an extended
period of time (American College of Sports Medicine, 1993;
Baranowski, Boucahard, Bar- Or, et.al. 1992;Heyward, 1991). It
is the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to adjust
to and recover from the effects of whole- body exercise or work
(Nieman, 1999). The limit of persistence in such task is
determined primarily by the functional capacity of the
cardiorespiratory systems. Similarly, persistence in such task is
specific to the various kinds of task and the work intensity. The
American College of Sports and Medicine (1995) explained that
cardiorespiratory endurance is considered health -related
element of physical fitness because low levels have been
consistently linked with markedly increased risk of premature
death from all causes, especially heart disease.
High levels of cardiorespiratory endurance indicate a high
physical work capacity, which is the ability to release relatively
high amounts of energy over an extended period of time.
Cardiorespiratory endurance is the most important element of
the health - related physical fitness. It can also be an important
factor in the maintenance of the systematic health base by
means of helping to prevent degenerative changes in the heart
and circulatory system (Updyke and Johnson 1970).
2.3.3 MUSCULO - SKELETAL FITNESS
This involves the muscular and the skeletal systems.
Musculo - skeletal fitness has three components, namely
flexibility, muscular strength and muscular endurance.
Flexibility is defined as the functional capacity of the joints to
move through a full range of movement (Caspersen, Powell and
Christenson, 1994; Golding, Myers and Sinning, 1998; American
College of Sports and Medicine, 1993). Flexibility is specific to
12
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
each joint of the body. Muscles, ligaments, and tendons largely
determine the amount of movement possible at each joint.
There are two types of flexibility, namely static and
dynamic flexibility. Static flexibility is the range of motion about
a joint, while dynamic flexibility is defined as the opposition or
resistances of a joint to motion. In other words, dynamic
flexibility is concerned with the forces that oppose movement
over any range rather than the range itself. (Fox, Bowers and
Foss, 1993). Flexibility is significant in performing certain sports
and also to general health and physical fitness. For instance
flexibility exercise has been successfully prescribed for relief of
dysmenorrhea,(painful menstruation) general neuromuscular
tension and low back pains. Athletes who maintain a satisfactory
degree of flexibility are less susceptible to certain muscular
injuries (Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993).
The range of motion about a joint is specific in two ways.
First, the tendency toward a specific pattern of flexibility and
selected sports events. For instance, shot - putters and discus
throwers have greater flexibility in the wrist than do wrestlers.
Secondly, flexibility is joint - specific. That is high degree of
flexibility in one joint does not necessarily indicate a high
flexibility in other joints. For instance, gymnasts can be seen to
have above - average flexibility in the hip but are below average
in the ankle.
Muscular strength is defined as the maximal one- effort
force that can be exerted against a resistance (Caspersen, Powell
and Christenson, 1985; American College of Sports and Medicine,
1993). It can also be defined as the maximum amount of force
that can be generated in an isolated movement of a single muscle
group. Lifting heavy weights maximally once or twice or
exerting maximal force when gripping a hand dynamometer
provides measurements of muscular strength.
Muscular endurance is the ability of muscles to exert or apply
a submaximal force repeatedly or to sustain a submaximal
muscular contraction for a certain period of time (Neiman,
1999). It is the capacity to persist in localized muscular effort.
The physiological limit for this functional quality is apparently
localized in the muscle group itself and not determined primarily
by the failure of the cardio - respiratory systems to supply
oxygen.
13
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
2.3.4 BODY COMPOSITION
Body composition refers to the body’s relative amount of
fat, and lean body tissue or fat-free mass. Body weight is divided
into two components, namely fat weight (weight of fat tissue)
and fat -free weight (the weight of the remaining lean tissue).
Percent body fat refers to the percentage of total weight
represented by fat weight. Percent body fat is the preferred
index used to evaluate a person’s body composition.
Obesity is defined as an excessive accumulation of fat
weight. Men have optimal body fat level when the percent body
fat is 15% or less. However they are considered obese when their
body fat percentage is 25% and higher. The optimal body fat
level for women is 23% or less. They are considered obese when
their body fat percentage is 33% and higher. Body Composition
is related to both sports performance and health.
2.3.5
MOTOR PERFORMANCE RELATED COMPONENTS OF
PHYSICAL FITNESS
The elements that constitute motor performance- related
physical fitness are the qualities that are primarily essential to
sports skill and motor- performance. They include coordination,
agility, speed, power, balance and reaction-time.
Coordination is defined as the ability to use the sense, such
as sight and hearing, together with body parts, in performing
motor tasks smoothly and accurately. It is the common
denominator of all motor performance parameters. It involves
the nervous system and musculo-skeletal systems. It is
responsible for the smooth flow of movement in the execution of
motor task.
Agility is the ability to rapidly change the position of the
entire body in space, with speed and accuracy. It is also defined
as the ability to change directions while moving as nearly as
possible at full speed. High degrees or levels of agility enable an
individual to change body position in space efficiently and easily.
Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium while either
stationary or in motion. It is a specific kind of coordination
involving reflexes, vision, the inner ear, the cerebellum and
musculo-skeletal systems. Balance is classified in to two, namely
static and dynamic balance. Static balance involves the
14
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
maintenance of equilibrium in one fixed position, whereas
dynamic balance refers to the maintenance of equilibrium while
in motion.
Power is the rate at which work is performed. It is a
function of muscular strength and speed. Power is required in
most sports. For example shot-put, vertical jump, ball- throw for
distance. Power is measured and exemplified by activities of
movement that are very explosive in nature such as standing
broad jump.
Speed is the ability to perform a movement within a short
period of time. Speed is measured by total body movement from
one place to another, usually at least for a distance of fifty (50)
meters. A person who possesses speed is able to make series of
similar movement in a short span of time.
Speed is expressed as distance travelled divided by the time
taken to cover the distance. (Speed =distance /time)
Reaction - time is defined as the time elapsed between a
stimulus and the beginning of the reaction to it. In other words,
it is the length of time required to initiate a response to a
specific stimulus.
2.4
SUMMARY
The elements that constitute physical fitness are classified
into health - related and motor performance related parameters.
