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Unit 5: Toward a Global Civilization
I.
The Start of the Cold War
A.
East-West Suspicions
1.
The United States and the Soviet Union emerged from World War II as the two
most powerful nations. While the two governments had cooperated to defeat the
Axis Powers, their relationship deteriorated after the war.
2.
Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe heightened American fears of
communism, a system in which, instead of private individuals running
businesses, the Communist party, representing society as a whole, controls
property and the means of production. The Soviets had promised free elections
in Eastern European nations at the end of the war. Instead, they imposed
Communist rule by holding elections only under the supervision of Soviet
troops.
3.
In 1946, former Prime Minister Winston Churchill declared that the Soviets had
in a sense trapped the nations of Eastern Europe behind an “iron curtain.” The
phrase “iron curtain” would be used to describe Soviet policy in Europe from
1945 to 1989.
4.
The Strength of Communism:
a.
The Communists promised to abolish poverty, privilege, and private
property. They also guaranteed work, shelter, education, health care,
and a classless society.
b.
Communist leaders sought to spread their form of government by
inciting revolts in other nations where poor and oppressed populations
were attracted to their ideas.
a.
President Harry S. Truman responded with a policy of containmentpreventing the spread of communism-rather than liberating satellite
nations. This policy was based on the belief that the Soviets were
interested in conquering other nations, not simply securing their own
borders. The policy of containment led to what was known as the cold
war-a state of intense hostility between the United States and Soviet
Union, but without any actual warfare. This policy would be continued
by the presidents who followed Truman.
B.
Aid to Europe
1.
In 1947, U.S. diplomats warned that Greece and Turkey were in danger of
falling to communists guerillas. The U.S. and other Western nations wished to
stop communism from spreading because they saw it as an oppressive form of
rule that quashed individual economic and personal freedoms. In response,
Truman proposed a plan to provide military and economic aid to Greece and
Turkey to resist a communist takeover. The plan, which Congress approved,
became known as the Truman Doctrine and committed the United States to a
more active role in world affairs.
2.
The United States turned its attention to helping the rest of Europe to recover
from the devastation of the war. U.S. officials feared that economic crises in
European countries might lead to the election of communists governments.
The United States implemented the Marshall Plan-named after Secretary of State
George Marshall. It provided massive amounts of financial aid to provide food,
fuel, and raw materials to help the nations of Europe rebuild their economies,
industries, and transportation systems. The U.S. offered the Marshall Plan to all
nations in Europe, including the Soviet Union. The Soviets refused. Why? In
trying to promote communism, the Soviets did not want to appear to need help
from a Western capitalist country.
3.
The Berlin Airlift-After the war, the United States, Great Britain, France, and
the Soviet Union each controlled a zone of Germany. In 1948, the Western
powers announced that they were combining their three sections of Germany to
form an independent nation-West Germany. The Soviets responded by closing
off all traffic from West Germany to Berlin, the capital city, in the eastern part
of Germany. Truman ordered a massive airlift to supply Berlin’s 2 million
people with food and other goods. In May 1949, the Soviets finally lifted their
blockade of the city.
4.
NATO-In 1949, with East-West tensions rising, the United States joined other
Western nations to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military
alliance against the Soviets. In response, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw
Pact, a military alliance of the Soviet-controlled countries.
The nations of NATO considered an attack on one country as an attack on all of
them. The advantage of such a policy: It provides a number of separate nations
with greater security. The disadvantage: It increases the risk of small conflicts
becoming large wars involving many nations.
C.
D.
E.
The Occupation of Japan-After World War II, there were 3 aims of the United States in
Asia:
1.
To restore peace;
2.
To help Asians resist foreign rule; and
3.
To restore Asian trade with the world.
In 1946, the U.S. granted independence to the Philippines, giving money to repair war
damage and making tariff concessions in American markets. The U.S. also occupied
Japan and sought to help the nation rebuild and become more democratic. Under the
leadership of General Douglas MacArthur, Japan’s military was dismantled. Under
American direction, a new constitution provided for elected representative government
and woman suffrage. U.S. leaders also encouraged economic opportunity and provided
Japan with financial aid. U.S. officials in Japan made sure to leave many aspects of
Japanese culture intact. Why? They did not want to have the Japanese resent their
presence, which would make their work there more difficult. In 1951, with Japan on its
way to a remarkable recovery, the country was granted its independence.
Communist Triumph in China
1.
Since the early 1930s, a civil war between the Nationalist government of Chiang
Kai-shek and the Communists, led by Mao Zedong, had ravaged China. The
fighting ebbed during World War II as both sides resisted the Japanese invaders,
but the conflict flared after the war ended. On the advice of George Marshall,
the U.S. focused its efforts on containing communism in Western Europe rather
than committing itself to the corrupt and inefficient Nationalist Chinese.
2.
By the end of 1949, Mao’s victorious forces had forced the Nationalists to flee
to the island of Taiwan. Many Americans criticized the Truman administration
for not paying enough attention to China and “losing” the country to the
Communists.
The Korean Conflict
1.
