Download Identifying and responding to points of vulnerability in implementing

Identifying and responding to points of vulnerability in
implementing information technologies
Dr Bernard Holkner
Faculty of Education
Monash University
Associate Professor Lesley Farrell
Faculty of Education
Monash University
Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research,
University of Hamburg, 17-20 September 2003
In this work, we consider the adoption and maintenance of information technologies
into communities that we call ‘hybrid workspaces’ and the various temporal events
that underpin moments of significant change. These events or ‘points of
vulnerability’ can be identified and their impacts upon the community can be
understood if due planning is undertaken. The paper describes the theoretical basis,
the problems and the design of processes or instruments that are being developed to
explore a particular workplace.
In effect this work is research about and through technologies which are firmly
located in social contexts. The organisations targeted by this research are
hierarchical and distributed communities which feature workers who are either
permanent employees or volunteers, and whose communication technology needs are
widely varied. The organisations can be regarded as constructions of several
workspaces, some of which involve mobile work and others based in traditional office
settings. Communication technologies involving print, telephony, two-way radio and
a variety of computer mediated methods seek to “sew together” the organisation’s
operational and administrative functions. We recognize the interdependence of
communication methods in hybrid workspaces such as these, and regard that this
somewhat architectural view needs to be considered alongside a comprehensive
analysis of the discursive practices that develop within.
The study of this or any similar hybrid workspace is undertaken with the evaluation
methods we are developing. These pay attention to an analysis of the technologies
themselves within the social context and the inevitable changing social structures. In
particular, we attend to the temporal location of work, and to the capacities of groups
working with specific technologies.
In the process of establishing these evaluation methods, is the selection and
development of data collection methods which are either automated or otherwise
mediated by communications technologies. The presents an opportunity to
investigate the quality and secondary impacts of electronic and automated data
collection and the ethical and technical considerations which arise. We are
particularly interested in the responses of workers in the organisations to the impacts
of the technologies which surround them. This includes the both the data collection
1
which is routine within their work, and that which is introduced for the purposes of
this study.
Points of vulnerability are those significant instances and sequences of events in the
implementation of technologies for workers. It is appropriate to identify and examine
these moments. As we identify the impacts of the technologies in our own data
collection and analysis, we create an overlapping hybrid community with its own
events. An ability to recognize, or even predict these temporal events and their likely
impacts leads us to better methods of understanding hybrid communities.
Two organisations concerned with urgency
PaceSetters1 is a global organisation concerned with the design and development of
health technology products. They operate with a network of distribution and
marketing facilities spanning all continents. Internally the organisation has several
business units which are located in different parts of the world and each working with
different parts of the product range. Nevertheless, it is the organisation’s wish to
preserve the innovative and entrepreneurial environment of a smaller company.
PaceSetters prides itself as a company which fosters innovation in its work
environment, is a committed user of a wide range of technologies to support the
workers and company operations. It is important to note that PaceSetters regards its
products as critically valuable to the public, and that its workers are focused on an
“urgency based” environment.
FastResponse is an organisation concerned with providing emergency services.
Unlike PaceSetters, they operate on a local level, receive funding from a range of
government, stake holder and philanthropic groups. FastResponse are not concerned
with “product” or sales, but solely with the provision of an effective community
service. FastResponse features employees based in a central office and in several
regions, but is quite unique in that the dominant group of workers are volunteers. It is
helpful in the case of both organisations to consider fundamental roles of workers
within the categories of administration and operations. PaceSetters primary goal is of
course to raise revenue from sales and operational technical support, and therefore
features a strong interest in marketing. While FastResponse is interested in public
relations and public information which are similar in function to a marketing
operation, there are no sales imperatives. On the one hand we might regard the “front
line” workers of PaceSetters to be their sales and support staff, while the analogous
workers in FastResponse are the volunteers responding to emergencies.
This research focuses upon the Pacesetters offices in two Australian capital cities, and
seeks to explore the implications for similarly communications dependent groups such
as FastResponse. The researchers have noted particularly interesting similarities
between the organisations’ uses of communications technologies although at the time
of writing, the study at FastResponse is still being negotiated.
1
These are not the real names of the organisations.
2
Communication Perspectives
This research is concerned with understanding communication processes which are
deeply dependent upon layered technologies within two organisations. We seek to
order the types of communications needs, responses of groups and individuals, and
the roles that the technologies play in modifying, assisting, impeding or otherwise
introducing artifacts or nuances across the range of routine and non-routine
communications.