Health -related parameters are qualities that are essential to
health and fitness. These are cardio-respiratory endurance, body
composition and musculo-skeletal fitness (flexibility, muscular
strength and muscular endurance). Motor performance related
parameters are qualities that are essential for sports skill
proficiency. These are agility, balance, coordinator, power,
speed and reaction- time.
2.5
SELF - ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
2.6
Define health - related component of physical fitness.
List and explain the elements that constitute the
health - related components of physical fitness.
List and explain the elements that constitute motor
performance - related physical fitness.
REFERENCES
15
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
American College of Sports Medicine (1993). Resource
Manual For
Guidelines For Exercise Testing And Prescription. 2nd ed.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
American College of Sports Medicine (1995). Guidelines for
exercise
Testing and prescription. . Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
Baranowski, T. Bouchard, C. Bar. Or. O. et. al. (1992).
Assessment,
prevalence and cardiovascular benefits of Physical activity
and fitness in youth. Medicine And Science In Sports And
Exercise
24 (Suppl. 6): 5237- 5246.
Caspersen, C.J., Powell, K. E. and Christenson, G. M (1985).
Physical
activity, exercise and physical fitness: Definition and
distinction for health related research. Public Health Report
100: 120 - 131.
Fox, E.L, Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M. L. (1993). The physiological
basis
For exercise and sport
5th ed. Madison: Brown and
Benchmark.
Heyward, V. H. (1991). Advanced fitness assessment and exercise
Prescription. 2nd ed. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.
Neiman, D.C. (1999). Exercise Testing And Prescription: A Health
Related Approach. 4th ed. California: Mayfield Publishing
Company.
2.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bucher, C. A. (1979). Foundations of Physical education. 8th
ed. Toronto: C. V. Moshy company.
16
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
Fox, E.L, Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M. L. (1993). The physiological
basis
For exercise and sports 5th ed. Madison: Brown and
Benchmark.
17
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 3:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0
TOPIC:
PRINCIPLES AND PHASES OF TRAINING
PROGRAMMES
3.1
INTRODUCTION
3.2
OBJECTIVES
3.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
3.3.1 PHASES OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES -
5
3.3.2 OFF-SEASON TRAINING
-
-
-
-
5
3.3.3 PRE-SEASON TRAINING
-
-
-
-
6
3.3.4 IN-SEASON TRAINING
-
-
-
-
-
3.3.5 PRINCIPLE OF TRAINING CONDITIONING- 7
3.4
SUMMARY
3.5
-
-
-
-
-
7
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
7
3.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
3.7
SUGGESTED READING
-
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
-
18
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
3.0
TOPIC: PRINCIPLES AND PHASES OF TRAINING
PROGRAMMES
3.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
Training programmes consist of systematically selected
exercises
geared
towards
developing
physical
fitness
components such as cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular
endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, agility, balance,
coordination, power and reaction-time as well as
skill
proficiency in specific sports and recreational activities. Such
exercise programmes are designed to develop the human body to
a state of condition so that a given amount of physical work can
be attained, when desired with minimum physical effort and
without undue fatigue. Training programmes are usually
undertaken in stages, with specific objectives to be attained at
each stage. These stages are sometimes described as phases of
training programmes. In this Unit, the different phases of
training programmes and the various activities undertaken
during each phase are discussed.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. Define training programmes.
ii. State the phases of training programmes.
iii. Identify the various activities undertaken during each
phase.
iv. Identify
and
explain
principles
of
training/conditioning.
3.3
IN-TEXT
3.3.1
PHASES OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES
The total training period which is embarked upon by
athletes is usually categorized into three, namely off-season,
pre-season and in-Season (Fox, 1979; Fox and Mathews, 1981;
Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993).
3.3.2 OFF- SEASON TRAINING
19
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
The off- Season training period usually begins as soon as
the In-season training period terminates at the end of the
playing season. During this period, no formal competitions are
organized. Instead, athletes and coaches change clubs when and
where necessary and team managers embark on transfer of
athletes and recruitment of new coaches.
Generally, training programmes during the off- season are
non - specific. Most often, athletes are only required to be
moderately active and maintain body weight at or reasonably
near ‘competition weight’. Off- season programmes usually
comprise some or all of the following activities and exercises:
1. Weight training, with emphasis on developing muscular
strength, muscular endurance and muscular power in those
muscle groups that are most directly involved in the
specific sports events. The athletes engage in or compete
for. The training should be based on the overload principle,
bearing in mind that muscular strength, muscular
endurance and muscular power will increase only when the
muscles are made to perform over a given period of time at
near greater maximal loads than those that are normally
encountered. In other words, the resistance against which
muscles work should be increased throughout the course of
the programme. This is what is referred to now as
progressive- resistance exercise (PRE).
2. An informal (optional) 8 -weeks running programme of low
intensity, performed not more than two to three times per
week (frequency of 2-3 days per week). This activity can be
administered concurrently with the weight training. The
order in which the weight training and the informal, 8week running are conducted does really matter. It makes
little or no difference whether the running programme is
performed before or after the weight training programme.
3. Participation in sports activities and recreational games,
which are different from the athletes’ major sports, mainly
for relaxation, pleasure and enjoyment. For example, track
and field athletes can engage themselves in the game of
badminton, squash, tennis or volleyball.
4. Limited participation in the athletes’ specific sports to
develop their specific skills. For example, if during the inseason, a coach observed that his strikers in the game of
20
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
football had some difficulties converting corner kicks to
goals or converting penalty shot-outs to goals, he can make
them practise these skills more during the off-season.
Similarly in the game of volleyball, such skills like spiking,
blocking and the different types of serves can be practised
during the season.
3.3.3 PRE- SEASON TRAINING
The pre-season training phase follows the off-season
training. It is the 8 to 10 weeks prior to competition. In this
phase of the training programme, the activities are designed to
increase the capacities of the energy system (phosphagen,
glycolytic and aerobic) which largely supplies energy required
for athletes’ specific sports. Fox, Bowers and Foss (1993)
explained that it is during this phase of the training programme
that a specific, high - intensity activities should be utilized. They
recommended the following activities as programme of exercises
that should be performed during the pre-season training:
1. Running at high intensity, for 8 weeks, 3 days per week.
Such programmes of activities should be specific. For
example, if the specific events are track and field events,
track and field programmes should be utilized.