In 1950, North Korea, which was ruled by a Soviet-installed Communist
government, invaded South Korea. UN troops, led by the United States, came to
the aid of South Korea to help push the North Koreans back. When UN forces
invaded North Korea, Chinese troops entered the conflict to help the
Communists. The Chinese forces pushed the UN troops back into South Korea,
and the war bogged down into a bloody stalemate.
2.
General MacArthur, who commanded UN forces in Korea, wanted to bomb
China. Truman refused, fearing a much larger war. When MacArthur openly
criticized Truman, the President fired him. Truman’s dismissal of the popular
general caused a firestorm of protest around the country. The Chicago Tribune
even called on Congress to impeach and convict the President for his action.
3.
The Election of 1952-When Truman announced he would not run again,
Republican and World War II hero Dwight D. Eisenhower (Ike) faced Democrat
Adlai Stevenson, governor of Illinois. Eisenhower promised to end the war in
Korea and won the election decisively.
1.
The fighting in Korea continued until 1953, when both sides agreed on a ceasefire that left the country divided in the same way it had been before the war
began. Neither side claimed victory. The struggle cost the U.S. more than
54,000 soldiers, but the U.S. resolve in Korea caused many neutral nations to
draw closer to the United States.
The “Red Scare”
1.
During the cold war period, Americans’ fears of a communist conspiracy
heightened. Many began to think that some of their fellow citizens were
communist sympathizers or spies. The “Red Scare” swept the nation.
2.
Fear of communist influence led to the rise of Democratic Senator Joseph
McCarthy of Wisconsin, who charged that he knew of numerous communist
sympathizers within the U.S. government, but he never produced evidence for
this claim. Accusations and rumors promoted by McCarthy and other officials
ruined the lives and reputations of many Americans. The Senate eventually
determined that McCarthy’s accusations were groundless. In 1954, McCarthy’s
underhanded tactics were exposed in televised hearings. The use of
indiscriminate, unfounded political accusations to destroy someone’s character
became known as McCarthyism.
G.
Thaws in the Cold War
1.
During the Eisenhower administration, a slight “thaw” in the cold war occurred.
After Stalin’s death in 1953, the Soviet Union’s new leader, Nikita Khrushchev,
allowed people a little more freedom. In July 1955, Eisenhower met with Soviet
leaders to discuss nuclear disarmament. The summit accomplished little,
however, and in 1958, tensions between the two nations escalated again.
2.
In May, 1960, an American U-2 surveillance plane was shot down over the
Soviet Union while on a spying mission. Khrushchev denounced the U.S.
mission, and relations between the two nations worsened.
3.
In his farewell address, the grandfatherly president warned against the influence
of the military-industrial complex, the defense industry that promoted the
production of weapons of destruction.
H. Cuba-The U.S. largely ignored Latin America, where great poverty had created a breeding
ground for political instability. In 1959, rebel forces overthrew Cuba’s corrupt regime. The
new rebel government, led by Fidel Castro, soon aligned with the Communists. As a result,
the U.S. broke off relations with the nation. This was troubling to the U.S. since Cuba is only
90 miles off the coast of the U.S.; communism was brought to the nation’s doorstep.
a. President John Kennedy’s basic foreign policy goal was similar to that of Truman
and Eisenhower-containment of communism. The United States began training
Cuban exiles to overthrow the rebel government under Castro.
b. In April, 1961, Cuban exiles invaded the island at the Bay of Pigs. The mission
collapsed and the invaders surrendered. The failed invasion hurt the prestige of the
Kennedy administration and strengthened Castro’s power in the world. In 1962,
Cuba convicted more than 1,000 Bay of Pigs invaders of treason and sentenced them
to 30 years in prison. Soon, however, Cuban officials released the prisoners in return
for more than $50,000,000 in food and medical supplies from a U.S. committee of
private citizens.
c. In October, 1962, U.S. officials learned that the Soviet Union had placed nuclear
weapons in Cuba. Kennedy ordered the Soviet Union to remove the weapons. After
tense negotiations, the Cuban Missile Crisis ended when Soviet leaders agreed to
remove the weapons.
I. The Peace Corps-In 1961, President Kennedy created the Peace Corps to help developing
nations fight poverty and disease. The Peace Corps was organized to help prevent the spread
of communism by improving the quality of life. By late 1963, there were 11,000 Peace Corps
volunteers serving in 40 countries teaching practical skills or working to build housing and
medical facilities.
J.
The Berlin Wall: East-West tensions rose when the Soviets built a wall dividing the city of Berlin, blocking
F.
free movement between the communist section of Berlin and the rest of the city. The structure became known
as the Berlin Wall. The wall prevented the flight of refugees seeking to escape the oppression of East Germany.
The Berlin Wall became a symbol of cold war divisions between East and West. Throughout the early 1960s,
the U.S. and the Soviet Union worked to negotiate treaties limiting the testing of nuclear weapons. In August,
1963, they reached an agreement that banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere and underwater, but not
underground.