Organisations such as these function with both operational and administrative
hierarchies. While there may be complete clarity in describing the ways in which
workers are responsible to one another, the informative and instructional
communications pathways need not, and we suspect will not completely reflect those
responsibilities. In observing the movement of informative, instructional and other
communications and through several methods of documenting their intent, pathways
and ultimate effects of these texts can be understood. This will make it possible to
observe locations of friction and possible mismatches that occur through the selection
and application of communication technologies. We note that the organisations being
studied require a wide range of communication imperatives. Some texts are urgent to
the point of saving lives, some to the maintenance of organizational information, and
some to the specifics of single problem solving.
While we seek to avoid wholesale analysis of the communications media used by
these organisations in technical isolation, some characteristics need to be identified. It
is preferable to frame a discussion of the organisations’ communications technologies
within the social contexts (Akrich 1992; Bowker 1996; Bossen 2002)
There is an opportunity to problematise two aspects of these media: the degree of
impact when texts from this medium are moved to another communications medium
(Xn), and the degree of synchronicity (Av).
Synchronicity (Av)
Each of these media or “channels” as we call them, has a number of temporal
dimensions which affect the performance and perception of the communication of
texts (Hesse, Werner et al. 1988). These researchers identify two overarching
temporal dimensions: a linear continuum of past/present/future and a cyclical or
spiraling dimension of recurrent events. For our purposes, four “subordinate”
dimensions provide a framework. Temporal scale is the scope or duration of an event,
temporal sequencing; the systemic events or construction of conversations, temporal
pace; both perceived and actual rate of exchanges, and temporal salience; the
orientation of the action or the individual’s perception (Hesse, Werner et al. 1988).
Our research pursues processes and events which are inseparable from the social
groupings in which they are located and the purposeful context, and while we describe
events and points of vulnerability on these terms, we recognize the value of revisiting
a framework for temporal dimensions.
It is customary to categorise communications technologies as being either
synchronous or asynchronous, so that their attention to real time and immediate
exchanges can be discriminated against possibilities for further reflection and storage.
3
Our initial work in this area suggests that an exploration of a less “binary” view of
synchronicity is warranted for several reasons:
 Some workers use “store and forward” technologies in rapid exchanges that
are analogous to a conversation,
 There are increasing opportunities for texts to pass between media that have
different synchronicities: such as voice messages to voice storage, and
 There are technologies which make available the translation of texts from one
mode to another: such as print converted to digitized voice, voice recognition
of print and print logging of voice messages.
When a worker is asked to reflect upon communication processes in general, or upon
a particular situation, frameworks which pay better attention to the social construction
of communications are appropriate (Dennis and Valacich 1999; Burgooon, Burgoon
et al. 2002). In recognizing the need to establish operational and social contexts for
communications, the complex nature of synchronicity is perhaps better described
without simplifying to synchronous/asynchronous. We refer to the dimensions of
synchronicity as Av merely to indicate a more complex series of temporal
interactions. It does not seem appropriate to attempt to quantify degrees or states of
synchronicity however since this would negate the complexities of context and
situation.
Transfer Impact (Xn)
From time to time, the texts that are exchanged within networks need to be
retransmitted into different actor networks when a person can only be contacted, or is
best communicated with over a particular channel. There are many reasons why cross
channel communication might take place. Workers at PaceSetters might receive
marketing bulletins by email and have these followed up by posting out glossy
brochures, or by the same token FastResponse workers might need a facsimile about
hazardous materials to study in detail rather than receive the same information over
two way radio. These examples indicate potentials for redundancy, or for improved
transmission of information. A familiar scenario of people following up an email
with telephone calls might indicate the need for clarification or reassurance that is
lacking in the initial channel. Perhaps these effects suggest that better efficiencies are
possible, but our attention is drawn to the effects of these transfers upon the quality of
the information, urgency or compliance in reception or changing social networks that
take place on each occasion. Transfer impact is possible with all channels but there
are specific tendencies or particular technologies more likely to have a strength or
weakness with another, just as there are specific communications which bring about
the need for transfer and the significance of the transfer impact. Recognising and
attending to transfer impacts needs to be within the standard set of skills of a worker.
These provide the ability to identify the need for remedial or supportive
communications or other necessary actions.
The following table shows an initial view of communicative channels and some of
their dimensions. For the purposes of this work, carrier Medium refers to the
technological infrastructure of the network. Domain refers to the typical hierarchies
of communications in that channel.