2. Weight training, 2 to 3 days per week, which was started
during the off- season should be continued.
3. Viewing films and videos on sports programmes which are
relevant to the athletes’ sports.
4. Learning specific sports strategies, for example, different
formations, and skill drills.
3.3.4 IN - SEASON TRAINING
This is the third phase of a training programme. During
this phase, emphasis is placed on skill development and
preparation for competitions. Generally, for athletes who
compete on regular basis, drills, scrimmages and competitions
will be enough to maintain the increases in relevant energy
capacities that were gained during the pre- season training.
However, for athletes who do not embark on weekly
programmes of competitions, some maintenance conditioning
programmes are required. Fox, Bowers and Foss (1993)
recommended the following activities for these athletes:
21
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
1. One or two days per week running at high - intensity to be
performed in a similar way to that of the pre-season
training.
2. Weight training with one day per week, alternating the
upper body and the lower body workouts on weekly basis.
For example, one week, upper body; then next week lower
body. This programme enhances all-round development,
and it is also recommended even for athletes who take part
in regular competitions, often referred to as ‘regulars’.
3. Utilizing drill which improves skills in specific sports and
help in maintaining fitness. To be able to attain these
objectives, such drills should be intense and long enough in
duration to stress the muscle or muscles groups that are
involved in the sports.
4. Scrimmages and regular competitive performances also
constitute part of the activities to be embarked upon during
the in-season training.
3.3.5
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING CONDITIONING
Generally, conditioning is aimed at augmenting the energy
capacities of muscles through an exercise programme, while
training is an exercise programme designed to develop and/ or
increase skill of performance, that is sports skill proficiency.
However, for the attainment of fitness, individual need
excellently designed training and conditioning programmes to
augment the energy capacities of muscles and develop and/or
increase skill proficiency.
Training and/or conditioning programmes are therefore
based on certain principles (tenets). These tenets are:
1. Recognition of the major energy system(s) utilized to
perform a given exercise. There are three energy
systems (pathways) through which energy is made
available during exercise and/or physical activity.
These are adenosine triphosphate-phospho-creatine
(ATP-PC) sometimes called the phosphagen system,
glycolytic (lactic acid) and aerobic (oxygen) systems.
Energy system(s) utilized during the performance of
exercise is determined using the performance time of
the exercise. Performance time of an exercise simply
means the length of time an exercise lasts. Generally,
22
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
the anaerobic energy pathway is utilized during
anaerobic types of exercise (exercises that are
performed for short period of time) while the aerobic
pathway is utilized during aerobic type of exercises
(prolonged, endurance exercises). Thus, the energy
pathways utilized during any exercise are time and
intensity dependent. This fact must be remembered
when
designing
training
and/or
conditioning
programmes.
2. Utilizing the overload principle (now modified to
principle of progressive-resistance exercise) to
construct a conditioning and/or training programmes
that will develop the relevant energy system. The
overload principle is the physiological principle on
which strength and endurance capacity of muscles
largely depends. The principle states that strength,
endurance and hypertrophy of muscles will increase
only when muscles are made to perform for a given
period of time at near maximal strength and
endurance capacity (Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993).
Thus, the gains in strength and endurance are most
pronounced when muscles are made to exercise in the
overload zone, that is, with resistance (weights)
which are far above those normally encountered.
When the overload principle is applied to resistance
(weight) training programmes, it requires that the
weight against which muscles work should be
increased throughout the course of the programmes
as the muscles gain strength and endurance. In track
and swimming events, the overload principle is
accomplished through the deliberate manipulations of
training distance, training time, training duration and
training intensity.
3.4
SUMMARY
Training programmes consist of systematically selected
exercises
geared
towards
developing
physical
fitness
components (cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular strength,
flexibility, agility, balance, coordination, power and reaction –
time) as well as skill proficiency in specific sports and
23
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
recreational activities. Phases of training/ conditioning
programmes are off- season, pre- season and in- season training.
Activities to be performed in each phase vary, basically on the
objectives to be attained during each phase. Training
programmes are based on two tenets (principles) namely;
overload principle and recognition of the energy pathways which
supplies energy during the performance of a given sports and
design training programme that will develop that energy
pathway more than will any other.
3.5
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
3.6
Explain what a training programme is.
State any three (3) phases of a training programme.
State at least three activities that are normally
performed in each of the phases of a training
programme.
State any two tenets of training and or/Conditioning
programmes.
REFERENCES
Fox, E. L. (1979). Physiology of Sports. Philadelphia: C. V.
Mosby Company.
Fox, E. L. and Mathews, D. K. (1981). The Physiological
Basis Of Physical Education And Athletics. 3rd ed.
Philadelphia: C. V. Mosby company.
Fox, E.L, Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M. L. (1993). The
Physiological Basis For Exercise And Sports. 5th ed.
Madison: Brown and Benchmark.
3.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bucher, C, A. (1979) Foundations of Physical Education. 8th
ed. Toronto: C. V. Mosby company
Neiman, D.C. (1999). Exercise Testing And Prescription. A
Health-Related Approach. 4th ed. California: Mayfield
Publishing Company.
24
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
Updyke, W. F. and Johnson, B.P. (1970) Principles Of
Modern Physical Education, Health And Recreation. New
York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winsto. Inc
25
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0
TOPIC:
INTERVAL TRAINING
4.1
INTRODUCTION
4.2
OBJECTIVES
4.3
IN-TEXT
-
4.3.1
5
4.3.2
5
4.3.3
6
-
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
4.3.4
4.3.5
-
4.4
SUMMARY
4.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
7
4.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
4.7
SUGGESTED READING
-
-
-
-
-
7
-
26
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
4.0
TOPIC: INTERVAL TRAINING
4.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
Although interval training was developed for endurance
training, in running and swimming, its general principles can be
applied to virtually any conditioning or training programme.
Generally, four elements are involved, namely speed or rate,
distance or length of time, rest interval and number of bouts or
sets. Any of these elements can be varied in order to increase the
work load, or as means of adding variety to the programme.