K. Vietnam: Vietnam is part of a former French colony that in 1954 was divided into North and
South Vietnam. North Vietnam was run by a communist government headed by Ho Chi
Minh. South Vietnam was run by a noncommunist government headed Ngo Dinh Diem. The
government of South Vietnam was corrupt and often repressive. However, the U.S. supported
the government because it was anti-Communist, in fear that if South Vietnam fell to the
communists, all of Southeast Asia might follow. Throughout the early 1960s, communistbacked gorilla forces known as Vietcong fought against the South Vietnamese government.
The U.S. sent aid and support to the government. By the summer of 1964, the U.S. had begun
limited bombing of positions held by the Vietcong and supported limited commando raids on
North Vietnam’s coast.
1.
In August, 1964, President Johnson reported that the North Vietnamese had
attacked two American ships in the Gulf of Tonkin. At the President’s request,
Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which allowed the President to
carry out a war against the Vietcong and North Vietnam.
2.
Johnson quickly began bombing military bases in North Vietnam. In February
1965, after the Vietcong attacked an American airbase in South Vietnam,
Johnson ordered an escalation, or military expansion, of the war. In April 1965
he began sending U.S. troops to fight against the Vietcong.
3.
American troops encountered difficulties in fighting the communist rebels.
Vietcong guerrillas used hit-and-run tactics and booby traps. They launched
small-scale attacks and then disappeared into the jungles or friendly villages. To
counter such tactics, American troops adopted a search-and-destroy strategy.
The troops destroyed jungles and villages in an attempt to force the Vietcong out
into open combat.
4.
The U.S. continued pouring troops into Vietnam. During the height of the
conflict, more than 500,000 American soldiers were serving in the country.
Despite the growing influx of U.S. troops and massive bombing of his country,
Ho Chi Minh vowed to keep fighting, believing that his forces would outlast the
U.S. in a war. Once the U.S. had escalated the fighting, there seemed to be no
way of leaving without damaging its international prestige. Between 1965 and
1967, American officials estimated that some 2,000 attempts were made to open
direct negotiations, all unsuccessful.
5.
By the end of 1967, U.S. military leaders assured the country that the end of the
war was in sight.
6.
January 30, 1968, marked a turning point of the war. That day, the Vietcong
launched surprise attacks on numerous towns and bases in South Korea.
Occurring on Tet, the Vietnamese lunar New Year, these attacks became known
as the Tet Offensive. These attacks were quickly repelled. However, the
American people were shocked that an enemy was supposedly near defeat could
launch such a large-scale attack. After Tet, many citizens began to believe that
the U.S. could not win the war.
7.
In March, 1968, President Johnson announced that he would halt nearly all
bombing of North Vietnam and try to begin negotiations. These peace
negotiations proved fruitless, however, and the fighting continued.
8.
Gradually, as the U.S. moved deeper into the Vietnam War, opposition grew.
Americans divided into two groups. Those who supported the war were called
“hawks;” those who opposed the war were called “doves.”
a.
Many of those who opposed the war were students. The antiwar
movement centered on college campuses.
b.
Many students protested the draft calling the system unfair because it
offered a deferment to college students, which meant that a person who
could not afford a higher education was more likely to be drafted.
Many people protested the fact that Black Americans made up a
disproportionately large number of American soldiers fighting
overseas.
c.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Some protests turned violent. During a 1970 protest at Kent State
University in Ohio, four students were killed when the Ohio National
Guard fired on demonstrators. Two more students were killed by state
police at Jackson State University in Mississippi.
During this tumultuous period in the U.S., some young people rebelled against
established values and searched for a new set of beliefs. These people made up
what was known as the counterculture because their values and practices
conflicted with those of established society. On the other side, a large number
of conservative Americans were angered by riots, protests, and a war that
seemed to be going nowhere. The deep anger these Americans felt against the
protesters soon developed into a backlash against the antiwar movement.
By 1968, American society had reached a turning point. As a result of the Tet
Offensive and the continuing protests, polls showed that the majority of
Americans had turned against the President’s handling of the war.
a.
The Democratic party also became split. Senators Eugene McCarthy
and Robert Kennedy, both of whom opposed the war, announced they
would challenge Johnson for the presidential nomination. In March
1968, Johnson stunned the nation by announcing that he would not run
for reelection. Hubert Humphrey, Johnson’s Vice-President, became
the administration candidate. As the election progressed, however, it
appeared that Kennedy would gain the Democratic nomination. Then,
Kennedy was assassinated in June 1968. In August, the Democrats
nominated Humphrey for President.
b.
Meanwhile, the Republicans chose Richard Nixon as their candidate.
During the campaign, Nixon promised to bring order to the nation and
end the war in Vietnam. Nixon won a close victory and thus became
President.
To help him handle foreign policy matters, Nixon appointed Henry Kissinger, a
brilliant political scientist, as his national security adviser and later his secretary
of state. Wanting to be remembered as a peacemaker, Nixon proclaimed a
policy of détente, or relaxation of tensions between the United States and the
communist bloc. He also visited Moscow and began arms limitation talks with
the Soviets that led to agreements by both sides to ban biological warfare and
limit the growth of nuclear weapons. Nixon also worked to improve relations
with China, lifting trade and travel restrictions, and in February 1972, he visited
the country.