4
Channel
Textual limitations:
P=Print; G=Graphic;
V=Voice; Xn=Transfer
impact; A=Asynchronous
v=speed; R=Receive only
Carrier
medium
Domain
Website (internal)
P
G
Xn Av R
Website (public)
P
G
Xn Av R
Email
P
Internet
protocols
Internet
protocols
Internet
protocols also
Mobile
telephone
Organisation
broadcast
Organisation
broadcast
-Broadcast
-Individual
-External
Network shared
documents
Telephone
P
Landline
Mobile
networks
Individual
X0 S
-Post
-Emailed files
Third party
networks
Private network
Landline
Organisation
broadcast
Organisation
broadcast
Learned
protocols for
individual
and broadcast
-Broadcast
-Individual
-External
Voice
teleconference
Telephone
answering machine
Paper memo
Brochure
P
P
Xn Av
G
V
S
V
S
V
Xn A
R
A
Xn A
R
R
G
G
AlphaNumeric
Pager
Two-way radio
P
Xn Av R
Facsimile
P
G
Xn Av R
Real time data
collection
P
G
S
V
R
Radio, landline
and satellite
(GIS, GPS,
Weather)
Table 1 An initial audit of information and communication channels
Table 1 outlines the principal media employed by the two organisations.
The uses of each channel vary according to the organisation and to the tasks to some
degree, but certain assumptions appear to be supported: for example AlphaNumeric
pagers of the kind that vibrate or beep to alert the wearer to urgent text are used by
both organisations, while telephones and email are used where available for
important, non-important and even personal messages. To give some idea of the
5
scope of this work, it can be seen that the working relationships that exist within and
are modified by the technologies are wide ranging. Features of these channels impact
upon all dimensions of the organisations: administrative, operational, and all manners
of networking that recognize the extended groupings to which workers belong and
move across.
An exhaustive description of all of the capabilities and implications of these channels
is beyond the scope of this paper, however three important points will be made to
illustrate the planning issues for our further research.
1. Operational Urgency – Pagers, telephones and radio.
Both organisations are able to communicate urgent information through
selected channels. In the case of FastResponse, communication to the
volunteer or career emergency worker defaults to the pager. The pager is the
sole method for activation and the text transmitted is necessarily abbreviated
at some point in the communication process to eliminate non-essential
information and to contain the message within the limitations of the pager.
PaceSetters field workers are subjected to the limitations of the pager
technology, but since each worker is provided with a mobile telephone,
limitations in the pager message can be easily followed up for further
information, contextual information or clarification. In fact PaceSetters field
workers habitually select either the pager or the mobile telephone as a method
of obtaining assistance from each other. This operates to the extent that a
“code” exists whereby they use the keywords “urgent” and “important” to
indicate the response times that they are seeking to a request. In an attempt to
ensure that PaceSetters field workers are always contactable, their Information
Technology specialists have implemented a method for pager messages to be
forwarded by Short Message Service (SMS) to the field workers’ mobile
telephones. It is notable that field workers appear to routinely ignore the SMS
messages, believing that anything urgent would appear as a voice telephone
call or pager text.
FastResponse emergency workers are unable to obtain further information,
clarification or contextual knowledge when alerted by pager until they are in
proximity to a two way radio, which they can use to query a dispatcher.
FastResponse activation is further bound to the rules of two way radio
communication which insists upon communication by standard message
formats. These formats aim to ensure an efficient use of the crowded radio
network and possibly at the expense of information detail. Similarly, the
people communicating with FastResponse workers are not known at all to the
individuals and so nuances that would offer encouragement and reassurance
may be missing.
2. Procedures and research – Documents, Brochures, Facsimile and Webs
Both organisations have an important role in providing procedural information
and research to workers and the public. This is important information which
may originate (in the case of PaceSetters) from other global offices of the
organisation, from other agencies and organisations, government regulations,
or internal units. Considering the multiple pathways that are available to
distribute this kind of information, it is notable that the information itself is
seen as non negotiable in most cases. It is our view that the degree of
conversation, argument or follow up that might be expected from these
6
documents needs to be established and brought into consideration when the
communication channel is selected. Furthermore, certain methods offer or
deny opportunities for documents to be stored, reused and forwarded, while
others place different requirements upon the recipient.
PaceSetters workers can be located in the field or in one of the offices. Field
workers are only able to receive these texts from the office or home where
download times for electronic documents can be inconvenient or impossible.
Office workers in both organisations have high speed network connections
that support the transmission of large files containing graphical information.
FastResponse emergency workers can receive these kinds of texts via
networks, but this is usually at their own expense or by attending a local office
in their own time. Accordingly, the default channel for FastResponse
communication of documents is to send printed documents by post. We note
here that at the point where documents which have invariably been prepared
digitally are transferred to print, the opportunities for workers to store their
own copies for review and study, to quote or forward all or part of the texts is
severely limited. In many cases these are texts containing important
information that would save lives, and considering the many ways that
workers need to negotiate the texts into embodied knowledge perhaps should
be considered.
3. Data collection and reporting
FastResponse makes extensive use of real-time data for the purposes of
providing emergency workers with up to date information about weather,
incident locations and types and resource deployment. Some of this data is
obtained via landline telephone connection to monitoring stations or to
satellite or aircraft mounted sensors. This data is collected and distributed
without human intervention. In practice, it is data which requires specialist
knowledge for interpretation, and FastResponse is organized so that these
experts can be dispatched to appropriate coordination centres to help with this
interpretation. Regardless of its importance, this is still information which
needs to be actively sought from databases, websites and software. Unlike
other operational information which can be directed to pagers and radios, the
materials are in a sense like publications in that the interested parties must
recognise a situation where the information may be useful and available.
PaceSetters field workers do not make use of real time data from outside
sources however each worker is involved in clinical work on a daily basis and
using data to diagnose and program devices that they support. While it appears
to the researchers that there may be a useful exercise to gather and coordinate
this data to establish patterns and histories for future reference, neither the
organisation nor the field workers see this in their roles.
In the above scenarios, several themes are evident. Points of vulnerability appear with
respect to:
 The rules of communication that exist with various channels that might
confound effective and harmonious work,
 The requirement of certain channels for workers to seek information rather
than have it provided automatically
 The dependence of certain channels upon the communicative acts of others,
 The extent to which maximum benefit is made in the use of all channels,
7



The friction between mandatory channels and their users’ convenience or
perceptions of suitability,
The changing networks of people involved with different aspects of work, and
The changing networks of people who are part of each communication
channel.
Furthermore, we need to identify and explain the implicit signals of communication
that workers convey to each other about particular networks or channels. These
metacommunicative acts are a further concern in that they can damage the uses of
channels or even support weak channels.
In planning for the implementation of such complex layered networks of
communication and storage of texts, these are considerations that can establish the
technical, social and hierarchical requirements to make them work. At the very least,
they indicate aspects of existing networks that deserve attention either through a
systemic overhaul, or through workers being alerted to the points of vulnerability.
Conclusion
The next part of our work will attend to recognizing the specific texts commonly
mediated by the channels and whether the selection of these is the result of tradition,
convenience, or indeed a more sophisticated understanding of the needs of work. An
enhanced media richness capability model (Dennis and Valacich 1999) suggests an
interpretation of media characteristics which attend to immediacy of feedback;
symbol variety; parallelism (of channels); rehearsability (or fine tuning) ; and
reprocessability. These, they argue seek to support two communication processes
(conveyance and convergence) across group functions (production, group well-being,
and member support). This is useful but uncomfortable model for the complex
organisations in our study. Workers bring to our attention the features of their
communication systems through their retelling and reflection of incidents and routines
of their job. At this point, we have established that their perspectives of the purposes
and outcomes and means of routine communications are functional but not in
harmony. The particular challenge for research in this field is to account for
individual and shared perceptions of the communication events as a further
dimension. Points of vulnerability are recognized in the many dimensions of
communication networks including group histories, and those metacommunicative
acts which shape the shared view of “what is actually taking place”.
References
Akrich, M. (1992). The De-Scription of Technical Objects. Shaping Technology /
Building Society. W. E. Bijker and J. Law. London, The MIT Press: 205-224.
Bossen, C. (2002). The parameters of common information spaces:: the heterogeneity
of cooperative work at a hospital ward. 2002 ACM conference on Computer
supported cooperative work., New Orleans, Louisiana, ACM Press.
8
Bowker, G. C. (1996). "How things (actor-net) work:classification, magic and the
ubiquity of standards." Philosophia 25(3-4): 195-220.
Burgooon, J. K., M. Burgoon, et al. (2002). Effects of Synchronicity and Proximity on
Group Communication. National Communication Convention, New Orleans.
Dennis, A. R. and J. S. Valacich (1999). Rethinking Media Richness: Towards a
Theory of Media Synchronicity. Thirty-Second Hawaii International Conference on
System Sciences, Maui, Hawaii, IEEE.
Hesse, B., C. Werner, et al. (1988). "Temporal aspects of computer mediated
communication." Computers in Human behaviour 4: 146-65.
9