Interval training can also be used to rehabilitate cardiac
patients. In this unit, objectives of interval training, interval
training terms, and variables to be manipulated are discussed.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students are expected to:
I. Define interval training.
II. Identify interval training terminologies.
III. Identify and explain variables that are manipulated
in interval training programme.
IV. Design interval training programmes for different
conditioning or training programmes for different
populations.
4.3
IN-TEXT
4.3.1 DEFINITION OF IN INTERVAL TRAINING
Interval training is a conditioning and/ or training
programmes comprising systematically designed exercises
performed in a series of repetitions alternated with periods of
relief. Periods of relief may be rest relief (light activity such as
walking) or work relief (mild to moderate exercises such as
jogging). Fox, Bowers and Foss (1993) explained that interval
training can be used to improve both aerobic (endurance) and
anaerobic (spirit) energy capacities and performances.
Specifically in the development of the energy systems,
interval training programme can be used to accomplish the
following:
a) Internal training allows the stores of ATP and PC to be used
over and over, which in turn provides sufficient stimulus
27
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
for promoting an increase in the energy capacity of this
system and aids in delaying the onset of fatigue by not
delving so deeply into anaerobic glycolysis.
b) With proper regulation of the duration and type of relief
intervals, the involvement of anaerobic glycolysis will be
maximal and thus improved.
c) By performing longer work intervals with many repetitions
and rest relief intervals, the oxygen transport system is
stressed and the aerobic energy system is improved (Fox,
Bowers and Foss 1993).
Although interval training programmes are used to improve
both aerobic and anaerobic energy capacities and performances,
it is important to remember that the programmes should be
individually tailored to ensure that each individual receives
maximum benefits. Consequently, if such programmes are
designed for athletes, interval training designed for sprint
athletes will differ from that for either speed-durance or
endurance athletes.
4.3.2 INTERVAL TRAINING TERMINOLOGIES
In order to be able to select and plan activities for the
interval training, certain terminologies need to be
understood properly. These terminologies are:
a) Work interval: This is defined as the portion of the interval
training programme which consists of high- intensity work
effort. For example, running 200m or 100m at prescribed
times.
b) Relief interval: This is the time between work intervals as
well as between sets. Relief interval may consist of :
i. A light activity such as walking.This is referred to as
rest relief.
ii. Mild to moderate exercise suck as jogging. This is
described as work relief.
iii. Combination of light activities and mild to moderate
exercises.
Relief interval is usually expressed in relation to the work
interval, which together form work-relief ratio. Workrelief ratio may be expressed as: 1:1/2, 1:1, 1:2, or 1:3. A
ratio of 1:1/2 implies that the time of the relief interval is
equal to half of the time of the work interval, 1:1 signifies
28
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
that the relief and work intervals are equal; 1:2 implies
that relief interval is twice as long as the work interval and
1:3 indicates that the relief interval is three time as long as
the work interval. Generally, with longer work intervals,
ratio of 1:1/2 or 1:1 is prescribed, while with shorter work
intervals, owing to the high-intensity work efforts, workrelief ratio of 1:3 is prescribed.
c) A set consist of a series of work and relief intervals. For
instance, running 200m at a prescribed time with
designated relief intervals.
d) Repetitions: these are the number of work intervals within
one set. For instance, running 200m six times at prescribed
times constitute one set and six repetitions.
e) Training distance is the distance of the work interval, for
example, 200m or 100m.
f) Training frequency is the number of times training is held
per week. For example, training frequency of three days
per week.
An interval training prescription contains vital information
concerning an interval training work- out. That is,
information on sets, number of repetitions, distance or
performance time of the work interval, training time, and the
time of relief. For instance, one set from a prescription for a
running programmes can be written as:
Set 2 4x 200 at 0:22 (1:25).
Where: 4= number of repetition.
200= training distance in meters.
0:22=training time in minutes and seconds.
1:25= time of relief interval in minutes and seconds.
4.3.3 INTERVAL TRAINING VARIABLES
The overload principle, which is one of the tenets of
training programme, when applied to interval training is
accomplished through the manipulation of five variables namely:
a) Rate and distance of work interval,
b) Number of repetitions during each workout,
c) Relief interval or the time between work intervals,
d) Type of activity during relief interval,
e) Frequency of training per week (Fox, Bowers and
Foss, 1993).
29
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
Selection of the types of work for the work interval, that is
interval training prescription should be specific to the athlete’s
sports. For instance, sprinters should structure their
programmes according to their sprinting needs.
However, the type of workout to be selected for general
conditioning is based mainly on preferences, since improving
specific sports may not be the objectives. Interval training
programmes designed for general conditioning should therefore
comprise activities which are most enjoyed by the individuals.
Such activities may include swimming, jogging, jumping rope
cycling, or calisthenics.
4.3.3.1 MANIPULATIONS OF INTERVAL TRAINING VARIABLES
a)
Rate and Distance of Work Interval.
Interval training prescriptions can be made up of long
duration work intervals performed at low intensities, medium
duration intervals performed at moderate intensities and short –
duration workouts performed at high intensities. The
prescription content depends on which energy systems are to be
developed. Fox, Bowers and Foss (1993) explained that for most
activities the interval training prescription is written taking into
consideration the performance time of the work interval.
Performance time of an activity helps in determining the
predominant energy pathway for the activity. Knowledge of the
performance time is essential for the construction of the work
intervals of the interval training programme.
The effectiveness of the work intervals in an interval
training programme largely depends on the intensities at which
the activities are performed. Intensities of work intervals are
determined based on heart rate response when performing the
activities. Target heart rate (THR) which is the highest heart
rate to be attained during any work intervals, for most interval
training workouts, is computed as a percentage of the maximal
heart rate reserve (HRR) or maximal heart rate (HRmax). For
most young persons, THR between 80 and 90% of the HRR or
between 85 and 95% of the HRmax are used to compute THR
during the work intervals (Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993). For
young persons, especially College and University athletes, either
the maximal heart rate reserve or the maximal heart rate
method can be used to provide adequate guidelines for ensuring
30
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
proper work intervals should be hard enough to raise the heart
rate to at least 180 beats per minute.