Despite a campaign promise to end the war in Vietnam, Nixon moved slowly.
He did not want to withdraw U.S. troops without a peace agreement and thus
become the nation’s first President to lose a war. In June 1971, the New York
Times published a secret defense department study known as the Pentagon
Papers, which indicated that the nation’s various administrations had misled
Congress and the public about the war in Vietnam. The documents angered
many Americans and increased protests against the war.
To quiet opposition to the war, Nixon announced a policy of “Vietnamization.”
The policy consisted of withdrawing U.S. troops and replacing them with South
Vietnamese soldiers. Nixon hoped that Vietnamization, combined with
saturation bombing of North Vietnam, would allow the U.S. to withdraw from
the war “with honor.”
In January 1973, the warring sides signed a cease-fire agreement ending the
military presence of the United States in Vietnam. The war, however,
continued. In 1975, Congress refused President Ford’s request for funds to aid
South Vietnam in its continuing war. In January 1975, North Vietnam launched
a major offensive against the South. In a few months, the communists
conquered South Vietnam and united the country under communist rule.
15.
Vietnam Myths & Facts:
a.
Myth: The U.S. soldiers were very young and poorly educated.
Fact: The average age was 23, and 79% of our troops were high school
graduates.
b.
Myth: The soldiers were mostly poor and from minorities.
Fact: While 30% of the 58,000 killed came from the lowest third in
income, 26% came from the highest third; 12.5% were black.
c.
Myth: Many were jailed for draft-evasion during the Vietnam war.
Fact: Though 500,000 did dodge the draft, only 9000 were convicted.
L. Latin America-Shortly after taking office, Kennedy implemented a program of aid to Latin
America called the Alliance of Progress. Its purpose was to develop long-term economic
growth among Latin American nations in order to prevent communist revolutions.
M. The Middle East: When war broke out between Israel and its Arab neighbors, the U.S.
supported Israel. The Soviet Union backed and armed the Arab states. Israel quickly won the
Arab-Israeli War of 1967.
1.
In 1973, during the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur, Egyptian and Syrian forces
launched a surprise attack against Israel in an attempt to regain land lost to Israel
during a previous conflict. The U.S. supported Israel, while the Soviet Union
aided the Arab states. The two superpowers, however, also worked to end the
conflict. The combatants eventually agreed to a cease-fire.
2.
After the war, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger worked with Israel and Egypt
to reduce tensions in the Middle East. He engaged in shuttle diplomacy-flying
back and forth between the capitals of the two nations in an attempt to produce a
lasting peace. Kissinger’s efforts resulted in improved relations between Egypt
and Israel.
3.
On the world stage, President Jimmy Carter attempted to promote a foreign
policy based on morality and truth rather than military or economic
considerations. (When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, Carter
imposed a grain embargo on the Soviets and kept the United States out of the
1980 Olympic Games in Moscow.) Carter’s greatest foreign policy triumph and
his greatest failure involved the Middle East.
a.
Carter helped to broker peace between long-time enemies Egypt and
Israel. The two sides signed a peace agreement known as the Camp
David Accords in 1979.
b.
The Iranian hostage crisis-Also in 1979, an Islamic revolution toppled
the monarchy in Iran. A group of rebels, angry over U.S. ties with the
former rulers, seized the American embassy in November 1979 and
took hostage more than 50 Americans. Throughout 1980, Carter
worked to win the hostages’ release. Negotiations failed, however, as
did a military rescue in which eight Americans died in a helicopter
crash.
4.
Election of 1980-pitted Democrat Jimmy Carter against Republican and former
actor and governor Ronald Reagan of California. Reagan hammered at Carter’s
lack of leadership and of his failure to obtain release of the hostages sealed his
defeat. On Election Day, Reagan won handily. On January 20, 1981, just after
Reagan was sworn in, Iran released the American hostages after 444 days in
captivity.
5.
Reagan adopted a “hands-off” attitude toward the day-to-day operations of the
presidency, giving more responsibility to his staff. This practice aided what
would become known as the Iran-Contra affair, a damaging scandal. In 1986,
several of Reagan’s national security advisors arranged to sell weapons to
Iranians in exchange for American hostages, then secretly used the profits to
support anti-Communist rebels in Nicaragua in violation of a congressional ban
on such financing. Although investigators cleared Reagan of responsibility for
the scheme, they faulted him for allowing aides to make policy decisions
without his knowledge.
N. Improved Relations with the Soviet Union
1.
In 1983, President Reagan announced his Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI),
nicknamed “Star Wars.” The project involved creating a shield of new weapons
designed to intercept and destroy nuclear missiles. In addition to Star Wars,
Reagan promoted a giant military buildup costing about $1 trillion. This
increased the debt and left less money for housing, education, and
environmental programs. Congress responded in 1985 by passing the GrammRudman Act, which put pressure on Congress and the President to reduce the
deficit and balance the budget.
2.
Reagan’s desire for a strong defense was based on his belief that the Soviet
Union was still a threat to the United States. U.S.-Soviet relations improved,
however, when Mikhail Gorbachev became the new Soviet premier. Gorbachev
opened up Soviet society (glasnost) and instituted democratic reforms
(perestroika).