The following illustrates how intensity of work intervals
can be determined using either the HRR or HRmax method. HRR
is defined as the difference between the resting heart (HRest)
and the maximal heart rate (HRmax). Assuming one’s HRest is
60 beats per minute, and HRmax is 180 beats per minute. If 80%
THR is to be determined, the following formula is used:
80% THR = {(HRmax – HRest) x % + HRest}
= {180b/min - 60b/min) x 80% +60b/min}
= { (120b/min x 80%) + 60b/min}
= 96b/min + 60b/min = 156b/min.
80% THR = 156b/min.
THR of 156 beats per minute implies that the work interval
during the interval training should be intensive enough to cause
the heart rate to reach 156 beats per minute.
The HRmax method requires that THR is calculated from
the maximal heart rate only. Suppose, maximal heart rate is 180
beats per minute, 80% THR will be:
80% THR = 80% of 180 beats per minute.
= 80/100 x 180 beats per minute = 144 beats per
minute.
80% THR = 144 beats per minute. THR of 144 beats per
minute implies that the work interval during the interval
training should be intensive enough to cause the heart rate to
reach 144 beats per minute. Note, irrespective of the percent
THR used to determine the intensity of work intervals, THR
below the percent THR computed for an individual will not
always provide a great enough overload (intensity) to stimulate
improvement in endurance capacity or endurance performance
or even augmentation in the relevant energy systems.
The use of the HRR and HRmax methods to determine THR,
will require that the HRest and HRmax be determined. The HRest
can be determined by palpating either the radial artery at the
wrist or carotid artery in the neck. Note that when doing that,
only slight pressure should be applied, especially at the carotid
artery, to avoid closing off the artery completely and/ or
potentially causing a reflex slowing of the heart rate. It is
recommended that HRest is better determined early in the
morning after getting out of bed and setting upright for a few
31
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
minutes
(Fox, Bowers and Foss, 1993; Neiman, 1999). The
procedure will require that the count is taken for either 15
seconds, or 10 seconds and multiply the number of counts by 4
and 6, respectively, to convert the values to beats per minute. It
is advisable to repeat this procedure for three to five days to
obtain a reliable resting heart rate.
Direct determination of HRmax during physical activities is
very difficult, because it will require that the person exercises to
a maximal level, while at the some time determining the heart
rate with an electrocardiograph or other heart rate monitoring
devices. However, a reasonable estimate for males and females
based on age can be made from this formula:
Estimated HRmax = 220-age ((Fox, 1979; Fox & Mathews, 1981,
Watson, 1985, Fox, Bowers & Foss, 1993; Neiman, 1999).
Suppose, someone’s age is 30years, his estimated HRmax = 220 –
30 years = 190 beat per minute.
Intensity of work intervals can be determined based on the
number of work intervals repeated per workout. For example if a
given work rate can not be performed repeatedly because of
fatigue, the work rate is considered not intensive enough to
stimulate any significant improvement in either relevant energy
systems or performance.
Wilt (1968) worked out another method for determining a
sufficient work rate when structuring the interval training
prescription for running. The method involves adding certain
amount of time to actual time of running a prescribed distance
from a running start. It is estimated that the time for training
distances between 50m and 200m should be between 1.5 and 5
seconds slower, respectively, than the best time for these
distances, measured from running starts. Fox, Bowers and Foss
(1993) explained that if a person can run a distance of about
50m from a running start, in 6 seconds, the training time for this
distance will be 6+1.5 = 7.5 seconds.
NUMBER OF REPETITIONS
Number of repetitions is one of the variables being
manipulated when structuring interval – training programmes. It
determines the length of the workout. A total workout distance
of 1.5 and 2 miles is recommended to achieve maximum
improvement. However, if shorter workouts, for example, 200m
32
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
meters on a particular day. It will be essential to repeat such
workouts 12 to 16 times.
DURATION AND TYPES OF RELIEF INTERVAL
The time (duration) of the relief interval and the type of
activity performed during the relief intervals are very important
factors in relief interval. Recovery heart rate following interval
is used to determine if an individual is physiologically ready for
the next interval or next set. It is recommended that for
individuals who are less than 20 tears, whether trained or
untrained the heart rate should drop to at least 140 beats per
minute between repetitions and 120 beats per minute between
sets (Fox, Klinzing & Bartels, 1997). This implies that heart rate
should be determined periodically throughout the relief interval
by taking 6, 10, or 15 seconds counts and multiply by 10, 6 or 4
to convert to beats per minutes, respectively.
However, owing to some difficulties those individuals may
have with monitoring heart rate, during the relief interval; the
work – relief – ratio, described earlier can be used. Properly
worked out work- relief ratio will guarantee that heart rates will
have recovered to near the 120 to 140 beats per minute values.
Longer work intervals will require that work – relief ratio of 1:1
or 1:1/2 be used. With middle – duration intervals and shorter
work intervals, work- relief ratios of 1:2 and 1:3 can be
prescribed respectively. Adequate knowledge of the work – relief
ratios facilitates the administration of interval training
programme, especially to groups, since it will require
monitoring pulse following each work interval. It is however,
recommended that occasional 6- seconds checks must be made
towards the end of the relief interval so that work intensity can
be increased, decreased or maintained (Fox, Bowers and Foss,
1993).
The type of activity performed during relief interval is very
important since it relates to the energy system one desires to
develop. Relief interval may consist of rest relief, such as
moderately moving about, flexing arms and legs, work relief
such as light and mild exercises involving rapid walking, or
jogging, or a combination of rest relief and work relief.
Generally, rest relief intervals are used with interval training
programmes designed to develop ATP – PC energy system since
33
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
during rest relief intervals ATP – PC stored in the muscles can be
used over and over. This is so because ATP – PC is the major
source of energy for short, exhaustive work intervals. However,
when the desire is to develop the lactic acid system, work –
relief intervals should be used between work intervals, since
mild to moderate exercises encourage improvements in the lactic
acid system. Sine modification of oxygen system will require
reducing the appearance of high concentrations of lactic acid a
rest relief interval should be used with interval training
programme designed to improve the aerobic system.