3.
In 1986, Gorbachev and Reagan met to discuss reducing their nuclear arsenals.
They eventually signed a treaty calling for the removal of all intermediate-range
nuclear weapons from Europe. The cold war was slowly coming to an end.
4.
After winning the election of 1988, President George H.W. Bush was confronted
with a tidal wave of change around the world. Gorbachev’s new reform policies
in the Soviet Union created even greater demands for freedom and independence
in Eastern Europe. In 1989, several Eastern European nations overthrew their
communist rulers and forced democratic elections.
5.
Demands for democracy then erupted in the Soviet Union itself. A failed coup
left the power to govern in the hands of Boris Yeltsin, president of the Russian
Republic, and Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president. By December 1991, the
Soviet Union ceased to exist. In its place was a loose federation of selfgoverning nations made up of former Soviet republics, including Russia, known
as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
6.
All the former Soviet and communist bloc states forced serious economic
troubles as they attempted to convert state-run economies to capitalist systems.
Shortages of essential goods such as food, fuel, medicine, and housing created
severe hardships for large numbers of people. Ethnic rivalries flared in the
newly independent nations, complicating their transition to self-government.
7.
On January 1, 2000, Vladimir Putin was inaugurated as the new president of
Russia, succeeding Boris Yeltsin. While Russia is now an ally of the United
States, there are still areas of major disagreement. In December of 2001, U.S.
President George W. Bush announced that the United States will withdraw from
the 1972 Antiballistic Missile Treaty mid-2002 in order to build up defensive
weapons. Russia disagrees that this is the right thing to do.
O.
The Persian Gulf War-In August 1990, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein’s troops seized
control of Kuwait, Iraq’s oil-rich neighbor. Following the invasion, Iraq controlled 20
percent of the world’s oil reserves. President Bush, with cooperation from more than 25
other nations, assembled a U.S.-led military coalition that drove Iraqi forces out of
Kuwait. Saddam Hussein, however, remained a threat to the region’s peace and stability.
Observers feared that Iraq was working to develop chemical, biological, and nuclear
weapons. The Persian Gulf War caused Americans to rethink the military role of the
nation. Some leaders called for scaling down U.S. military forces, arguing that the real
source of power in the “new world order” would be economic. Other experts warned that
the U.S. must maintain a strong military to guard against several remaining hostile and
potentially dangerous nations. Recently, it is feared that Iraq is involved in sponsoring
terrorism around the world, thus, some speculate that there will be more conflict between
Iraq and the United States, among other nations of the west.
P.
Q.
R.
Other ethnic conflicts-Despite the decline of communism, wars arising from ethnic
hatreds, political boundaries, and religion plagued nearly every world region throughout
the 1990s.
a. The first crisis to confront the administration of President Bill Clinton was civil war
in the East African nation of Somalia. When Clinton took office, thousands of U.S.
troops already were in Somalia protecting deliveries of food to those left starving by
the war. As the U.S. troops became more involved in the conflict, President Clinton
pulled them out in 1995 rather than risk American casualties.
b. The U.S. and its allies also confronted violence in Europe’s Balkan region. In 1991,
the multinational state of Yugoslavia disintegrated as several of the country’s ethnic
groups broke away and claimed independence. Ethnic hatreds and renewed feelings
of nationalism after decades of totalitarian rule fueled the wars in the Balkan region.
i. Serbia, the region’s largest republic, fought against Slovenian, Croatian,
Bosnian, and Macedonian Independence, and the region descended into
years of war. As reports of Serb atrocities against various ethnic groups
mounted, Western nations took action.
ii. The U.S. and its NATO allies bombed Serb military sites in the first NATO
military offensive ever. In 1995, the warring sides agreed to a cease-fire
and signed an agreement known as the Dayton peace accords.
iii. In 1999, violence flared up again in the Balkans, as Kosovo, a province of
Serbia, sought its independence. To put down the rebellion, Serbs marched
into Kosovo, where again reports surfaced of atrocities against ethnic
Albanians. Serb forces rounded up and executed more than 8,000 Muslim
men and boys. After diplomatic relations failed, NATO launched air strikes
against Serbia, which eventually agreed to remove its forces and permit
NATO troops to restore order in Kosovo.
iv. Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic was forced from power in 2000 and
was deemed a war criminal by Western leaders and the international war
crimes tribunal in The Hague, the Netherlands. Prosecutors say Milosevic
held ultimate responsibility for at least 900 ethnic Albanians and the
eviction of 800,000 civilians from their homes.
c. The United States played the role of peacemaker in Northern Ireland. For many
years, sectarian violence between the Protestant majority and Roman Catholic
minority had torn Northern Ireland apart. Roman Catholics wanted to reunite with
the predominantly Catholic Irish Republic. Protestants insisted that Northern Ireland
remain part of Great Britain. In 1997, the U.S. persuaded both sides to disarm and
accept a cease-fire. A year later, Catholics and Protestants agreed to a peace plan.
d. The U.S. also worked to end years of fighting between Israelis and Palestinians, an
Arab people living under Israeli rule. Under a peace agreement reached in 1995,
Israel agreed to significant Palestinian self-rule and the removal of Israeli forces
from other Palestinian areas. Implementation of the plan, however, went slowly. In
1998, with Clinton’s help, both sides signed the Wye River Memorandum, which
detailed the steps needed to implement the peace agreement. Unfortunately, a new
round of conflict developed in 2000 and the two sides have never been more divided.
Conflict with China-Recently, in April of 2001, China held 24 Americans for a short
period of time after a mid-air collision between a U.S. Air Force jet and a Chinese jet.
The Chinese jet crashed killing the pilot and the Americans made an emergency landing
on Chinese soil. Although the Chinese blamed the U.S. for the collision, the U.S.
government has strongly rejected responsibility for the incident. President George W.
Bush has been given credit for decisive leadership in the quick release of the Americans.
Bush has also pledged military aid for Taiwan in the event of aggressive force from
China. Many suggest the Cold War continues between the U.S. and China.
As 2000 began the United Nations was directing peacekeeping operations in 17 countries
from Africa to the Middle East to Asia, at an estimated cost of around $900 million.
Why is the United States, more than other countries, playing the role of peacemaker
S.
around the world? The U.S. is widely seen as the only remaining superpower, and as
such, has the respect and authority needed to negotiate peace agreements.
America’s New War on Terror; 9-11-2001
On the beautiful morning of September 11, 2001, 4 planes left 3 major airports to begin
what would be the deadliest single day in modern American history. At 7:59 a.m.,
American Airlines Flight 11 with 92 people left Boston’s Logan Airport for Los Angeles;
at 8:01 a.m., United Flight 93 with 45 people left Newark Airport for San Francisco; at
8:10 a.m., American Flight 77 with 64 people left Washington’s Dulles Airport for Los
Angeles; and, at 8:14 a.m., United Flight 175 with 65 people left Boston For L.A. The
next day, Attorney General John Ashcroft would say the planes “were hijacked by
between three and six individuals per plane, using knives and box cutters, and in some
cases making bomb threats.” He also says a number of suspected hijackers were trained
as pilots in the United States.
1.
8:48 a.m.-Hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the north tower of
the World Trade Center.
2.
9:06 a.m.-Hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 crashed into the south tower of
the World Trade Center. Soon, the Federal Aviation Administration would shut
down all New York City-area airports. The Port Authority of New York and
New Jersey ordered all bridges and tunnels into Manhattan closed. The
American Stock Exchange, the Nasdaq, and the New York Stock Exchange will
close.
3.
9:31 a.m.-President George W. Bush, speaking to elementary school children in
Sarasota, Florida, is informed of the tragedy and says the country has suffered
an “apparent terrorist attack.”
4.
9:43 a.m.-Hijacked American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the Pentagon; the
U.S. Capitol and White House’s West Wing were evacuated. Eventually, all
federal office buildings in Washington, D.C. would be evacuated. The FAA
halts all flight operations at U.S. airports, the first time in U.S. history that
national air traffic has been halted. All inbound transatlantic aircraft flying into
the U.S. are being diverted to Canada.
5.
9:55 a.m.-The south tower of the World Trade Center collapses. Soon after,
President Bush departs from Florida.
6.
10:10 a.m.-A portion of the Pentagon collapses. At the same time, Hijacked
United Airlines Flight 93 crashes in a field in Somerset County, Pennsylvania,
brought down by passengers who attempted to thwart the plans of the hijackers.
Later, officials say this plane could have been headed for three possible targets:
Camp David, the White House, or the U.S. Capitol Building.
7.
10:29 a.m.-The north tower of the World Trade Center collapses.
8.
10:57 a.m.-New York governor, George Pataki, announces that all state
government offices are closed.
9.
11:02 a.m.-New York City mayor, Rudolph “Rudy” Giuliani, urges New
Yorkers to stay at home and orders an evacuation of the area south of Canal
Street. Later in the day, Guiliani will urge New Yorkers to stay home
Wednesday.
10.
12:15 p.m.-The Immigration and Naturalization Service says U.S. borders with
Canada and Mexico are on the highest state of alert.
11.
1:04 p.m.-From Barksdale Air Force Base in Louisiana, President Bush announces U.S.
military is on high alert worldwide, saying that all appropriate security measures are
being taken. He asks for prayers for those killed or wounded in the attacks and says,
“Make no mistake, the United States will hunt down and punish those responsible for
these cowardly acts.” The president later leaves for the U.S. Strategic Command at
Offutt Air Force Base in Nebraska. In ½ hours, he will leave to return to Washington,
D.C. Air Force One is traveling with a three-fighter jet escort.
12.
2:49 a.m.-At a news conference, Mayor Giuliani says that subway and bus
service are partially restored in NYC. Asked about the number of people killed,
the mayor says, “I don’t want to speculate about that—more than any of us can
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bear.” For his handling of this crisis, Guiliani will be awarded “Person of the
Year” by Time magazine.
4:10 p.m.-Building 7 of the WTC complex is reported on fire.
5:25 p.m.-The 47-story Building 7 of the WTC complex collapses.