4.3.4 TRAINING FREQUENCY
This is defined as the number of times (days) a training
programme is held per week for a given workout. Generally, the
more frequently and longer training workout is held per week,
the greater the fitness benefits. Training frequency, like work –
relief ratio differs with the type of training (sprint or
endurance). Training frequency between 3 and 5 days per week
is recommended for endurance programmes, while for sprint
programmes, a frequency of 3 days per week is used. Athletes in
track and swimming events can have training frequencies of 5
days per week for sprinters and 6 and 7 days per week for
endurance athletes (Fox and Mathews, 1981; Fox, Bowers & Foss,
1999).
4.3.5 ADVANTAGES OF INTERVAL TRAINING
Interval training programme when compared with other
training methods has the following advantages:
(a)
A precise control of the stress;
(b)
A systematic day- to- approach, enable one to easily
observe progress;
(c)
More rapid improvement on the energy potential
than in other methods of conditioning;
(d)
A programme that can be performed almost anywhere
and that requires no special equipments (Fox, Bowers, &
Foss, 1993).
4.4
SUMMARY
In this unit interval training has been defined as
systematically designed exercises performed in a series of
34
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
repetitions alternated with period of relieve intervals which
can be rest relief, and work relief intervals. Internal training
can be used to develop the three sources of energy namely
ATP-PC, glycol tic and aerobic systems, depending of course,
on the type of relief intervals and activities performed during
relieved intervals. Internal training terminologies include
work intervals, relief intervals, sets, repetitions training
distance, training times and training frequencies. Variables
that are manipulated when structuring the interval training
are rate and distance of work interval, number of repetitions,
duration and type of relief interval, and training frequency.
4,5
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4.6
Define interval, training and state its significance to
the development of energy system and general
fitness.
List and explain any five interval training
terminologies.
State any four variables that are manipulated in
structuring interval training programmes.
Explain any three methods that can be used to
determine the intensity of work intervals in an
interval training programme.
State any four advantages of interval training
programmes.
REFERENCES
Fox, E. L. (1979). Physiology of Sports. Philadelphia: C. V.
Mosby
Company.
Fox, E. L. and Mathews, D. K. (1981). The Physiological
Basis Of Physical Education And Athletics. 3rd ed.
Philadelphia: C. V. Mosby company.
Fox, E. L. Klinzing, J. and Bartels, R. L. (1997). Interval
training: metabolic changes as related to relief interval
heart rates 120 and 140 beats per minutes. Federation
Procedures. 36: 499.
35
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
Fox, E.L, Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M. L. (1993). The
Physiological Basis For Exercise And Sports. 5th ed.
Madison: Brown and Benchmark.
Wilt, F. (1968). Training for competitive running. In Falls,
H (Ed). Exercise Physiology. New York: Academic press, pp.
395 – 414.
4.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Neiman, D.C. (1999). Exercise Testing And Prescription. A
Health Related Approach. 4th ed. California: Mayfield Publishing
Company.
Watson, A. W. S. (1985). Physical Fitness And Athletic
Performance: A Guide For Students, Athletes And Coaches.
London: Longman.
36
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 5:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
5.0
TOPIC:
WEIGHT TRAINING -
5.1
INTRODUCTION
5.2
OBJECTIVES
5.3
IN-TEXT
-
5.3.1
5
5.3.2
5
5.3.3
6
-
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
5.3.4
5.3.5
-
5.4
SUMMARY
5.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
7
5.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
5.7
SUGGESTED READING
-
-
-
-
-
7
-
37
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
5.0
TOPIC: WEIGHT TRAINING
5.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
“Muscles are meant to be used. Give them extra work and
they grow bigger and stronger (Kirkley, 1980). This is the basic
philosophy of weight training. Generally weight training
programmes are embarked upon to develop and strengthen the
whole muscular system using progressively heavier weight or
more repetitions, keep fit, raise the level of vitality and improve
physique. In recent times, weight training has become very
popular partly because it is one of the physical activities that can
be practised alone, and partly because all sports men and women
have recognized it is as essential part of their conditioning and
preparation for competitions (Kirkley 1980).
5.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
of this unit, students are expected to:
Define weight training
State the purposes of weight training
State the principles of weight training
Define isotonic, isometric, eccentric, and
isokinetic contractions in relation to weight
training programmes.
State some guidelines for weight training and weight
lifting activities.
5.3
IN-TEXT
5.3.1
DEFINITION OF WEIGHT TRAINING
Weight training is a systematic, progressive resistance
exercise procedure designed to develop muscular endurance,
muscular strength, muscular power, vitality, fitness and
physique. Planned schedule of such exercise lead to greater
strength, endurance harmonious, fully developed physique,
especially for body builders. Weight training is generally carried
out using disc - loading barbells and dump-bells of various
weights and sizes. The exercise can be gradually increased in
severity by adding weight, thus strengthening the muscles to the
maximum.
38
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
5.3.2 PRINCIPLES OF WEIGHT TRAINING
Like other training programmes, weight training is guided
by certain principles which when properly followed will lead to
the optimum development of muscular strength, muscular
endurance, muscular power, fitness and physique. The following
are the principles of weight training:
a)
Overload principle. The development of strength and
muscular endurance is based on the overload
principle. The overload principle states that the
strength, endurance and size of a muscle groups will
increase only when the muscles perform for a given
period of time at its maximal strength and endurance
capacity, that is against workloads that are above
those normally encountered. (Fox, Bowers, &Foss,
1993; Neiman, 1999). In other words, muscular
strength and muscular endurance will improve best
when muscle groups are brought to a state of fatigue.
b)
Progressive resistance principle. This principle
states that the resistance (weight) against which the
muscle works should be increased periodically, as
gains in strength and endurance are made, until the
desired state is reached. The principle is very
important, especially for the strength builders
because if the work is not made harder as time goes
on maximum strength potential will not be reached.
Thus, if at the start of a weight training programme, a
weight of 25kg can be lifted, for example, 5 times (5
repetitions), after sometimes either the weight or the
repetitions will have to be increased to facilitate
optimum strength and endurance (stamina and
muscle size). If the desire is to increase strength the
weight should be increased. However if endurance is
desired the number of reputations are increased.
c)
Principle of specificity: This principle states that the
development of muscular strength and endurance is
specific to muscle groups that are exercised, its type
of muscle contraction and the training intensity
(Neiman, 1999). In other words, weight training
39
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
programmes must be specific to develop the
predominant energy systems involved, movement
patterns, and the specific muscle groups involved.
Weight training is also specific to joint angles at
which muscle groups are trained. For instance, a
muscle group trained at a joint angle of 115 degrees
will not necessarily show increased strength at other
joint angles. Specificity of weight training also
reflects different weight training programmes
(isotonic, isometric, eccentric and isokinetic) and the
types of muscular contraction, namely isotonic,
isometric, eccentric and isokinetic contraction (Fox,
Bowers, &Foss, 1993). Specificity of weight training is
therefore a very important factor and it should be
taken into account when planning a weight training
programme, whether the programme is meant to
improve muscular strength or endurance.
5.3.3 TYPES (SYSTEMS) OF WEIGHT TRAINING
Fleck and Kraemer (1987) outlined the following as system
of resistance (weight) training:
a) Single – Set System. As the name implies, in this
system, each weight lifting exercise is performed for
one set of 8-12 repetition maximum. This system is
appropriate for individuals who have very little time
to spare for weight training.
b) Multiple – Set System. This system requires a
minimum of three set of 4-6 repetition maximum to
be performed per training session.
c) Light – to- Heavy System. This system involves
progression from light weight to heavy resistance.
The system comprises a set of 3- 5 repetitions
performed with relatively light weight. Appropriate
weights are continuously added until only one
repetition can be performed.
d) Heavy – to Light System. This system is the reverse
of the light – to - heavy system. In other words, this
system entails progression from heavy to light
resistance. Research evidence has shown that this
40
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
system produces better strength gains than light- toheavy system (Neiman 1999).
e) Triangle Programme: This system combines the
light- to- heavy and heavy – to light systems. It
consists of starting the training session with the lightto- heavy followed immediately by light- to- heavy
programme. This system is usually used by power
lifters.
f) Super- Set System. There are two types of this
system. In the first type, multiple set of two exercises
for the same body part but opposing muscle groups,
for example, exercises involving biceps and triceps
are performed without any rest in between. The
second type employs one set of several exercises
performed in rapid successions for the same muscle
group or body part. Both types involves many sets of
8- 10 repetitions per training session, performed with
little or no rest between sets or exercises. This system
is usually used by bodybuilders.
g) Circuit Programme. A circuit training programme
consists of a number of ‘stations’ where a given
exercise is performed, usually within a specified time.
As soon as the exercise is completed at one station,
the performer moves to the next station to perform
another exercise also within a specified time period.
In the circuit system of resistance training, series of
resistance training exercises are performed one after
the other with minimal relief interval (15- 30
seconds) between exercises. About 10- 15 repetitions
of each exercise are performed per circuit, at a
resistance of 40 – 60% repetition maximum. This
programme apart from producing strength increase
also produces about 5% increase in cardiorespiratory
endurance.
h) Split- Routine System. The split –routine system
requires an individual to perform many types of
resistance exercise for each body part with the object
of causing muscle hypertrophy in the appropriate
muscle groups. This system is however timeconsuming and it is difficult to exercise all body parts
41
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
in a training session. A typical example of the split
routine system comprises exercising the arms, legs
and abdomen on Monday,, Wednesday and Friday, and
the chest, shoulders and back on Tuesday, Thursday
and Sunday.
5.3.4 GUIDELINES FOR WEIGHT (RESISTANCE) TRAINING
The
American
College
of
Sports
Medicine
(1999)
recommended the following as guidelines for weight training in
apparently healthy adults:
a) Performing a minimum of 8 – 10 separate exercises that
will condition the major muscle groups. The main objective
is to develop total body strength in a relatively timeefficient way. The programme should be structured
accordingly to the levels of fitness of the individuals to
reduce chances of client dropping out.
b) Eight (8) to twelve (12) repetitions, one set should be
performed to the point of volitional fatigue. For older
adults (50 – 60 years), 10 – 15 repetitions may be more
appropriate.
c) Resistance exercises should be performed at least 2 – 3
days per work. That is training frequency of 2 – 3 days per
week should be used. It should be remembered that while
more frequent training and addition of sets or
combinations of sets and repetitions can elicit larger
strength gains, the additional improvement is relatively
small.
d) Strict adherence to exercise individuals who desire to
embark on a weight training programmes should adhere
strictly and as closely as possible to the specific techniques
for performing given exercises.
e) Both lifting (concentric phase) and lowering (eccentric
phase) portion of the resistance exercises should be
performed in a controlled manner.
f) Normal breathing pattern should be maintained because
breath holding can induce excessive increase in blood
pressure.
g) As much as possible training exercise should be conducted
with a training partner, who can provide some feedback,
assistance and motivation.
42
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
5.3.5 VARIABLES THAT ARE MANIPULATED IN WEIGHT TRAINING PROGRAMMES
Weight training exercise centered around five variables which
are manipulated according to specific objectives. Fleck and
Kraemer (1987) and Baechle (1994) outlined the following as the
variables that are normally manipulated in weight training
programmes:
a) Repetitions to fatigue. Programmes of weight training can
comprise either high – resistance, low, repetitions or lowresistance, high repetitions. High- resistance, low –
repetition programmes would favour the development of
strength,
while
lowresistance,
high
repetition
programmes will favour the development of muscular
endurance. Thus, if the desire is to promote the
development of muscular strength, the higher resistance,
low – repetitions programme should be embarked upon. On
the other hand, if the objective is to develop muscular
endurance, the low- resistance, high – repetitions
programme is recommended.
b) Sets. Sets are series of repetitions and periods of relief. For
beginners, one set may be obey. However, three to five sets
are optimal for strength and muscle size gains.
c) Rests between sets. For individuals who are interested in
body building, short rest periods of less than one minute
will serve. However rest intervals between 1 and 2 minutes
is recommended for power lifters.
d) Order of exercises. The order in which the exercises are
conducted matters a lot in weight training programmes.