6:54 p.m.-President Bush arrives back at the White House.
7:45 p.m.-The New York Police Department says that at least 78 officers are
missing. The city also says that as many as half of the first 400 firefighters on
the scene were killed.
8:30 p.m.-President Bush addresses the nation, saying “thousands of lives were
suddenly ended by evil” and asks for prayers for the families and friends of
Tuesday’s victims. “These acts shattered steel, but they cannot dent the steel of
American resolve,” he says. The president says the U.S. government will make
no distinction between the terrorists who committed the acts and those who
harbor them. He adds that government offices will reopen Wednesday.
September 12, 2001:
a.
9 survivors (3 policemen and 6 firefighters) are found amidst the
rubble of the WTC.
b.
Mayor Giuliani warns the death toll will be in the thousands.
c.
President Bush labels the attacks “acts of war” and asks Congress to
find $20 billion to help rebuild and recover.
d.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) decides that
Tuesday’s terror strikes in the United States constitute an attack
against all 19 members, which commits them to respond militarily if
they deem force is necessary to protect security.
e.
The United Nations pulls its staff out of Afghanistan.
September 13, 2001:
a.
Military recruiting skyrockets as patriotic Americans prepare for
battle.
b.
A “national day of unity and mourning” is approved 100 to 0 by the
Senate. The House later approves the resolution 408 to 0.
c.
Secretary of Transportation, Norman Y. Mineta, announces new
security precautions which airports and airlines will be required to
implement. Security is increased to its highest level since the 1991
Gulf War.
d.
Bond trading and futures activity resume. Stock markets remain
closed for the longest stretch since World War II.
e.
Defense Departments says about 190 people died in the attack at the
Pentagon, including 64 aboard the hijacked plane.
f.
The New York mayor announces that 4,763 people are missing.
g.
Investigators find data recorder for United Flight 93 in Pennsylvania.
Later, officials say they will not release the audio or a transcript in
order to protect grieving families.
h.
Secretary of State Colin Powell says Osama bin Laden is the prime
suspect.
i.
White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer cites “real and credible
information” that the plane which slammed into the Pentagon was
originally intended to hit the White House.
September 14, 2001:
a.
President Bush declares a National Day of Prayer and Remembrance.
b.
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U.S. airlines resume operations and face difficulty with strict security
rules, frightened passengers, and rapidly mounting financial
problems.
c.
NFL, Collegiate, and high school football games, as well as other
major sports events, are canceled in the U.S.
d.
Congress and White House officials give consent to military action in
response to Tuesday’s terrorist attacks and provide $40 billion
package to aid retaliation and rebuilding, twice the amount President
Bush had requested.
e.
Americans of many faiths hold services and vigils to honor the
victims. Bush and other dignitaries gather for service at National
Cathedral in Washington.
f.
Searchers find flight data and voice recorders of hijacked plane that
crashed into the Pentagon.
g.
Authorities make their first arrest in the investigation: one of the
men detained at New York’s Kennedy Airport is arrested as a
material witness.
h.
President Bush arrives in New York City to see the site of the former
World Trade Center.
September 15, 2001:
a.
President Bush meets with his national security advisers at Camp
David and afterward, for the first time, singles out suspected terrorist
Osama bin Laden as a “prime suspect” in Tuesday’s attacks.
b.
Coast Guard cutters patrol ports and waterways at unprecedented
levels from New York harbor to San Diego.
c.
F-15 Eagles and F-16 Fighting Falcons fly combat patrols over
Washington, New York, and other major cities. The patrols over
Washington and New York will continue into 2002.
d.
President Bush signs an order authorizing Pentagon officials to call
up 35,000 Reserves.
September 16, 2001:
Funeral and memorial services begin for firefighters and individuals who died
in Tuesday’s attack.
September 17, 2001:
a.
Wall Street reopens for the first time since the previous week’s
terrorist attacks.
b.
The Federal Reserve cuts interest rates by half a percentage point.
September 18, 2001:
a.
One week after the attack, the nation pauses at 8:45 A.M. EST for a
moment of silence in honor of the victims.
b.
Media reports that over 50 countries lost citizens in the World Trade
Center attack.
c.
Warplanes begin flying overseas from U.S. bases as the Pentagon
ordered dozens of fighters, bombers, and other aircraft to the Persian
Gulf, Indian Ocean, and—in an unprecedented move—the two
former Soviet republics of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
September 19, 2001:
The USS Theodore Roosevelt aircraft carrier leaves from the pier at Naval
Station Norfolk headed to the Mediterranean, then to the Persian Gulf.
September 20, 2001:
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President Bush gives a very successful address to Congress and the nation
outlining the goals in the new war on terrorism. In a difficult time, Bush gave
the nation what it needed in a Commander in Chief—simple in his speech, clear
in is vision, and confident in his ultimate success. The president has warned the
nation to be patient. Some officials are envisioning a war that could last 50
years in order to build intelligence networks to infiltrate and bust up terror cells
worldwide. As a model for fashioning a long-term game plan, Bush aides
examined old cold-war national-security documents, such as NSC-68, a plan the
Truman Administration drafted in 1950 to contain the Soviets.
As of December 5, 2001, there were 6 U.S. military fatalities in Operation
Enduring Freedom; the number of people missing or dead in the World Trade
Center attacks was listed at 3,047. By December 19, the number of fatalities
was revised to 2,992. 8 journalists were killed covering the war in Afghanistan.
In December, 2001, an American was taken into military custody in Afghanistan
after fighting with the Taliban regime. John Walker-Lindh converted to Islam
four years earlier after reading The Autobiography of Malcolm X, left the United
States in 2000 to train at al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan, and had taken the
name of Sulayman Al-Lindh. Walker-Lindh was brought back in January, 2002
to face trial in the United States, since he was an American citizen.
In an amateur videotape released by the Pentagon (Dec. 13, 2001-it had been
found earlier in a house overtaken by anti-Taliban forces), Osama bin Laden
was shown discussing the events leading up to September 11 th, saying the event
“benefited Islam greatly.” In the tape, bin Laden discussed some of the planning
that led to the attacks, and recalled tuning in to the radio to hear American news
broadcasts of the attack. “They were overjoyed when the first plane hit the
building,” he said of others listening with him that day. “So I said to them: Be
patient. At the end of the newscast, they reported that a plane just hit the World
Trade Center.” Another man in the tape said, “Allah be praised.” bin Laden
recalled, “After a little while, they announced that another plane had hit the
World Trade Center; the brothers who heard the news were overjoyed by it.”
References to jihad (holy war) were made throughout the tape. bin Laden made
references to the planning: “We calculated in advance the number of casualties
who would be killed based on the position of the tower. We calculated that the
floors that would be hit would be three or floors. I was the most optimistic of
them all. Due to my experience in this field, I was thinking that the fire from the
gas in the plane would melt the iron structure of the building and collapse the
area where the plane hit, and all the floors above it only. This is all that we had
hoped for,” as he gestured with one hand horizontal striking his other hand, held
vertically, as if a plane hitting a building.
The most photo from the September, 2001 tragedy was of three New York City
firefighters displaying a U.S. flag amid the rubble of the World Trade Center.
George Johnson, Dan McWilliams and Billy Eisengrein were the firefighters
who were the object of photographer Thomas Franklin of The Record in Bergen
County, New Jersey. The photo echoed the famous World War II image of U.S.
Marines raising the U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi on Iwo Jima. The photo
became a testament to America’s enduring resolve. In January, 2002, a statue of
the photo was unveiled, creating controversy because instead of the 3
firefighters being portrayed accurately, the images of the firefighters included
one white man, a Hispanic, and a Black American.
December 22, 2001-Richard C. Reid, believed to be linked to al-Qaeda, is
apprehended by other passengers on a flight from Paris to Miami after he is
spotted trying to ignite explosives in his shoes.
January, 2002-158 suspected terrorists, described as the most hard-core al-Qaida
terrorists and Taliban fighters, are brought to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base,
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Cuba to be held in a makeshift detainment center at Camp X-Ray. The United
States was critized for holding prisoners of war, but President Bush and
Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld considers the captured fighters to be
“unlawful combatants” and “detainees” rather than “prisoners of war,” since
they do not represent a nation or foreign government. A delegation of U.S.
Congressmen toured the detention facility and said conditions were very
humane.
January 29, 2002-In his State of the Union address, President George W. Bush
in a vital act of world leadership declared a declaration against the “axis of evil”
referring to 3 nations where there are weapons of mass destruction in hostile
hands. (The Economist, 2-2002)
a.
Iraq-After the 1991 Persian Gulf War, dictator Saddam Hussein was
discovered to be only months away from producing an atomic bomb
and had already done tests on a radiological “dirty bomb.” His
program was closed, but “his pool of trained scientists remains, and
he might have a nuclear device within a few years.” When United
Nations weapons inspectors were banished three years ago, they were
convinced that Saddam had hidden an arsenal of VX nerve gas and
“a whole range of biological agents and toxins.”)
b.
Iran-According to the Monterey Center for Nonproliferation Studies,
Iran, under the leadership of Ayatullah Ali Khamenei, has an arsenal
of chemical weapons and, according to the U.S. government, has
been secretly producing biological weapons. It is getting Russian
help on nuclear power and assistance on missiles from Russia and
China.
c.
North Korea-Caught in 1992 producing more plutonium than it
admitted to making, North Korean president Kim Jong II agreed in
1994 to stop producing it in exchange for Western nations’ help with
less-dangerous nuclear technology. But it has blocked
implementation of the agreement. North Korea has large stocks of
chemical weapons and a well-developed biological weapons
program. It is also developing a missile capable of reaching the
United States.
The three countries don’t constitute a cooperative “axis” as Germany, Italy,
and Japan did in World War II, but there is no question that they are “evil.”
They have a history of menacing their own people. If just one of the three
regimes could be toppled—most likely Iraq’s first—the others might be scared
into line.
March 4, 2002-Number of Americans killed in the Afghan war: 30; Number of
those killed who died in airplane or helicopter crashes: 21.