However, there is no fast and hard rule about the order in
which the exercises should be undertaken. Some trainees
would exercise the large muscle groups, first, while others
start out with small muscle groups. Body builders would
prefer to exercises the front and back of arms and legs.
e) Types of exercises. Resistance exercises may involve a
single joint, for example, arm curls, or multiple joint. Large
muscle mass lifts burn more calories.
5.3.6 TYPES OF WEIGHT TRAINING PROGRAMME
Generally
according
weight training programmes are structured
to types of muscular contraction (isotonic,
43
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
isometric, eccentric and isokinetic). Thus, there are isotonic,
isometric,
eccentric
and
isokinetic
weight
training
programmes.
(A) Isotonic Weight Training
Isotonic training weight programme involves the use of
weight in form of barbells, dump bells and pulleys or heavy
calisthenics such as push ups, sits- ups, led squat. Isotonic
weight training programme requires that when a muscle
contract when performing exercise, the length of the affected
muscle shortens as tension is being developed. Isotonic
weight training programme usually involve both isotonic
(dynamic) contraction and eccentric contraction. For example
when a heavy load is lowered the triceps contact
eccentrically, resisting the downward movement of the weight
(B) Isometric Weight Training Programme
With isometric weight training programme, muscles are
meant to contact against a fixed immovable resistance. For
example when someone places hand under a desk, while
sitting with a chair with arms at 90 degrees angle. The biceps
contract isometrically but there is no movement as the hands
attempt to push up on the heavy desk. Generally isometric
exercises are easy to perform, can be done nearly any where
and requires little time to expense. It is recommended that
isometric exercise be performed at several different angles
for each joint because strength gain is specific to the angle at
which the isometric exercises are performed. The isometric
tension is developed in isometric, contraction as the tension is
developed in but there is no change in the external length of
the muscle. The length of the muscle does not shorten because
the external resistance against which the muscle pulling is
greater than the maximal tension (internal force) the muscle
can generate.
(C) Isokinetic Weight Training Programme
With isokinetic weight training programme, muscles are
made to contract maximally at constant speed at all angles over
the full range of motion as they develop tension. In true
44
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
isokinetic exercises, the resistance is adjusted so that it is
exactly matched to the force applied by the muscle throughout
the full range of joint motion. This is accomplished by
controlling the speed of movement with specialized equipment.
The equipments contain a speed governor so that speed of
movement is constant no matter how much tension is produced
in the contracting muscles.
5.3.7 WEIGHT LIFTING EXERCISES
Nieman (1999) identified the following as weight lifting
exercises which are often Used:
(a) Bench - press. The individual lies down on the bench,
with shoulders just in back of the bar. Hands are
spaced evenly on the bar. The bar is brought down to
the chest, and then forcefully pushes the bar back up
to straight arm position. The person takes a breath as
the bar is lowered, and exhale as he raises the bar.
(b) Lat pull. The performer kneels directly below the
handle, with hands grasping it, and arms kept
straight. The bar is pulled forcefully behind the head.
This exercise develops the lat which help to give the
back the “V– shaped look”. This exercise involves
forearm flexors (biceps brachialis), arm extensions
and abductors (lastissimas dorsi, posterior deltoid,
pectoralis major, and teres major.
c) Two - arm curl. The performer grasps the bar with
palms up and away from the body. He stands straight,
and forcefully raises hand to chest level. At that
position, he tries to arch the lower back or drives the
elbow backward during the lift. The exercise develops
the biceps, which is an important muscle for carrying
objects when arms are bent at a 900 angle. The
exercise involves the forearm flexors (biceps brachii,
bachialis).
d) Military press. The performer grasps the bar with
hands at shoulder width apart, arms down and palms
toward the body. He raises the bar to shoulder height,
and then presses hands straight up above body. The
exercise develops the shoulder area and forms back of
45
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
arm. The exercise involves arm abductors (deltoid,
supraspintatus) forearm extension (triceps).
e) Leg Squats: This exercise is performed in pairs. A
partner places the bar on the shoulders behind the
head. The performer then squats down so that the
legs are bent at a 900 angle to the bench and stands
back up. The exercise develops the front of the thigh,
giving better strength for climbing stairs and hills,
bicycling, and kicking in various sports. The exercise
involves knee extensors, (quadriceps- rectos femoris
and vastus literalist, medialis, and intermedius) thigh
extensors (gluteus maximums, adductors, Magnus,
posterior part).
5.4
SUMMARY
Weight training is embarked upon to develop muscular
strength, muscular endurance, muscular power, vitality and
physique. Principles of weight training include overload
principle, and principle of specificity. Systems of weight training
are single sets system, multiple sets system, light to heavy
system, heavy to light system, triangle training, super sets
system, circuit programme and split routine system. Weight
training is structured around the four main muscular
contractions, namely isometric, isotonic eccentric and isokinetic.
5.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.6
Define weight training and state any four qualities
that can be improved through weight training
programmes.
Explain any three principles of weight training.
State any five system of weight training.
Explain any four guide of weight training.
Explain any four variables that are manipulated in
weight training.
REFERENCES
American College of Sports Medicine (1998). The recommended
quantity and quality of exercise for developing and
maintaining
46
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
cardio-respiratory and muscular fitness in healthy adults.
Medicine
and Science Sports in and Exercises, 30:975- 991.
Baechle, T.R (1994). Essentials of Strength Training
Conditioning.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
and
Flecks, S. J. and Kraemer, W.J. (1987). Designing Resistance
Training
Programmes. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics
Fox, E.L. Bowers, R. W. and Foss, M.L. (1993). The physiological
basis
For exercise and sports Madison : Brown and Bench mark
5.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Kirkley, G (1980.). Success in weight training. London: John
Murray.
Nieman, D .C. (1999). Exercise Testing And Prescription: A Health
Related
Approach. 4th ed. California Mayfield publishing company.
47
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
48
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
PHE 108 – PHYSICAL FITNESS THROUGH SELECTED ACTIVITIES
UNIT: 2
TUTOER MARKED ASSIGNMENT
49
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri