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EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
A CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY
VOLUME 6 - PHILADELPHIA- 1731-1910
BY
DR PETER MOSES
[BOOK 258]
JULY 2010
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
WHO IS JESUS CHRIST?
Professor Simon Greenleaf was one of the most eminent lawyers of all time. His “Laws of Evidence” for many years were
accepted by all States in the United States as the standard methodology for evaluating cases. He was teaching law at a
university in the United States when one of his students asked Professor Greenleaf if he would apply his “Laws of
Evidence” to evaluate an historical figure. When Greenleaf agreed to the project he asked the student who was to be the
subject of the review. The student replied that the person to be examined would be Jesus Christ. Professor Greenleaf
agreed to undertake the examination of Jesus Christ and as a result, when he had finished the review, Simon Greenleaf
personally accepted the Lord Jesus Christ as his Saviour.
Professor Greenleaf then sent an open letter to all jurists in the United States saying in part “I personally have
investigated one called Jesus Christ. I have found the evidence concerning him to be historically accurate. I have also
discovered that Jesus Christ is more than a human being, he is either God or nothing and having examined the evidence
it is impossible to conclude other than he is God. Having concluded that he is God I have accepted him as my personal
Saviour. I urge all members of the legal profession to use the “Laws of Evidence” to investigate the person of the Lord
Jesus Christ and if you find that he is wrong expose him as a faker but if not consider him as your Saviour and Lord”
HOW CAN I BE SAVED?
Salvation is available for all members of the human race.
Salvation is the most important undertaking in all of God's universe. The salvation of sinners is never on the basis of
God's merely passing over or closing His eyes to sin. God saves sinners on a completely righteous basis consistent with
the divine holiness of His character. This is called grace. It relies on God so man cannot work for salvation, neither can
he deserve it. We need to realise that the creation of this vast unmeasured universe was far less an undertaking than
the working out of God's plan to save sinners.
However the acceptance of God's salvation by the sinner is the most simple thing in all of life. One need not be rich, nor
wise, nor educated. Age is no barrier nor the colour of one's skin. The reception of the enormous benefits of God's
redemption is based upon the simplest of terms so that there is no one in all this wide universe who need be turned
away.
How do I become a Christian?
There is but one simple step divided into three parts. First of all I have to recognise that I am a sinner (Romans 3:23;
6:23; Ezekiel 18:4; John 5:24).
Secondly, realising that if I want a relationship with Almighty God who is perfect, and recognising that I am not perfect, I
need to look to the Lord Jesus Christ as the only Saviour (I Corinthians 15:3; 1 Peter 2:24; Isaiah 53:6; John 3:16).
Thirdly, by the exercise of my own free will I personally receive the Lord Jesus Christ as my Saviour, believing that He
died personally for me and that He is what He claims to be in an individual, personal and living way (John 1:12; 3:36;
Acts 16:31; 4:12).
The results of Salvation
The results of this are unbelievably wonderful:
My sins are taken away (John 1:29),
I possess eternal life now (I John 5:11,12),
I become a new creature in Christ (2 Corinthians 5:17),
The Holy Spirit takes up His residence in my life (I Corinthians 6:19),
And I will never perish (John 10:28-30).
This truthfully is life's greatest transaction. This is the goal of all people; this is the ultimate of our existence. We invite
and exhort any reader who has not become a Christian by trusting in the Lord Jesus Christ to follow these simple
instructions and be born again eternally into God's family (Matthew 11:28; John 1:12; Acts 4:12; 16:31).
© Evangelical Bible College of Western Australia, 2003
Publishers - Evangelical Bible College of Western Australia
Many other Christian resources are available freely from our internet web site: www.ebcwa.org.au
For further information contact Brian Huggett at PO Box 1195, Carnarvon 6701, Australia or [email protected]
We encourage you to freely copy and distribute these materials to your Pastor and friends. You only, need written
permission from EBCWA if you intend using the materials in publications for resale. We encourage wide distribution
freely!
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
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EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
INTRODUCTION
The series of seven books which make up the Chronology of the Church Age involve a wide spectrum of
people. These people and events are provided in the form of micro biographies which in themselves are
obviously not comprehensive. They are however indexed to allow for those interested in the subject to
produce and amplify material into a form of books on various subjects. To complement this series a number
of outline books and guidelines have been produced including the Archbishops of Canterbury, The Roman
Empire and Christianity, The Bishops and Popes of Rome and the Bishops and Patriarchs of Constantinople,
Hymn Writers and Protestant Missionaries.
DEFINITIONS
It is important to define two specific phrases used to present this work, the Saints and the Church Age.
“The Saints” – In many denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church
“saints” are defined and named by the denomination to designate a person whom they believe has served
their group in an outstanding manner.
However the Biblical definition of a “saint” or one who is sanctified is a person who has trusted the Lord
Jesus Christ as their Saviour and have therefore been sanctified or set apart by God as a member of the
Body of Christ. The Bible also tells us that we will be known by the spiritual fruit we produce. We therefore in
our daily walk need to be “fruit inspectors” and to a certain extent are able to do this for historical figures
portrayed in these biographies. Therefore the appendage “saint” associated with various denominations has
not been used specifically in these volumes
“The Church Age” – It should be noted that this is not a “Church Chronology” as that would be a history of
the “Saints” alone, but it is a Church Age Chronology showing how believers and unbelievers have interacted
over the last 2000 years in Christianity and Christendom.
In the gospels the Lord Jesus Christ said “On this rock I will build my church” showing that the Church at the
time of His Ministry was still in the future. The Church Age in fact started on the Day of Pentecost and will
terminate when our Lord returns for His Church in the future. This is known as the Rapture of the Church.
THE BOOK OF THE REVELATION AND THE CHURCH AGE
The last book of the Bible, the Book of the Revelation, viewed in a literal and futurist way can be divided into
a number of sequential sections commencing with the Revelation of Christ Himself in chapter 1, a group of
seven churches in chapters 2-3, the resurrected church in chapters 4 and 5, the Tribulation period from
chapter 6 to 18, the Second Coming of the Lord Jesus Christ in chapter 19, the Millennial reign of Christ in
chapter 20 and Eternity Future in chapters 21 and 22.
SEQUENCE OF CHURCHES IN CHAPTERS 2 and 3
CHURCH 1
CHURCH 2
CHURCH 3
CHURCH 4
CHURCH 5
CHURCH 6
CHURCH 7
EPHESUS
SMYRNA
PERGAMOS
THYATIRA
SARDIS
PHILADELPHIA
LAODICEA
The First Century Church
The Persecuted Church
The State Church
The Universal Church
The Reformation Church
The Missionary Church
The Apostate Church
32-96 AD
97-311 AD
312-589 AD
590-1510 AD
1511-1730 AD
1731-1910 AD
1911 onwards
This book is therefore the sixth of seven volumes based on the sequence and characteristics of the churches
in the order given in Revelation 2 and 3. When viewed as a whole the predominant church in the sequence
from Pentecost to the Rapture clearly demonstrates that these seven volumes can be related back in
sequence to the type of predominant church in sequence as tabulated above.[see book 260 for the complete
seven volumes in one.]
Note – For a detailed study of the Book of the Revelation please see EBCWA Book 97-2
I must thank Mrs Joan Huggett for her outstanding efforts in assisting me so greatly in this work
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
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VOLUME 6.
DOMINANT CHURCH: PHILADEPHIA – MISSIONARY CHURCH 1750-1910 AD
PHILADELPHIA REVELATION 3:7-13
3:7 And to the angel of the church in Philadelphia write; These things saith he that is holy, he that is
true, he that hath the key of David, he that openeth, and no man shutteth; and shutteth, and no man
openeth; 8 I know thy works: behold, I have set before thee an open door, and no man can shut it:
for thou hast a little strength, and hast kept my word, and hast not denied my name. 9 Behold, I will
make them of the synagogue of Satan, which say they are Jews, and are not, but do lie; behold, I will
make them to come and worship before thy feet, and to know that I have loved thee. 10 Because
thou hast kept the word of my patience, I also will keep thee from the hour of temptation, which shall
come upon all the world, to try them that dwell upon the earth. 11 Behold, I come quickly: hold that
fast which thou hast, that no man take thy crown. 12 Him that overcometh will I make a pillar in the
temple of my God, and he shall go no more out: and I will write upon him the name of my God, and
the name of the city of my God, which is new Jerusalem, which cometh down out of heaven from my
God: and I will write upon him my new name. 13 He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit
saith unto the churches.
INTRODUCTION
Philadelphia means "brotherly love." This church reflected the Biblical teaching of John. 13:34-35. The Lord
Jesus Christ who holds the keys of history sets before this Church an open door of service (cf. 1 Corinthians.
16:9; Colossians 4:3). This missionary minded church would have victory over the Synagogue of Satan, and
because of faithful perseverance, would be kept from the "hour (time) of tribulation." The overcomer is
promised a permanent place of service in God's eternal temple bearing the name of God.
Historically Philadelphia represents church history of 1700 to 1900 AD During this time we have the great
mission outreach of the Wesleys, Taylors, and Careys, among others. China, India, and Africa became
centres of great evangelistic work. This missionary zeal will continue until the Rapture removes the true
church from Tribulation.
This removal is verified in such passages as 1 Thessalonians. 1:910, 4:13-18, 5:9 as well as Revelation 1:19
and 4:1. In addition, the word "church" is mentioned all the way up to Revelation 4:1 (a picture of the
Rapture) and from here "Israel" becomes the focus. The reason for this is that the Tribulation is the "time of
Jacob's trouble" (Jeremiah. 30:7) to refine and regenerate the nation of Israel. God never deals with Israel
and the Church at the same time until the Millennium.
The description of Christ in verse 7 comes from Revelation 1:18 picturing Christ as the one with the authority
to open and close doors. This is the only church other than that of Smyrna which has no condemnation set
against it. Christ finds nothing against this church and is satisfied with it. Christ opens up again the door of
service. We need to be walking with the Lord to have the privilege to serve him. We as Christians can get
windows of opportunity and it is up to us to be sensitive to them and work for the Lord in His strength.
In verse 8 the Lord Jesus Christ is seen as omniscient, He is all knowing. He had set some opportunities by
opening a door and had kept it open. They had a little strength which indicates that they worked on the basis
of grace. During the period of 1700-1900 there was virtually no place where a missionary could not go. Every
place was open to them. Today more and more countries are closing their doors to missionaries. They had
little power, it was a minority supporting these missionaries. Yet with a little power they were commended for
it.
The Lord Jesus Christ knows our works and attitudes. It is only when they conform to His will that we are
able to use the door He has opened. The little strength indicates that they are basing their works on His
grace and not relying on their own strength. God is in control and no one can shut the door other than God.
The church in general and we specifically should be faithful.
The church at Philadelphia was also promised in verse 9 submission and worship from those who claim to
be Jews or the people of God and are not. - Hosea 1:8-9, 2:23 makes it clear that when Israel are on the
sideline of God’s program and are considered “not my people”. In the future however they will, again become
my people. There is an antagonism between the church and the Jews who as a nation have been set aside
temporarily in God’s plan. In the Tribulation however the Jews will come into their own and will see a
massive conversion.
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It is of interest that it is during this time that Jewish missions came into its own and by 1900 some 250,000
came to Christ. Jewish missions first began in Germany, took root in England and finally came to fruition in
the United States. It was a time when the natural branches were again regrafted in the olive tree.
In verse 10 "temptation" means trial or testing. The testing will be a universal time of hardship which will test
the whole population of the world. God will protect those who are his and will not allow them to be tested
above what they able to bear. This universal period of severe testing which comes immediately before the
Second Advent of the Lord Jesus Christ is called the Tribulation. The believing church will not go through
this period as the Rapture of the Church occurs before this time.
"Hold that fast" indicates that there needs to be continued persistence The Lord tells them to keep on doing
what they are doing until He comes. From the above it appears it is possible that people will be able to lose
their crowns. The Lord is coming back swiftly when he comes and will catch people unawares who are not
ready. We need to have stickability in the Christian life. We can lose rewards but we cannot lose our
salvation.
To the believer in verse 12 the Lord promises to remember them. In the ancient world the deeds of the great
people in a community were inscribed on the pillars of the most important buildings, usually a temple so that
they would be recorded as long as the settlement lasted. The Lord will especially honour us if we are faithful
to Him. The deeds that we do in the power of the Spirit will be recorded. He is going to write the name of
God, the New Jerusalem and a new name. This talks of possession of the believer by God and His
protection. We are in enemy territory but in fellowship with God we are invincible.
1731-1740 AD
1731
JONES, GRIFFITH [1683-1761] – Welsh preacher and educator who was ordained in the
established church in 1709. He was a travelling preacher and keen to improve religious and
social conditions in Wales and established his first charity school in 1730, where children and
adults were taught by day and night to read the Bible in Welsh; education grew despite
ecclesiastical opposition. Teachers travelled in circuit and schools multiplied. Before his death
over 3000 schools were opened and 150,000 taught. Daniel Rowland [see 1752] founder of
Welsh Methodism was supposedly converted his ministry.
MELETIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1731-1737] see 1707 and 1737
METHODISM – A movement which originated in a search for an effective method to lead
Christians towards the goal of Scriptural holiness. This name was applied to members of the
Wesley's Holy Club at Oxford. Their disciplined, methodical practices gave rise to what Charles
Wesley called “the harmless nickname of Methodist”. His brother John defined it “a Methodist is
one who lives according to the method laid down in the Bible”. After the evangelical conversion
of George Whitefield [see 1737] and the Wesley’s [see 1738], the title Methodist was attached to
all who were influenced by them whether within the Church of England or beyond. Methodism is
now accepted as a general term to cover the worldwide family of Methodist churches, stemming
from Wesley’s societies, most of which are affiliated to the World Methodist Council.
1732
BERKELEY, GEORGE [1685-1753] – Irish Bishop of Cloyne who was the most brilliant theistic
philosopher of his age. He wrote "Alciphron" in 1732 and was enthusiastic regarding missionary
work and unsuccessfully proposed a college in Bermuda.
DOBER, JOHANN LEONHARD [1706-1766] – Moravian brethren [see 1722] leader. He was a
potter by trade and came to Herrnhut in 1725 where he soon became one of the most significant
spiritual figures. In 1732 Dober and David Nitschmann [see 1735] volunteered to go to St
Thomas, Virgin Islands, as the first Moravian missionaries. Unable to practice his trade Dober
supported himself by working as a plantation watchman. He tried to evangelise Negro slaves on
the island but his black congregation numbered only four when he left in 1734. He returned to
become superintending elder at Herrnhut and he was replaced by a group of 14 missionaries. He
was consecrated bishop of the Moravian congregations in Europe in 1747.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN [1706-1790] – Inventor, author, and diplomat. He left school at the age
of 10 to help with his father's candle and soap business. He became apprenticed to a printer who
was his half-brother. He achieved great success in several fields as publisher, author,
businessmen, philanthropist, moralist, inventor, scientist, civil servant, and statesman. He
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influenced American religious thought and public morality through his writings, especially through
his widely read Poor Richards Almanac 1732-57. Here he extolled the virtues of hard work, thrift,
moderation, and common sense. However he personally rejected the distinctive doctrines of
Orthodox Christianity in favour of an optimistic natural religion. He was a Deist who believed that
nature rather than Scripture is the place where human reason recognises God. He admired
Jesus and his teachings, but doubted his divinity, and believed that the basis of religion was to
do good to men.
PROTESTANT DISSENTING DEPUTIES – Since 1732 these have consisted of two members of
each congregation of the Presbyterians, Congregationalist, and Baptist denominations within 12
miles of the city of London. From this large body which usually met only once or twice a year the
committee of 21 was chosen in order by all legal means to lead the fight for obtaining civil rights
for Protestant Dissenters. The first meeting in 1732 was at the Meeting House in Silver Street
London. Through their committee these deputies were an effective force in 18th and 19th century
politics as by their influence Nonconformists were given the right to be buried in churchyards, to
register their children in the civil registers of births, and to enter universities of Oxford and
Cambridge without offence to their conscience.
REDEMPTORISTS – A name commonly given to the “Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer”
a community of priests and lay brothers founded by Alphonsous Maria di Ligouri [see 1726] at
Scala Italy in 1732 for mission work among the poor. It has steadfastly refused to engage in
purely educational activities. Its purpose is the sanctification of members through the imitation of
Christ and through preaching. The Order received papal approval in 1749. Under Clement
Hofbaeur [see 1785] the Redemptorists moved across the Alps into northern Europe and they
entered the United States in 1832 and England in 1843.
SPANGENBERG, AUGUST GOTTLIEB [1704-1792] – Moravian missionary and church leader
who first studied law and then theology and finally became a teacher in Halle. When he joined
the Herrnhut [see 1722] community in 1732, Zinzendorf [see 1727] assigned him to conduct legal
negotiations with various European colonial powers for permission to establish mission works
abroad. He took personal charge of the Moravian group which settled in Georgia America in
1735, and greeted and advised John Wesley who arrived there in February the following year.
He then joined a group in Pennsylvania as a simple farmer and within a short time was
preaching to the Indians. Spangenberg was appointed Zinzendorf's successor in 1760 and he
returned to Herrnhut two years later and led the group until his death.
1733
BURGHERS – They were a Scottish Presbyterian secessionist group who in 1733 made their
first secession from the Church of Scotland because of patronage. Despite efforts by the general
assemblies of 1732 and 1736 to effect reconciliation continued splitting occurred. The Burghers
split into two, the Burghers and Anti Burghers who both split into the New Lichts and the Auld
Lichts. The New Lichts of both parties formed the United Secession Church in 1820. The Auld
Licht Anti Burghers joined the Free Church of Scotland in 1852 whilst the Auld Lichts Burghers
reunited with the Church of Scotland in 1839.
DAVID, CHRISTIAN [1691-1751] – Moravian Brethren leader, born in Moravia, and was a
carpenter by trade. He was converted in 1717 and became a lay evangelist. In 1722 he met
Count Zinzendorf in 1727 and helped him to found the Christian community of Herrnhut on his
estate, and recruited settlers from the exiled Brethren in Moravia. In 1733 David led a group of
missionaries to Greenland to assist the Norwegian pioneer Hans Egede [see 1721] but sharp
differences developed between them. David, strongly self willed and at times intolerant criticised
Egede’s Lutheran orthodoxy while the latter resented the sentimental nature of the Moravian
message. However by 1736 they had been reconciled. The work in Greenland prospered. David
travelled extensively in Europe, returned to Greenland in 1747 with more missionaries and built a
church and mission residence.
MODERATES – The name given to various groups of Scottish ministers in the 18th and early
19th centuries. Their basic position was that because of “our present happy constitution in
Church and State” secured by the Revolution Settlement of 1690, hardships such as the
presentation of ministers to parishes by lay patrons and the necessity of subscribing to the
Westminster Confession of Faith could be tolerated. Their opponents regarded lay patronage as
a serious infringement of the rights of the church and many seceded from the prevailing party in
the Church of Scotland in 1733, in 1761, and most notably in the Disruption of 1843. The
Moderates were also interested in science, history and philosophy and helped to found the Royal
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Society of Edinburgh.
SERAPHEIM I – Patriarch of Constantinople [1733-1734] succeeded Jeremias III [see 1716].
There is no additional information readily available.
WHEELOCK, ELEAZAR [1711-1779] – Congregational minister, founder and first president of
Dartmouth. Wheelock graduated from Yale in 1733. While at Yale he was a member of a group
similar to the Holy Club at Oxford of which the Wesleys and Whitefield were members. During
the first year of his pastorate a revival broke out in his church under the influence of Jonathan
Edwards’ [see 1740] ministry in Massachusetts. During the Great Awakening [see 1740],
Wheelock gave himself unstintingly to promotion of revival, preaching on the north-east coast of
America. He was interested in converting and educating the Indians and received from Col
Joshua More a gift of a house and schoolhouse at Lebanon to aid in his work this becoming
known as More's Charity School. Later they moved to Hanover, New Hampshire and the facility
was renamed Dartmouth College.
1734
BENGEL, JOHANN [1687-1752] – Lutheran minister and theologian who trained at Tubingen
and whose chief work was a critical edition of the New Testament published in 1734 which
founded textural criticism. This work was followed by a verse by verse commentary on the New
Testament which was translated by John Wesley [see 1738] and incorporated into his “Notes
upon the New Testament [1755].
NEOPHYTUS VI – Patriarch of Constantinople [1734-1740, 1743-1744] succeeded Serapheim I
[see 1733]. There is no additional information readily available.
REVIVALISM – The spontaneous spiritual awakening by the Holy Spirit among professing
Christians in the churches, which results in a deepening religious experience, holy living,
evangelism and missions, the founding of educational and philanthropic institutions, and social
reform. Revival should not be confused with evangelism which is the result of revival. Revival
has been linked with the Anabaptists, Puritans, and Pietists, and has mainly occurred in
Protestantism since the Reformation. As a determinative influence in America, revivalism may be
dated from the Great Awakening which began New Jersey after 1720. In 1734 revivals broke out
in New England under the preaching of Jonathan Edwards and by 1740 when George Whitefield
arrived bearing the spirit of the Wesleyan revival in England, the Awakening was widespread in
America. The Second Awakening occurred mainly among middle and upper-class Anglicans in
England after 1790 and in America in college awakenings such as that in Yale under Timothy
Dwight in 1802 and in the Western American frontier camp meetings. Charles Finney’s urban
revival meetings of the 1830s have been considered a later flowering of the Second Great
Awakening. After the Civil War there were the professional, planned, urban mass evangelistic
meetings held in public in auditoriums by such men as D.L. Moody and R.A. Torrey and in the
20th century by Billy Sunday and Billy Graham. There have been no general revivals in Western
industrialised societies since the 1904 Welsh revival which stimulated revival world wide but
there have been regional revival in less advanced societies such as in Korea, East Africa and
Ethiopia.
WALCH, JOHANN GEORG [1693-1775] – Protestant theologian who was educated Jena and
taught there all his life as a professor of philosophy, poetry, and finally theology in 1734. He
wrote extensively on Lutheran Orthodoxy and also edited Luther’s works in 24 volumes. His sons
Johann [1725-1778] and Christian [1726-1784] were also noted Lutheran theologians.
1735
BUTLER, ALBAN [1711-1773] – Catholic professor who was educated at the Roman seminary at
Douai from the age of eight as both of his parents had died. He became a professor of
philosophy and then divinity at the seminary being ordained as a priest in 1735. After a period as
chaplain to the duke of Norfolk he went to Paris where he completed a large scale history of the
fathers, martyrs and saints with 1600 biographies. He spent the last seven years of his life as
president of the English College at St Omer in France.
HARRIS, HOWEL [1714-1773] – Welsh preacher of a humble family background who was
converted in 1735. He went to Oxford and returned to Wales to begin a campaign of tireless
evangelism. He aroused first the south by his stately appearance, powerful voice, and
overwhelming passion, and though often threatened by mobs and magistrates he extended his
activities with equal success to the north in 1739. Harris must be regarded as the principal
founder of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodism and the greatest spiritual force in the principality of
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his day. He was shy and awkward in the presence of other evangelical leaders, and quarrelled
with both Rowland and Whitefield [see 1737]. In 1752 he retired to a house in Trevecca Park
which he built up as the centre for revivalist activity. In this he was supported by the Countess of
Huntingdon who after 1768 sent her own students to train there.
HOLY CLUB – The name derisively given to the group of earnest Methodists which in the early
1730’s met in John Wesley's rooms at Lincoln College Oxford and included Charles Wesley,
Benjamin Ingham, and George Whitefield. Membership was never more than 25, and when John
Wesley left Oxford in 1735 the group disintegrated. The club owed much to Moravian example
and to earlier religious societies which flourished in the Anglican church.
LATIN AMERICA [see also 1510 and 1844] – Early Protestantism. Attempts to plant
Protestantism in Latin America were made by the French Huguenots in 1555 and the Dutch
Reformed in 1624 and both were effectively crushed by the Catholic Portuguese. The German
Moravians settled permanently in British Guiana in 1735 and carried on successful evangelistic
work among the Arawak Indians in Dutch Guiana. Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and Chile received
European immigrants in the 19th century, among whom were colonies of Lutherans, Scots
Presbyterians, Anglicans, and Italian Waldensians. Their religious influence however was
typically confined to their own ethnic communities.
NITSCHMANN, DAVID [1696-1772] – Moravian missionary and bishop who was a carpenter by
trade and joined the Herrnhut community as an evangelist. In 1732 he accompanied J.L. Dober
[see 1732] on the first Moravian Brethren mission to the Negro slaves on St Thomas, Virgin
Islands, but returned to Germany after a few months. In 1735 he was the first Moravian and to be
consecrated bishop thus establishing the principle of historical succession among the Brethren.
Immediately after this he led a group of sixteen missionaries to the colony of Georgia in North
America and made a deep impression on John Wesley who was on the same ship. Constantly
active as a bishop he made at least 50 sea voyages before his death in Bethlehem
Pennsylvania, a settlement that he had founded.
TENNENT, WILLIAM [1673-1746] – Presbyterian minister and educator who was born in Ireland
and graduated from Edinburgh and was ordained a priest in the Church of Ireland. About 1717
he migrated to Philadelphia where he was admitted to the Presbyterian ministry. He held a
number of pastorates during his ministry. About 1735 he built a small log building on his property
where he educated his three younger sons for the ministry. Some 15 other men were trained in
what came to be derisively called the Log College by its detractors because the influential young
men trained there were active revivalists who did not need the educational requirements set by
the Philadelphia Synod. Tennent made a great contribution to Presbyterian history especially in
the Great Awakening [see 1740]. One of his sons was Gilbert Tennent [see 1740].
WALES [see also 1567] – The evangelical revival in Wales started in 1735 under the leadership
of Howell Harris [see above] who was soon joined by such men as Daniel Rowland [see 1763]
and William Williams [see 1744]. By about 1780 this revival was developing into a massive folk
movement with far-reaching social and cultural effects. The Methodists formed the Calvinistic
Methodists in 1811. It left no aspect of life in the nation untouched and by the Victorian Age it
was a major force in education, culture, and politics. Welsh religious life throughout the 19th
century continued to be rebuilt by religious revivals, the greatest of which occurred in 1859-1860
and 1904-1905. However having reached a new zenith about 1908, Welsh Christianity ran into
great difficulties and began to decline being affected by the World War I and the intrusion of antiChristian philosophy.
1736
BUTLER, JOSEPH [1692-1752] – Bishop of Durham [1750-1752], the son of a Presbyterian
draper who studied at Oxford and owed his rise to the level of bishop, to some extent, to his
friendship with Queen Caroline. He was the author of "Analogy of Religion" in 1736. This was the
greatest theological book of its age and did more than any other book to refute deism. He argued
that fact should support religion with the order found in nature paralleled by revelation suggesting
joint authorship by God. It influenced writers such as David Hume [see 1739] and John Newman
[see 1845].
ZEISBERGER, DAVID [1721-1808] – Moravian missionary to American Indians for 63 years. He
was born in Moravia and when he was five the family fled to Herrnhut in Saxony. In 1736 the
parents joined the Moravian colony in Georgia, David following two years later. In 1745 after
moving to Pennsylvania he began his missionary work with such acceptance that the Six Nations
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made him a keeper of their archives. His greatest work however was with the Delawares and
demonstrates the frustration of Indian missions. Persecuted in Pennsylvania in 1772 they
migrated to Ohio where their settlements were destroyed in the Revolution. Particularly shocking
was the massacre in 1782 by colonial militia. He accompanied the Indians to Michigan and finally
to Canada. In 1798 Congress restored the Indians land, so he returned to Ohio and built
Goshen.
1737
COSMAS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1737-1746] see 1742and 1746
CRUDEN, ALEXANDER [1699-1770] – Scottish author of the famous Concordance first
published in 1737 which is still a standard reference guide to the King James Version. It was not
a financial success. Soon after graduating from Aberdeen he had a mental breakdown and was
confined to an asylum on three occasions. On his release after his first incarceration in 1722 he
went to London where he opened a bookstore and became a proof reader. The appearance of
the 2nd and 3rd editions of the concordance won Cruden recognition and was profitable. He
influenced the preaching of Wesley and came to think of himself as a guardian of the nations
morals calling himself “Alexander the Corrector”.
GREY NUNS – A name given to the Sisters of Charity who were founded by Madame d’Youville
in Montréal in 1737 as a small community of women devoted to the care of the sick. Their Rule
[1745], besides the usual three vows, included a promise to devote their lives to the relief of
suffering. They persisted in their dedication despite hostility and invective. They were called the
grey nuns because of the colour of their habit.
PARTHENIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1737-1766] see 1731 and 1766
POTTER, JOHN – Archbishop of Canterbury [1737-1747]. He was the son of a linen-draper
at Wakefield, Yorkshire. At the age of fourteen he entered University College, Oxford and in
1694 he was elected fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Besides holding several livings he
became, in 1704, chaplain to Archbishop Tenison, and shortly afterwards was made chaplain-inordinary to Queen Anne. From 1708 he was regius professor of divinity and canon of Christ
Church, Oxford; and from 1715 he was bishop of Oxford. He took a prominent part in the
controversy with Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of Bangor as even though Potter was a notable Whig,
he was a high churchman and had opposed Hoadly. In January 1737 Potter was unexpectedly
appointed to succeed William Wake in the see of Canterbury. While in that seat, he continued to
represent a high church position, but he was also ineffective at restoring the Convocation. He
died on 10 October 1747. He succeeded William Wake [see 1715] and was succeeded by
Thomas Herring [see 1747].
WHITEFIELD, GEORGE [1714-1770] – English preacher who was educated at Oxford where he
associated with those who formed the “Holy Club” and who would later be known as the first
Methodists. At Oxford he experienced an evangelical conversion and was subsequently
ordained. His first sermon in Gloucester, his native town, was of such fervour that a complaint
was made to the bishop that he had driven fifteen people mad. He accepted an invitation from
John and Charles Wesley [see 1738] to go to Georgia where with the exception of a notable visit
home he remained from 1737 to 1741. The visit home included his first attempt at open-air
preaching in Bristol. He was to continue that practice until the end of his life, regularly delivering
up to twenty sermons a week and travelling vast distances including 14 visits to Scotland and no
less than seven journeys to America where he eventually died. He argued with the Wesleys over
salvation having a Calvinistic viewpoint compared with the Arminian view of the brothers. J.C.
Ryle has justly claimed that no preacher had ever retained his hold on his hearers so entirely as
Whitefield did for 34 years.
1738
WESLEY, CHARLES [1707-1778] – Hymn writer who was the 18th child of Samuel and Susanna
Wesley. Charles was educated at Oxford and was instrumental in forming the “Holy Club” there
and in 1735. He joined his brother John in an abortive mission to Georgia acting as secretary to
the governor James Oglethorpe. On his return to England he came under the influence of Peter
Boehler [see 1748] the Moravian. Lying ill in the house of John Bray he first read Luther on
Galatians. On Whitsunday 1738 he experienced an evangelical conversion three days before his
brother John. Charles now threw himself into the work of evangelism. He began in the house of
friends, visited the prisons, and preached in the churches until the doors were closed against
him. He became one of the most powerful of the field preachers in the revival. He was the most
gifted and most prolific of all English hymn writers with some 7270 hymns coming from his pen
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including many of the very highest order. He gave expression to evangelical faith and experience
in language at once biblical and lyrical. Hymns that are still used today include "And Can It Be
That I Should Gain?", "Christ the Lord Is Risen Today", "Hark! the Herald Angels Sing", "Jesus,
Lover of My Soul", "Lo! He Comes with Clouds Descending", "Love Divine, All Loves Excelling",
"O for a Thousand Tongues to Sing", "Rejoice, the Lord is King", "Soldiers of Christ, Arise" and
"Ye Servants of God"
WESLEY, JOHN [1703-1791] – Founder of Methodism. John was the 15th child of rector Samuel
Wesley and although his father was a staunch High Churchman his grandparents were Puritan
Nonconformists. Educated at Oxford he was ordained by John Potter in 1728. Returning to
Oxford he found that his brother Charles had gathered a few undergraduates together including
George Whitefield [see 1737] into a society for spiritual improvement which was nicknamed the
“Holy Club” of which he eventually took over the leadership. Its members met for prayer, the
study of the Greek Testament and self-examination. To their devotional exercises they added
works of charitable relief. In 1735 he went to Georgia but when he got back to England in 1738
Wesley wrote “I went to America to convert the Indians but oh who shall convert me?” On the
journey to America he met German Moravians whose simple faith made a considerable
impression on him. Wesley was converted in 1738 shortly after which he visited the Moravian
settlement at Herrnhut and met Count Zinzendorf [see 1727]. In April 1739 he took to open-air
preaching at the instigation of Whitefield. It was at Kingswood, Bristol that he ventured “into this
strange way of preaching in the fields” as he described it. This gave him great flexibility and
brought him face to face with the common folk who heard him gladly. To conserve the gains of
evangelism Wesley formed societies in the wake of his missions. The organisation of Methodism
was thus a direct outcome of his success in preaching the gospel. He soon extended his
journeys to include Ireland and Scotland while he left Wales to Howell Harris [see 1735] and
though he never went to America again he ordained Thomas Coke [see 1777] in 1784 to
superintend the work.
YOUNG, EDWARD [1683-1765] – English poet who was educated at Oxford and is best known
for “Night Thoughts” 1742-1745. He had entered the church in 1727 becoming rector at Welwyn
in 1730. Night Thoughts was meant as a poem of Christian triumph over death but is often
dismissed as a gloomy work. There is indeed much argument to that but there are also flashes of
joy celebrating Christ’s victorious death and glorious resurrection.
1739
HUME, DAVID [1711-1776] – Scottish philosopher, historian, and man of letters. His
philosophical program first outlined in “A treatise of Human Nature” 1739, involved the
application of Newtonian scientific method to human nature. In religion he is chiefly noteworthy
for his sceptical attacks on miracles and on the argument from design. He said miracles are
denied as it is always more reasonable to reject someone's testimony about the miracle than to
accept it. He attacked argument from design as it involves showing the ambiguity of the
evidence. His work on religion can be regarded as one of the most fundamental attacks on
natural theology in modern times.
MUHLENBERG, HENRY MELCHIOR [1711-1787] – Father of American Lutheranism who was
born in Germany, a son of a master shoemaker, he had a hard upbringing especially after his
father’s death. He graduated from Gottingen in 1738. In 1739 he was ordained and appointed
co-pastor and inspector of an orphanage. He had at first contemplated going as a missionary to
the East Indies but in 1741 was called to serve the United Lutheran congregations of
Pennsylvania. He arrived in America in 1742 where he set himself to build up the church. Expert
as a linguist and a tireless traveller he summoned the first Lutheran Synod in America in 1748.
The number of churches grew throughout the middle colonies, many of them planted as a result
of his missionary labours.
SCHLATTER, MICHAEL [1716-1790] – Organiser of the German Reformed Church in the
thirteen colonies. Born in Switzerland, Schlatter was educated at Gelmstadt University and
ordained in 1739 as a minister in the German Reformed Church. In 1746 he was sent to America
to organise and supervise the scattered German Reformed congregations, This he did so ably
and then returned to Europe to secure ministers for the colonial churches one of whom was
Philip Otterbein [see 1752]. He also served as superintendent of schools in Philadelphia 1754-56
and as a British army chaplain 1756-59. He then became a pastor in Philadelphia and lost his
property and was imprisoned during the Revolutionary War.
1740
BENEDICT XIV – Pope [1740-1758]. He was born into a noble family of Bologna and created
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cardinal-priest in 1728. He was elected pope in 1740. After a conclave lasting six months. He is
alleged to have said to the cardinals: "If you wish to elect a saint, choose Gotti; a statesman,
Aldrovandi; a donkey, elect me." His papacy began in a time of great difficulties, chiefly caused
by the disputes between Catholic rulers and the papacy about governmental demands to
nominate bishops rather than leaving the appointment to the church. He however managed to
overcome most of these problems. He had a very active papacy, reforming the education of
priests, the calendar of feasts of the church, and many papal institutions including missions. In
1741 Benedict XIV produced a bull against the enslavement of the indigenous peoples of the
Americas and other countries. He was also responsible for beginning the catalogue of the
Vatican Library. He succeeded Clement XII [see 1730] and was succeeded by Clement XIII [see
1758].
EDWARDS, JONATHAN [1703-1758] – After a precocious childhood he entered Yale in 1716
having by the age of 13 obtained a good knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and had
written papers on philosophy. It was during his time at Yale, Edwards “began to have a new kind
of apprehensions and ideas of Christ, and the work of redemption, and the glorious way of
salvation by Him.” After a short pastorate in New York he was appointed a tutor at Yale. Under
the influence of Edwards’ powerful preaching the Great Awakening occurred in 1734-1735 and a
geographically more extensive revival in 1740-1741. Edwards became a firm friend of George
Whitefield who was then ministering in America. After various differences with prominent families
in his congregation he was dismissed as pastor in 1750 and the following year he became a
pastor of a church in the frontier town of Stockbridge and a missionary to the Indians. He was
elected president of Princeton in 1757 but in March the following year he died of the effects of a
smallpox injection.
ERSKINE, EBENEZER [1680-1754] – Founder of the Secessionist Church [see 1842] called the
Burghers [see above] in Scotland. Son of a Minister ejected in 1662 for nonconformity, he
graduated at Edinburgh University in 1697 and was ordained six years later. He was very
successful as a preacher often having to hold open-air services because the church could not
contain the congregation. He moved to Stirling in 1731 and as synod moderator preached
against assembly legislation on patronage, convinced that it took away the right of Christian
people to elect and call their minister. Rebuked by synod and assembly Erskine with three others
handed in a formal protest. The breach widened and in 1740 Erskine and seven other ministers
were deposed. Within five years the Seceders were ministering to more than 40 congregations in
Scotland.
THE GREAT AWAKENING – A series of revivals in the American colonies between 1725 and
1760 with the earliest occurring among the Dutch Reformed in New Jersey through the
preaching of T.J. Frelinghuysen [see 1747]. This reached a peak in 1726 when encouraged by
him Gilbert Tennent [see 1735], a Presbyterian pastor in New Brunswick, began to preach for
conviction. This also led to a revival in New England through the preaching of Jonathan Edwards
[see 1740]. However it was the English evangelist George Whitefield who after 1740 helped to
plant evangelical Christianity on American shores and prepared the colonies spiritually for the
trials of the revolutionary age. Through the “Reading Houses” of Samuel Morris and the
preaching of William Robinson and Samuel Davies [see 1747], the Presbyterians experienced
revival in the south. The Methodists and Baptists also grew rapidly in the era of the Great
Awakening.
The revival soon met resistance from the established clergy led by Charles Chauncey [see 1727]
in New England. Jonathan Edwards however vigorously promoted the Great Awakening,
showing that a change made in the disposition of people created in the heart by the Holy Spirit
and showing itself in unselfish love for the things of God and in a burning desire for Christian
conduct in other men. Those who followed Edwards were called New Lights and those who
opposed it were the Old Lights. In the Presbyterians there was also a split into the New Side and
the Old Side between 1741 and 1758, and the Baptists into Separate and Regular Baptists.
Some of the changes included the fostering of early antislavery sentiment and an increased
missionary activity amongst the Indians as represented by the work of David Brainerd [see
1745], Eleazar Wheelock [see 1733], and Samuel Kirkland. A number of very significant schools
were created because of the Awakening. Of equal importance was the mood of tolerance that
crossed denominational lines. This attitude not only contributed to a national spirit of religious
tolerance that helped to make the first Amendment to the U.S. Constitution a workable
arrangement but it also provided an evangelical consensus that is traceable to the present.
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NEWLIGHTISM – New England Congregational preachers who supported the Great Awakening
in the 1740s with its emphasis on the instantaneous or sudden conversion experience and
attendant emotional and mystical features became known as New Lights because they sought to
get their congregation “new lighted” by the spirit of God. A majority of the preachers were
moderates such as Jonathan Edwards but many became radical separatists.
RAUCH, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH [1718-1763] – First Moravian missionary to the American
Indians. He was born in Texas and became a missionary under the Moravians, arriving in New
York in 1740. He soon made contact with a group of Mohicans who accepted his offer to serve
as a teacher among them. After months of severe hardship living in the Shekomeko village he
baptised several converts in the presence of Count Zinzendorf [see 1727]. By 1743 the mission
prospered and a chapel was built but growing white settler opposition resulted in the expulsion of
the Moravians and termination of the work by 1746. Rauch then served in Pennsylvania and
North Carolina before going to Jamaica where he spent his last years working among black
people.
TENNENT, GILBERT [1703-1764] – Presbyterian minister and revivalist who was the eldest son
of William Tennent [see 1735]. He was born in Ireland and read theology under his father and
was licensed to preach in 1725. Tennent became the minister of New Brunswick Presbyterian
Church in New Jersey. Theodore Frelinghuysen [see 1747] befriended and guided him in his
revivalistic ministry among the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians in what was the opening phase of the
Great Awakening [see above]. Tennent accompanied George Whitefield through the colonies in
1740-41. His famous sermon on “The Danger of an Unconverted Ministry” in 1740 was a
broadside against the Philadelphia Synod's opposition to ordaining graduates of the Log College
and was a factor in causing the Old Side - New Side schism in 1741. He and Samuel Davis [see
1747] went to Britain from 1753 to 1755 to raise money for the new College of New Jersey later
named Princeton.
1741 – 1750 AD
1741
CHALLONER, RICHARD [1691-1781] – Roman Catholic writer born into a Protestant family.
After his father’s death he was educated in a Catholic establishment embracing that faith at 13.
He spent time at Donai before joining the London Missionary Society in 1738. After an argument
with Conyers Middleton he returned to Donai and was consecrated bishop of Hammersmith in
1741. He produced modernised Donai Old and New Testaments and wrote anti Protestant tracts.
FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH [1660-1741] – Musical composer who was perhaps the greatest
Catholic composer of church music in the Germanic cultural sphere of his day. He attempted to
keep alive the legacy of Palestrina and the Counter Reformation.
1742
CALVINISTIC METHODISM – The title first given to those who in the 18th century revival
adhered to the doctrinal emphases of George Whitefield [see 1737]. More than twenty years
before the conversion of either Whitefield or the Wesleys, Griffith Jones [see 1730] of Llandowror
had heralded the awakening in Wales with his evangelical preaching. He was soon supported by
Howell Harris [see1735], Daniel Rowland [see 1752], Howell Davies, and the hymn writer William
Williams [see 1744].
The first Methodist Association of Wales met in 1742 two years before Wesley’s first conference.
In 1770 the publication of Peter Williams Bible led to a renewal of interest in the Scriptures and in
1784 the work was continued to North Wales through Thomas Charles of Bala. In 1811 the body
was officially recognised as the Calvinist Methodist Connexion and regular ordinations
commenced. A ministerial training college was opened in Bala in 1837 and another for the south
in 1842 which was transferred to Aberystwyth in 1905. Until 1840 the Calvinistic Methodists
supported the London Missionary Society but in that year they started their own work in France
and India.
CHAUNCY, CHARLES [1705-1787] – American Congregational leader of the Old Light which
opposed the revivals of Great Awakening in 1742. He also opposed the appointment of any
Episcopal bishops.
ERNESTI, JOHANN AUGUST [1707-1781] – German Lutheran theologian educated at
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Wittenberg and Leipzig whose early career was given in the main to the classics. In 1742 he
became professor of ancient literature at Leipzig, to which post was added in 1758 the chair of
theology, which dual role he sustained until 1770. He tried to reconcile traditional Lutheran
beliefs with biblical scholarship.
GRIMSHAW, WILLIAM [1708-1763] – Anglican minister educated at Cambridge who became a
curate and was later converted in 1742 after a long spiritual struggle. He was converted through
reading Scripture and 17th century books. He was the incumbent at or Haworth in Yorkshire
which was afterwards famous for the Bronte’s. Here, his uncouth racy preaching with plenty of
humour; his athletic prowess that won him their respect; his affection for sinners and saints and
his passionate sense of Christ as Saviour made him a powerful evangelist. Before sermons he
would go out and roundup shirkers with a riding crop and his preaching brought many hearers
from a distance. He took particular pains with the very poor, the isolated, and the sick. Because
neighbouring parishes never heard the gospel he went around preaching. He was a fine example
of the evangelical revival in parish life.
HANDEL, GEORGE FRIDERIC [1685-1759] – Musical composer. Unlike Bach, who had been
born in the same year, Handel was not from a musical family and his father only grudgingly
acknowledged his musical talent and destined him for the law. The greater part of his career was
concerned with dramatic music, opera, and oratorio. His only music written for the church
consists of his early German passions, the Latin psalms during a stay in Italy, the cantata-like
anthems composed for the British duke of Chandos, and occasional festal works for coronations
and national celebrations. Two of his oratorios, Messiah and Israel in Egypt, draw entirely upon
biblical texts, while others are from different librettos and not always of great poetical merit. The
classical masters such as Mozart and Beethoven admired and drew inspiration from the choral
style. Messiah, written in 1741 and first performed in 1742, became the most performed major
choral work in history, and continues to be so. Handel was also an outstanding composer of
chamber music and concertos.
SABATIER, PIERRE [1683-1742] – French biblical scholar who studied at the monastery of StGermain-des-Pres the great centre of Maurist learning under Thierry Ruinart [see 1674]. After
the latter's death he made his life's work the search for the pre Vulgate Latin text of the Bible.
Though not completed at his death, his virtually exhaustive collection of manuscripts and
materials was published in 1743 at Reims, the first work of its kind and is still of great value
today.
SCHMIDT, GEORG [1709-1785] – Missionary to South Africa. Schmidt joined the Moravian
Brethren at Herrnhut in 1727. He was imprisoned by Catholic authorities and recanted after six
years to obtain his freedom. As a punishment for this weakness he was sent alone to the Cape
as first missionary to the Hottentot area some 120 kilometres from Cape Town and arrived in
1737. Here he gathered a small community of interested Hottentots. In 1742 Zinzendorf ordained
him by letter and he baptised five converts. This action was resented by the local Dutch
Reformed clergy who already doubted Moravian orthodoxy. Schmidt was told to discontinue
baptisms pending the decision of the Amsterdam Classis. He appealed against this and lonely
and depressed he left for Holland in 1744 hoping to remove obstacles to his work and to return
but he was not permitted to do so and it was only in 1792 that Moravian work resumed in South
Africa.
1743
ACRELIUS, ISRAEL [1714-1800] – He was a Swedish Lutheran minister and author who was
ordained in 1743 having studied at Uppsala. He served for six years as a pastor in Sweden
before sailing for missionary service amongst the Swedes in Delaware. Poor health forced him to
return home in 1756.
WOOLMAN, JOHN [1720-1772] – American Quaker advocate of the abolition of slavery who
spent his youth on a farm and became a minister of the Society of Friends in 1743 and travelled
throughout the 13 colonies. He preached against conscription and taxes for military supplies,
Negro slavery, and ill-treatment of the Indians. His testimony ended in 1776 with the Quakers
stopping the practice of the Philadelphia yearly meeting of owning slaves. His writings greatly
influenced 19th century abolitionists. Woolman died of smallpox on a visit to the English Quakers
and was buried at York.
1744
WILLIAMS, WILLIAM [1717-1791] – Welsh Methodist leader and hymn writer. Although known to
English readers as nothing more than the author of “Guide me O thou Great Jehovah”, Williams,
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whose works are almost entirely in Welsh, is the most significant literary exponent of the mind
and spirit of the evangelical revival. He was educated at a Dissenting Academy and there he
experienced evangelical conversion under the Ministry of Howell Harris [see 1735]. Williams
joined the Church of England but was refused ordination in 1743. After this unhappy experience
he devoted himself to the Methodist Revival as an itinerant preacher. Williams was one of the
most prolific of Welsh Methodist authors with some 90 titles being published between 1744 and
1791. His greatest contribution was as a hymn writer and poet with large numbers of hymns
being included in all the denominational hymnbooks.
1745
BRAINERD, DAVID [1718-1747] – American pioneer missionary to the Indians who had a
profound conversion experience in 1739 and went to Yale from which he was expelled in 1742.
Afterwards he studied divinity privately and was appointed by the Scottish Society for the
propagation of Christian Knowledge as a missionary to the Indians in eastern Pennsylvania.
Through his ministry he saw many converted during 1745-1746. Increasing ill health caused his
retirement and he died at the New England home of Jonathon Edwards [see 1740]. His journal
became a devotional classic and influenced hundreds to become missionaries.
KOHLER, CHRISTIAN & HIERONYMUS [1714-1753] – Two brothers formed a small sect called
the Brugglers, in Brugglen near Berne Switzerland, about 1745, proclaiming themselves as the
Holy Trinity with Elizabeth Kissling functioning as the Holy Spirit. Because of this and the
prediction of the end of the world at Christmas 1748 they were exiled by the Berne Government
in 1749. Hieronymus was executed for heresy in 1753.
MARKOS VIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1745-1770] see 1727 and 1770. He joined the
Monastery of Saint Anthony at a young age, then moved to the Monastery of Saint Paul the
Anchorite, where he became a monk and was ordained a priest. He was a contemporary of the
Ottoman Sultans Mahmud I, Osman III, and Mustafa III. He ordained a general bishop over
Upper Egypt to shepherd its Christians
1746
MATTHEW Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1746-1766] see 1737 and 1766
PEMBERTON, EBENEZER [1704-1777] – American pastor who graduated from Harvard in 1721
and was called to be the pastor of the Presbyterian Church in New York in 1727. He formed
close ties with J. Dickinson [see 1729], Aaron Burr, and John Pierson, and these four
represented a powerful element in the formative stages of the Presbyterian Church. Pemberton
became a close friend of George Whitefield [see 1737] and with Dickinson was prominent in
founding the College of New Jersey in 1746. In 1754 he left the Presbyterian Church and for
twenty years had a ministry in the famous Congregational Old South Church in Boston.
1747
DAVIES, SAMUEL [1723-1761] – Founder of southern Presbyterians. After theological training in
Pennsylvania he was ordained as an evangelist in 1747 and sent to Hanover County in Virginia
to preach to Presbyterian converts of the Great Awakening. He went to England with Gilbert
Tennent in 1753 and raised funds mostly in Scotland for the College of New Jersey which is now
Princeton University. His constantly frail health gave way and he died in 1761 after he contracted
pneumonia and blood poisoning from being bled.
FRELINGHUYSEN, THEODORE JACOBUS [1691-1747] – Dutch Calvinist and Pietist. He
served as pastor in the Netherlands and became aware of the need for trained ministers among
the Dutch congregations in America and emigrated to New Jersey in his late 20s. Noted there as
a good preacher, he stressed the need for spiritual revival, and found in the Great Awakening
that swept the colonies a similar emphasis. He was in active touch with Gilbert Tennent [see
1735] and other revivalist leaders. He is an important figure in the history of the Dutch Reformed
in America.
HERRING, THOMAS – Archbishop of Canterbury [1747-1757]. He was educated at Jesus
College, Cambridge where he was a contemporary of Matthew Hutton, who succeeded him in
turn in each of his dioceses. He was a fellow at Corpus Christi College from 1716 to 1723.
Herring became a close friend of Philip Yorke, the solicitor general who would later as Lord
Hardwicke serve for many years as lord chancellor, and as such was able to advance quickly. In
1728 he became doctor of divinity and a chaplain to George II. In 1737 he was appointed bishop
of Bangor and six years later he became archbishop of York.
On 23 September 1745, during the Jacobite rising, Herring gave a rousing sermon which it is
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said captured the patriotic imagination as nothing previously had, accusing the rising of the
rebellion to be a threat posed by France and Spain to bring back the Catholic faith with its
oppression to England. He contrasted this with the benign rule of George II who he claimed had
given a situation where they were “now bless'd with the mild Administration of a Just and
Protestant King, who is of so strict an Adherence to the Laws of our Country, that not an
Instance can be pointed out, during his whole reign, wherein he made the least Attempt upon the
Liberty, or Property, or Religion, of a single Person.” In contrast he said that “if the Ambition and
Pride of France and Spain, is to dictate to us, we must submit to a Man to govern us under their
hated and accursed Influence, who brings his Religion from Rome, and Rules and Maxims of his
Government from Paris and Madrid.” When Lord Hardwicke, the lord chancellor, repeated the
speech's contents to King George II, the king ordered that the speech be printed in the Gazette.
Herring organised Yorkshire into resistance against the Jacobites by raising volunteers and
money. Herring's behaviour during the rebellion had demonstrated that he was "a resolute Whig,
a brave Briton, and a commanding prelate". He was also deeply suspicious of France as a
Roman Catholic nation and a threat to the British nation. In 1747 he was appointed archbishop of
Canterbury. There he generally followed the lead of his friend the lord chancellor, and frequently
came into disputes with the duke of Newcastle, the secretary of state. Herring, like his immediate
predecessor, had taken a generally Hanoverian side through the Bangorian controversy and
stood against the convocation. He succeeded John Potter [see 1737] and was succeeded by
Matthew Hutton [see 1757].
1748
BOEHLER, PETER [1712-1775] – Moravian missionary and bishop of the Moravian Church in
England from 1748. Peter was the son of an innkeeper who studied at Frankfurt and Jena where
he was influenced by Spagenberg [see 1732] and Zinzendorf [see 1727] who encouraged Peter
to become a missionary. The English Society for the Propagation of the Gospel sent him among
the slaves of South Carolina and he became a pastor of some Moravians in Savannah. While in
England he met and greatly influenced the Wesleys. He was also a pastor in New England for
eleven years.
BRIDAINE, JACQUES [1701-1767] – French Roman Catholic preacher who conducted missions
to towns and villages across France that led to many conversions. His style of preaching was
extemporaneous in a day when it was extremely rare. He edited a book of Spiritual Songs in
1748.
CYRIL V – Patriarch of Constantinople [1748-1757] who succeeded Paisius II [see 1726]. There
is no additional information readily available.
1749
VENN, HENRY [1724-1797] – Anglican clergyman who came from a long line of clergyman and
was educated at Cambridge becoming a fellow of Queens College in 1749 the same year as his
ordination. Ten years later he became vicar of Huddersfield in Yorkshire. He found that
Huddersfield when he arrived was “dark, ignorant and immoral” but when he left for health
reasons twelve years later it was “shaken in the centre by the lever of the Gospel”. As a preacher
he was esteemed highly by many including the Countess of Huntingdon, William Cowper, and
Charles Simeon. He was chosen to give the funeral oration at the burial of George Whitefield.
1750
BELLAMY, JOSEPH [1719-1790] – Congregational pastor, theologian, and educator who was a
pupil of Jonathon Edwards [see 1740]. He was ordained in 1740 in Bethlehem. He was a
travelling preacher in New England and taught universal atonement, based on the teachings of
Hugo Grotius [see 1625] an Arminian, despite his Calvinistic background. In 1750 he published
his main work "True Religion Delineated" in 1750.
BYROM, JOHN [1692-1763] – English poet and hymn writer who was educated at Cambridge
and afterwards lived in Manchester. He wrote the famous hymn "Christians Awake" salute the
happy morn". He was very aware of the activity of the Holy Spirit which was very unusual in the
18th century.
CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST [1715-1775] – German theologian who became professor of
theology at Leipzig in 1750. He attacked a series of important works: the determinism of Leibnitz,
the perfectionism of Wolff, and the biblical criticism of his colleague Ernesti, as dangerously anti
Christian. His prophetic theology was rediscovered and popularised in the 19th century.
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF [see 1532 and 1919] – Like most Protestant denominations the
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Anglican Church was affected by Deism in the 18th century but the key movement of this period
was the Evangelical Revival with its emphasis on justification by faith, personal conversion, and
the Bible. Though the Wesleys and Whitefield increasingly worked out side the Anglican system,
a sizeable evangelical party emerged in the church, valuing the Prayer Book and the parish
system, gaining its leadership from laymen such as William Wilberforce [see1807] and the
members of the Clapham Sect [see 1844]. The early 19th century with its movement for Catholic
Emancipation and the removal of Nonconformist disabilities saw the position of the
Establishment threatened but spirituality was revived by the Oxford movement although some
saw this as a Romanising tendency, a suspicion which seemed to be confirmed by the secession
of J.H. Newman [see 1845] and others to Rome in 1845.
EPHRATA SOCIETY – A cloistered, Protestant commune founded at Ephrata, Pennsylvania by
a German Pietist mystic J.K. Beissel [see 1720] and his Dunker disciples. By 1750 some 300
brothers and sisters lived in monastic austerity within the cloister, practising celibacy, pacifism,
keeping Saturday as the Sabbath, sharing agricultural and trade labour, and holding all property
and profit in common. The society printed about 200 books from 1745-1800. The first music
printed in America was published at Ephrata. After Beissel’s death in 1768 the society with its
monastic features deteriorated, was subsequently incorporated as the German Religious Society
of the Seventh-Day Baptists in 1814 and was finally dissolved in 1934.
NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY [c.1750-1850] – Calvinistic movement began under Jonathan
Edwards [see 1740]. Regarded as one of America's greatest thinkers, he set out to re-formulate
Puritan Calvinism and to make it more harmonious towards the spiritual experiences the Great
Awakening [see 1740]. In order to justify the results of the latter he wrestled with freedom versus
sovereignty. Edwards sought a middle ground between the enthusiasts of revival and Charles
Chauncey [see 1727] who accused the revival of mindless emotion. Edwards agreed that heat
without light was wrong but one could not divorce truth from experience. The New England
Theology of Edwards dominated conservative Congregational schools such as Yale from about
1750 to the late 1800s when German critical theology won the day.
SCHWARTZ, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH [1726-1798] – German missionary and translator. The
son of a master baker in Prussia he was educated at Halle University where he encountered
Benjamin Schultze a former missionary who had extended the work of Ziegenbalg [see 1706] at
Tranquebar and completed the latter's Tamil translation of the Bible. This encounter led to
Schwartz's call to India. Having learnt Tamil before sailing he arrived in India in 1750 and spent
his first years at the Danish-Halle Mission in Tranquebar. In 1760 he paid a notable visit to
Ceylon. Seven years later he was appointed chaplain to the British at Trichinopoly. Schwartz
was therefore one of the remarkable succession of Germans who built up "English" missions in
South India. He was invited by the Rajah of Tanjore in 1772 to minister in his area and for a
period became virtually prime minister of Tanjore. All of these political duties never deflected
him from his primary calling as a missionary. At Tinnevelly in the far south he appointed the
catechist Sattianaden, and thus had a share in building what became a famous church. Often
regarded as the greatest the 18th century German Protestant missionaries in South India
Schwartz died at Tanjore.
1751-1760 AD
1751
BACKUS, ISAAC [1724-1806] – American Baptist minister, historian and champion of the
separation of Church and State who was converted during the Great Awakening in 1741 and
joined the New Light. Inspired by Whitefield he went on preaching tours and in 1751 became a
Baptist and the pastor of the Middleborough congregation. He contributed to the growth of the
Baptists in New England.
BROWN, JOHN [1722-1787] of Haddington. Scottish self educated minister who because of his
prodigious learning as a child was accused of witchcraft by his minister. He was ordained in
1751 to minister at Haddington [1751-1787]. During this period he trained many Burgher
students [see 1733]. He was a prolific author who is best known especially for his "Self
Interpreting Bible".
GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FURCHTEGOTT [1715-1769] – German Poet. He was born in Saxony
and entered Leipzig University in 1734 as a student of theology, and on completing his studies in
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1739 was for two years a private tutor. Owing to shyness and weak health Gellert gave up all
idea of entering the ministry, and, established himself, with much success, in 1745 as a lecturer
at the university of Leipzig in poetry, rhetoric and literary style. In 1751 he was appointed
extraordinary professor of philosophy at Leipzig, a post which he held until his death. He was
said to have been “the noblest and most amiable of men, generous, tender-hearted and of
unaffected piety and humility. He wrote in order to raise the religious and moral character of the
people”. His most famous hymn was “Jesus lives! No terrors now”
KLOPSTOCK, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB [1724-1803] – German poet who studied theology at
Jena and Leipzig. He was a private tutor to Frederick V of Denmark in 1751. While still at school
he drafted the plan for a religious epic “Der Messias” inspired by Milton's “Paradise Lost”. “Der
Messias” which was started in 1751 was not completed until 1773 when he was living in
Hamburg. He wrote religious odes, hymns, and lyrical and epic poems, and made important
contributions to German poetry.
1752
DENMARK – During the Age of Enlightenment and Rationalism 1752-1800 much energy was
spent on useful social reforms but otherwise it was a period characterised by widespread
religious differences and serious spiritual decline. The first half of the 19th century was a period
of transition gradually the old rationalism was overcome through the influence of men such as N
F S Grundtvig [see 1825], J P Mynster [see 1834], and H L Martensen [see 1854], and through
the rising tide of revivalism. In 1849 the common people's fight for freedom led to the overthrow
of the absolute monarchy and the spiritual coercion of the state run church system. The principle
of religious liberty and freedom of conscience was legally established in the basic law of the new
constitution. Many from the “awakened circles” joined the Grundtvigian movement, or founded
the more pietistic Indre Missions [see 1861]. Smaller groups joined the Lutheran Mission called
Bornholmians [see 1868] or various free churches. Since World War II the great majority of the
population maintain membership of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, recognised and supported
by the state as the national church. [See 1536]
EMBURY, PHILIP [1728-1773] – Probably the first Methodist minister in America. Born in Ireland
he was a carpenter by trade. John Wesley's preaching led to his conversion in 1752. He became
a local preacher in Ireland six years later. He migrated to New York City in 1760 and was
encouraged to preach to migrants and he did this in a meeting at his own home in 1766. During
the week he worked as a carpenter and preached on Sundays until his early death on the farm.
GILLESPIE, THOMAS [1708-1774] – Scottish minister who trained under Philip Doddridge [see
1729] at Northampton and was a friend of Jonathan Edwards [see 1740]. He ministered at the
country parish of Carnock in Fife and was deposed by the Church of Scotland general assembly
in 1752 for refusing to take part in a “forced settlement” at Inverkeithing. Supported by the large
congregation that built his Dunfermline church he stood alone for nine years, and then was
joined by two other ministers one of them Thomas Boston’s son. Passing into the history as the
founder of the Relief denomination, Gillespie sponsored the first Presbyterian body in Scotland to
encourage foreign missions and to open its pulpits to all ministers of Christ and its communion
table to all believers.
OTTERBEIN, PHILIP WILLIAM [1726-1813] – Co-founder of the Church of the United Brethren
in Christ [see 1800]. He was son of a Reformed minister from Germany and studied at Herborn
and was ordained to the ministry of the Reformed Church. In 1752 he responded to an appeal
from Michael Schlatter to do missionary work in America. While serving as pastor of the German
Reformed congregation of Lancaster Pennsylvania he struggled earnestly in his attempts to
preach a vital message but felt inadequate in explaining how one might know the assurance of
salvation. A moving spiritual experience brought him into a more complete awareness of
salvation in Christ, and he henceforth taught the need for every person to experience repentance
and a new birth. He organised prayer meetings, trained laymen in the evangelistic work, and
worked closely with ministers and other denominations including the Methodist bishop, Francis
Asbury [see 1784]. Bishop and co-founder with Martin Boehm [see 1768] of the United Brethren
in Christ [1800] he served as minister of the German Evangelical Reformed Church in Baltimore
from 1774 until his death.
SEMLER, JOHANN SALOMO [1725-1791] – German biblical scholar who was son of a Pietistic
pastor. Semler was educated at Halle where in 1750 he became professor of theology. When
J.S. Baumgarten died five years later, Semler became the head of the theological faculty. He
pioneered in biblical and church historical criticism investigating the origins of the New
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Testament books in a manner unacceptable to Lutheran Orthodoxy and this caused controversy.
1753
SEABURY, SAMUEL [1729-1796] – First bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the USA.
He was born in Connecticut and graduated from Yale in 1748 and then studied theology and
medicine in Edinburgh. He was ordained in 1753 and served as a missionary in New Brunswick
and was then a rector on Long Island [1757-1766] where he also practiced medicine and taught
school. Seabury was imprisoned for a short while during the American Revolution because of his
Tory sympathies after which he went over to the British side and served as a hospital and later
regimental chaplain. He became bishop of Connecticut and Rhode Island and died while making
parish calls.
1754
1755
ALISON, FRANCIS [1705-1779] – Irish born American Presbyterian minister and educator. He
studied at Glasgow University and in 1735 moved to America where he opened a school in New
London in 1743. In 1755 the granting of degrees was authorised with Alison as vice provost of
the college with whom he was to be associated for twenty five years. He also founded the
Presbyterian Society for the Relief of Ministers and their Widows.
MOSHEIM, JOHANN LORENTZ VON [1694-1755] – Lutheran Church historian who became a
Lutheran when his Roman Catholic father died. He was educated at Lubeck and at the University
of Kiel where he became a faculty member. Theologically mediating between the Pietists and the
Deists he opposed both groups. Although he contributed to most fields of theology his principal
works were in church history, which he endeavoured to make more scientific and objective. His
interests extended even to Chinese church history. His main work was published in 1755.
PARAGRAPH BIBLES – In 1755 John Wesley published a New Testament in which he returned
to the pre-Geneva Bible practise of paragraphing, as opposed to the arrangement in verses
followed in the King James Version and other versions. The Religious Tract Society brought out
an edition of the King James Version in paragraphs in 1838. The Revised Version of 1881
adopted the paragraph arrangement, and this has been followed in most modern translations.
1756
RABAUT, PAUL [1718 – 1794] – French Huguenot leader born into a Protestant family and at
the age of 16 accompanied and helped itinerant preacher Jean Betrine. The four years of
experience served him well when he became in 1738 a pastor and an opponent of repressive
legislation. He was associated with the church in Nimes most of his life. In 1756 he was voted
president of the national synod of the Huguenot Church which at this period was in difficulties
with the revocation of the Edict of Nantes [see 1598] and though beset by problems Rabaut did
much to rehabilitate the Protestants of France. With Antoine Court [see 1715] he is to be
regarded as of major importance in the history of 18th century French Calvinism. One significant
success in which he and his sons shared was the passing of the Edict of Toleration in 1787.
1757
CALLINICUS III – Patriarch of Constantinople [1757] who succeeded Cyril V [see 1748]. He is a
unique case of an Ecumenical Patriarch who was patriarch for a single day. He was bishop of
Heracleia and a very ambitious man who used any means in order to become patriarch. He had
tried many times unsuccessfully to seize the throne. In 1757, he plotted with some high ranking
Greek civil servants against the incumbent patriarch Cyril V and by bribing the grand vizier,
Köprülü Mehmed Pasha, managed to depose his rival and ascend the throne as Patriarch
Callinicus III. His patriarchate lasted only for hours though, because he died from a sudden heart
attack when he heard that he had indeed been elected.
FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM [1729-1785] – He was born in Switzerland and came to England
with a distinguished university record from Geneva and was appointed as a private tutor in 1752.
Converted under the influence of the Methodists he was ordained by the bishop of Bangor in
1757. After assisting John Wesley in London, Fletcher settled in Shropshire in 1760. For a time
he was superintendent of Countess of Huntington's ministerial training college at Trevecca.
During the Calvinistic controversy Fletcher was the chief defender of evangelical Arminianism. In
personal relationships with theological opponents Fletcher was a model of Christian
reconciliation. That Wesley recognised his work can be seen in the fact that he designated
Fletcher as his successor, had he consented, as the leader of Methodism.
HART, JOSEPH [1712-1768] – Hart was an 18th century Calvinist minister in London. His works
include "Hart's Hymns", a much-loved hymn book amongst evangelical Christians throughout its
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lifetime of over 200 years. However one of Joseph Hart's early publications, prior to his
conversion was a tract denouncing Christianity called “The Unreasonableness of Religion”
criticising John Wesley’s Sermon on Romans 8:32. He was brought up by evangelical parents
and said that he “imbibed the sound doctrine of the Gospel from my infancy” However he was
not converted until he heard George Whitefield at Whitsun in 1757. After these times Hart still
had “sufferings and uncertainties as to his conversion”, but he could always look back to his
conversion and believe that God saved his soul. He reflected this in his hymn “How good is the
God we adore”. Joseph Hart preached at Jewin Street chapel in London, a building with multiple
galleries, to a congregation of significant size. Only one of Hart's sermons remains, that of
Christmas 1767.
HUTTON, MATTHEW – Archbishop of Canterbury [1757-1758]. Matthew Hutton was a high
churchman who served as archbishop of York (1747–1757) and archbishop of Canterbury (1757
to 1758). He was a direct descendant of Matthew Hutton, who served as archbishop of York in
the 17th century. Hutton was born near Richmond in Yorkshire, and was educated at Jesus
College, Cambridge, graduating in 1713. He was a fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, from
1717 to 1727, and became a doctor of divinity in 1728. He became a royal chaplain to George II
in 1736. While he became archbishop of Canterbury in 1757 he died the next year without
having ever lived in Lambeth Palace. He succeeded Thomas Herring [see 1747] and was
succeeded by Thomas Secker [see 1758].
SERAPHEIM II – Patriarch of Constantinople [1757-1761] succeeded Callinicus III [see above].
There is no additional information readily available.
TAYLOR, JOHN [1694-1761] – Nonconformist minister who after a lengthy pastorate in Norwich
was appointed as professor of divinity at Warrington Academy in 1757. Taylor adopted Arian
views of the person of Christ, and also claimed that the orthodox reformed view of the imputation
of Adam's sin to his posterity lacked biblical support, and that Adam's sin had natural not moral
consequences. His views were fully answered by Jonathan Edwards [see 1740] in “The Great
Christian Doctrine of Original Sin Defended” in 1758 but Taylor’s thoughts continued to be
influential in England and the United States of America.
1758
BOYCE, WILLIAM [1710-1779] – English composer who was trained as a chorister at St Paul’s
Cathedral. He became organist at Chapel Royal for 11 years from 1758 but was forced to resign
due to loss of hearing. He wrote "Cathedral Music" an historical review which did much to keep
alive the music of Byrd and Gibbons. He was the best native composer of the late 18th century.
CLEMENT XIII – Pope [1758-1769] [see 1740]. He received a Jesuit education in Bologna and
was created cardinal by Clement XII [see 1730] in 1737 becoming bishop of Padua six years
later. During his tenure as bishop of Padua he visited all the parishes in the diocese, the first
bishop to do that for 50 years. He was elected at a time when the papacy was declining in
prestige and the Jesuits were under attack. He took up the cause of the Jesuits to whom he
owed his election. In 1758 the reforming minister of Joseph I of Portugal (1750–77), the marquis
of Pombal, expelled the Jesuits from Portugal, and shipped them en masse to Civitavecchia, as
a "gift for the pope”. The Jesuits were abolished in France in 1764 and expelled from Spain,
Naples and Malta. The Bourbon kings seized Avignon, Benevento and Pontecorvo, and united in
a demand for the total suppression of the Jesuits in January 1769. Driven to extremes, Clement
XIII consented to call a meeting to consider the step, but on the very eve of the day set for its
meeting he died (February 2nd 1769), not without suspicion of poison, of which, however, there
appears to be no conclusive evidence. They were finally suppressed by Clement XIV [see 1769].
He succeeded Benedict XIV and was succeeded by Clement XIV [see 1769].
HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG [1730-1788] – German religious thinker who underwent a religious
experience in 1758 during a business trip to London. Returning to Germany he began to study
and was the most evangelical of his group rediscovering in Luther’s work a spontaneous
personal faith, a religious experience which rose superior to Protestant scholasticism, pietistic
subjectivism, and a rationalistic philosophy. He wrote a number of notable works.
HEUMANN, CHRISTOPH AUGUST [1681-1764] – German Protestant theologian. He studied at
Jena and was director of the theological seminary at Eisenach [1709-1717] from where he
moved to Gottingen. He became professor of history and literature and professor of theology at
the University of Gottingen, resigning in 1758 when he came to reject the Lutheran
understanding of the Eucharist. He devoted the remainder of his life to writing. He wrote a 12
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volume commentary on the whole New Testament and published numerous controversial papers
on the Lord's Supper.
SECKER, THOMAS – Archbishop of Canterbury [1758-1768] – He was a native of
Nottinghamshire and at Richard Brown’s Free School at Chesterfield attained a competency in
Greek and Latin. Brown congratulated Secker for his successful studies by remarking, ‘If thou
wouldst but come over to the Church, I am sure thou wouldst be a bishop’. In London he met
Isaac Watts, who encouraged Secker to attend Samuel Jones's dissenting academy
at Gloucester, at that time functioning in the house of Joseph Wintle, a distiller. Under Jones,
Secker significantly increased his ability at languages, supplementing his understanding of
Greek and Latin with studies in Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac. Jones's course was also famous
for his systems of Jewish antiquities and logic; maths was similarly studied to a higher than usual
level.
Also at Jones's academy at the same time as Secker were the later Church of England bishops
Joseph Butler, Isaac Maddox, and John Bowes, and other leading Christians included the future
dissenting leaders Samuel Chandler, Jeremiah Jones, and Vavasour Griffiths. In 1713, Jones
moved his academy to larger premises in Tewkesbury, partly financed by £200 from Secker. He
studied medicine in London, Paris and Leiden, receiving his MD degree at Leiden in 1721.
Having decided to take orders he graduated, by special letters from the chancellor, at Exeter
College, Oxford, and was ordained in 1722 and after a number of parishes he became bishop of
Bristol in 1735. About this time George II commissioned him to arrange reconciliation between
the prince of Wales and himself, but the attempt was unsuccessful. In 1737 he was translated
to Oxford and eventually in 1758 was raised to the see of Canterbury. His support of an
American episcopate raised considerable opposition in England and America. His principal work
was “Lectures on the Catechism of the Church of England”. He succeeded Matthew Hutton [see
1757] and was succeeded by Frederick Cornwallis [see 1768].
WILKINSON, JEMIMA [1752-1819] – A religious leader whose interest was raised about 1758 by
George Whitefield's sermons and by the meetings of the New Light Baptists. In 1774 she was
influenced by Ann Lee [see 1766] the founder in America of the Shakers. Following a fever she
claimed she had died and that her body was inhabited by the “Spirit of Life”. Taking the name
“Public Universal Friend” she held open-air meetings, led processions on horseback dressed in a
long robe over masculine attire. Wilkinson established churches and her disciples, claiming that
she was Christ come again, aroused hostility forcing her to leave New England. Internal disputes
affected the movement which disintegrated entirely after her death.
1759
OCCOM, SAMSON [1723-1792] – Best-known American Indian preacher of the 18th century
who was converted with his mother during the Great Awakening in 1740 and studied theology
with Eleazar Wheelock [see 1733] who began the Indian School that later developed into
Dartmouth College. Occom served as teacher and minister to the Montauk Indians of Long
Island from 1749 to 1764. He was ordained in 1759 and served as a missionary to the Oneidas,
an Iroquois tribe. He established the Indian town of Brotherstown New York in 1784 and
published an Indian hymnal.
1760
HECK, BARBARA [1744-1804] – Mother of American Methodism. Born in Ireland she migrated
to New York with her husband in 1760. She encouraged her cousin Philip Embury [see 1752] to
hold the first Methodist meeting in America in his home and encouraged him further in the
building of the first Methodist chapel in America. The family moved to Canada early in the
Revolutionary War because of their Tory views.
1761-1770 AD
1761
FINLEY, SAMUEL [1715-1766] – Presbyterian minister and educator who was born in Ireland
and migrated to America in 1730. He studied at the “Log College” in Pennsylvania for the
Presbyterian ministry. He was licensed in 1739 and sent out as an itinerant preacher in the Great
Awakening as it grew in intensity. Finley was aligned with the positions held by John Dickinson
[see 1729] and Jonathan Edwards [see 1740]. He founded an Academy on the Maryland
Pennsylvania border which helped to feed the College of New Jersey with youth aspiring to the
New Side ministry. He was elected as the fifth president of Princeton in 1761 and served in that
post until his death five years later.
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JOANNICUS III – Patriarch of Constantinople [1761-1763] succeeded Seraphiem II [see 1757].
There is no additional information readily available.
1762
TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE [1740-1778] – Anglican hymn writer who was educated at
Trinity College Dublin and converted through a Methodist lay preacher. He was ordained in 1762
and had a living in Devon. In 1770 Toplady became pastor of the French Calvinist chapel in
London. He was a powerful preacher and a vigorous Calvinist bitterly opposed to John Wesley.
He is best known for his hymn “Rock of Ages”.
1763
CANADA – The Churches under British Rule. After the transfer of Nova Scotia to Britain in 1713
and of the rest of Canada in 1763, Protestantism and English speaking Catholicism became
established in the former French territory. In personnel and financial support they came originally
from France, Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies. There were controversies such as “clergy
reserves” [see 1791]. From this period five groups have made up the Christian community in
Canada: Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists. In general the
French Catholic clergy were loyal to the British as seen by the relations bishops Jean Briand
[see 1766] and Joseph Plessis [see 1806] had with the British.
The Anglicans drew support from pre Loyalist New Englanders, United Empire Loyalists [see
1789], British garrisons and administrators, and immigration from the British Isles. The
Methodists consisted mainly of British Wesleyans and American Episcopal Methodists.
Presbyterians, while derived from Britain and America, reflected the traditional breach between
the Church of Scotland and the various Secession churches. The Baptist Church was pioneered
in the Maritime states from New England and the Scottish Highlands. The Lutheran Church in
Canada was bolstered by emigrants from Germany and Scandinavia.
Early missionaries of the expansion into the west were Joseph Provencher [see 1818], John
West [see 1820], James Evans [see 1840] and John Black. By 1840 it was clear that education
would be in the hands of the state but with some religious instruction on a non denominational
basis. Upper Canada, later Ontario, allowed for separate Roman Catholic schools while Lower
Canada, later Quebec, developed into Catholic and Protestant sections. [See Canada – The
Church of New France 1612 and Canada the church since 1867 at 1867.]
ROWLAND, DANIEL [1713-1790] – Welsh Methodist leader who with Howel Harris [see 1735]
had the distinction of being co-founder of Welsh Calvinistic Methodism. The son of a parish
priest he was ordained in 1735 and served as a curate to his brother John in the parishes served
by their father. He was converted under the ministry of Griffith Jones and began a preaching
ministry of great power. He began to found societies where his converts could be established in
their newly found faith. The Calvinistic Methodists in Wales were split into two groups in 1752
with Harris leading one group and Rowland the other and ten years passed before reconciliation
was made. When his brother was drowned in 1760 the authorities passed over Daniel Rowland
had gave the living to his son to whom he now became curate. He was finally dispossessed in
1763 but continued his ministry in the “New Church” that had been built for him. It is said his
sweetness of spirit and magnetism of his delivery kept congregations spellbound sometimes for
hours on end.
SAMUEL I Chatzeres – Patriarch of Constantinople [1763-1768, 1773-1774] succeeded
Joannicus III [see 1761]. There is no additional information readily available.
1764
HAWEIS, THOMAS [1734-1820] – Co-founder of the London Missionary Society and trustee
executor of Lady Huntingdon. He was converted, called to the ministry, and at Oxford University
started the second Holy Club [see 1734] among the undergraduates. He took the living of All
Saints, Aldwincle, in Northamptonshire in 1764. His church quickly became a centre of
evangelical influence throughout the area. When the London Missionary Society was formed in
1795 he was instrumental in ensuring that Tahiti was the first field to be evangelised.
HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON [1744-1803] – Lutheran scholar who was born in East
Prussia and studied at the University of Konigsberg where he came under the divergent
influences of Immanuel Kant [see 1770] and J. G. Hamann [see 1758]. He became a Lutheran
pastor at Riga in 1764 before becoming a court preacher at Weimar where he lived
uncomfortably opposed by the official clergy, for the rest of his life. His study of the Gospel of
John in 1797 indicated that the Gospel could not be harmonised with the synoptic, and that while
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a life of Jesus could come from either John or the synoptic, it could not be derived from a
harmony of them all.
HILL, ROWLAND [1744-1833] – Preacher who was educated at Cambridge but entered in 1764
at a time when evangelical views were unpopular. He believed at first that he was the only
evangelical Christian there, except for the shoe black at the gate, but soon led several students
to Christ. Following ordination he was appointed to Kingston and preached to great crowds, often
in the open air. Some 10 years later he inherited money and built Surrey Chapel, Blackfriars,
where he had a powerful London Ministry. He welcomed advances in science as shown by
himself vaccinating the children of his congregation. He was instrumental in founding the
Religious Truth Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society, and the London Missionary
Society. Sir Rowland Hill of the penny post was named after him.
HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON [1701-1790] – Assistant bishop of Trier who was known
by the pseudonym ‘Justinius Febronius” and was the founder of Febronianism. After 18 years of
work he published a work of his doctrines which reflected Gaelic and Protestant motifs although
remaining devoutly Catholic, and not secular. Clement XIII condemned it in 1764 but intense
public debate continued throughout Europe. Hontheim later unconvincingly recanted in 1778
while others, including Austrian chief minister Kaunitz, used his ideas to support a more secular
Josephinism.
SANDEMANIANS – A group of Bible loving Christians, founded by John Glas [see 1719], which
flourished from 1725 until about 1900. Robert Sandeman [1718-1771], Glas' son-in-law, became
the leader and attacked Calvinistic evangelical work on the grounds that it made faith a work of
man which earns salvation. Sandeman held that the bare assent to the work of Christ alone is
necessary. After the controversy many churches were founded including the London church in
the Barbican area of which Michael Faraday [see 1827] was a member. Sandeman left England
in 1764 to found churches in the United States of America where the groups survived until 1890.
They upheld infant baptism and foot washing as practices as well as excommunications. The
sect was exclusive and intermarriage was usual. One of the conditions of membership was that
the church could control the use of members’ private money.
1765
COUGHLAN, LAWRENCE [1738 -1785] – Pioneer preacher in Newfoundland was brought up as
a Catholic but was converted at the age of 15 and became an itinerant preacher in Ireland. In
1765 he went to Newfoundland under the auspices of the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel and was ordained by the bishop of London. A revival broke out and he was soon in
trouble with the leaders of the colony as he preached against the conditions of the ordinary
person in Newfoundland. Opposition and long journeys broke his health and he returned to
England in 1773 leaving the work in the hands of two merchant converts.
JOHNSON, SAMUEL [1709-1784] – Moralist, essayist, and lexicographer. Educated at Oxford
Johnson unsuccessfully attempted school mastering before he went to London with the actor
Garrick. He was famous for his writings including his edition of Shakespeare in 1765. Tory and
Anglican he held deeply sincere religious views, though these are expressed more in moral than
in spiritual terms. Nowhere is this better shown than in the last lines of the “Vanity of Human
Wishes”.
MANNING, JAMES [1738-1791] – Founder and first president of Brown University, USA. He
graduated from Princeton University and by 1765 had secured a charter for Rhode Island
College and founded a Baptist church in Warren, Rhode Island. He was appointed first president
of the college in 1765 and held the position of professor of language until his death. He
represented Rhode Island in the Congress and in the summer of 1791 wrote a report that
suggested the creation of the State's present free public school system.
1766
BRIAND, JEAN OLIVER [1715-1794] – French born Catholic bishop of Canada who went to
Canada in 1741. During the siege of Quebec by the British he directed the diocese in the
absence of the bishop. He kept the French passively loyal to the British after their conquest of
Canada. Due to his efforts the Quebec Act and Habeas Corpus Act of 1774 broadened the
privileges of Catholics in Canada although Roman Catholicism was officially banned. He is
generally hailed as the second founder of the Catholic Church in Canada and he consecrated his
successors before resigning his see.
CYPRIAN Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1766-1783] see 1746 and 1783
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EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUST [1739-1809] – German philosopher and theologian who had
studied philosophy, theology, and classical philology under such teachers as J.S. Sember. After
1766 he moved into the Berlin Circle of F. Nikolai and M. Mandelssohn. He wrote a significant
criticism of Kantian philosophy and a critique of such ideas as original sin, caused controversy,
for which he was attacked. Eberhard was appointed a professor of philosophy at Halle where he
was recognised as being in the tradition of Leibnitz [see 1703].
EPHRAIM II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1766-1771] see 1737 and 1771
GIBBON, EDWARD [1737-1794] – English historian. Born in Surrey, England, he was of
independent means throughout his life. His “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” in seven
volumes [1766 -1788] helped to make church history a critical discipline. In some ways his works
is still unsurpassed. He looked at Roman history from the view of the ironic humanism of the
18th century. He was a friend of Voltaire and Diderot. Gibbon did not believe in the supernatural
and sought to explain the growth of Christianity naturalistically, on the principle that the religious
is at least a phenomenon of human experience.
LEE, ANN [c.1736-1784] – Founder of the Shakers who were originally called the Shaking
Quakers. Her movement formed near Manchester England from 1758 to 1772. After unfortunate
experiences in marriage, childbirth, and loss of four children she withdrew from her husband in
1766 and announced her “complete conversion”. Assuming leadership of the local Shakers
shortly thereafter, she outlined her cardinal doctrines: confession was the door to regenerate life,
celibacy its rule and cross. She migrated to New York in 1774 where the movement grew rapidly.
She was largely responsible for the formulation of the characteristic beliefs of the Shakers:
celibacy, communal living, pacifism, and millennialism, elitism, and spiritual manifestations
through barking, dancing, and shaking.
PHILEMON Patriarch of Antioch [1766-1767] see also 1724 and 1767
ROMAINE, WILLIAM [1714-1795] – Evangelical Anglican who was educated Oxford and
ordained in the Church of England. He was chaplain to Daniel Lambert in his year of office as
lord mayor of London in 1741. One of his absorbing interests was the Hebrew language.
Romaine was a friend of George Whitefield, the countess of Huntingdon, and others. Excelling
as a preacher he attracted large crowds in London and on preaching tours in the country. He
wished to see the Gospel penetrate the whole Church and nation and organised days of prayers
to this end. In 1766 he was appointed rector of St Anne’s Blackfriars and remained there to his
death. His message was a warm Calvinistic evangelicalism.
1767
DANIEL Patriarch of Antioch [1767-1791] see also 1766 and 1792
JOSEPHISM – The Austrian Habsburg policy of secular state control of the church implemented
in the 18th century by Empress Maria Theresa culminating with intensity under Joseph II [17801790]. Its motivation was secular and rationalist, aimed at “rationalising” the organisation of the
whole of society through an “enlightened” programme of state centralism. Instructions in 1767
and the following year by the chief minister Kaunitz initiated a program. As part of the project the
Law of Toleration [1781] ended the Catholic monopoly, allowing Protestants and Jews certain
freedoms to worship, a step permitted by Joseph as he argued that any church could be made
obedient to the state. Monasteries were either dissolved or their members reduced in number on
the grounds that many were useless, or wasteful; their properties were confiscated, and the
revenues used to fund state reorganisation of parishes, and state-controlled schools, shops, or
factories. All links between the papacy and the Hapsburg Church were abolished or controlled,
since the pope was viewed principally as a foreign political power.
PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH [1733-1804] – Nonconformist minister famous for his work in the
chemistry of gases who also published his ideas on philosophy, religion, education, and political
theory. Priestly was born into a strict Calvinist family then became a dissenting minister and by
27 was a teacher of classics and literature at a Dissenting Academy in Warrington. He received
a doctor of law degree from University of Edinburgh and a fellowship of the Royal Society [see
1662]. In 1767 he became the minister of a congregation in Mill Hill Leeds which shared his
views. Although before this he had rejected the doctrine of the Atonement and of the Trinity, now
he took the final step to Unitarianism [see 1558] and argued that Christ was only a man. When
the French Revolution broke out Priestley supported it and because of this a Birmingham mob
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broke into his house and destroyed his belongings. Discouraged by the turn of events he went to
America in 1794 settling in Northumberland Pennsylvania where he spent the last 10 years of his
life.
1768
BOEHM, MARTIN – American Mennonite of Swiss ancestry who was chosen by lot at the age of
31 to become the pastor of the Mennonite congregation to which he belonged. In his itinerant
preaching he was willing to preach in English which displeased the Mennonites and they
denounced and expelled him. He met Philip Otterbein [see 1752] at a preaching meeting at
Lancaster in 1768 and they co-founded the Church of the United Brethren in Christ with both of
them bishops.
CORNWALLIS, FREDERICK – Archbishop of Canterbury [1768-1783]. He was born in London,
the seventh son of Charles Cornwallis, 4th Baron Cornwallis. He was educated at Eton
College and graduated from Christ's College, Cambridge. He was ordained a priest in 1742, and
became a doctor of divinity in 1748. Cornwallis was able to ascend quickly in the Church thanks
to his aristocratic connections, and in 1746 was made chaplain to King George II and a canon of
Windsor. In 1750 he became a canon at St Paul's Cathedral, and later that same year became
bishop of Lichfield and Coventry thanks to the patronage of the duke of Newcastle, then
secretary of state. On the death of Thomas Secker in 1768, his friendship with the then prime
minister, the duke of Grafton, resulted in his appointment as archbishop of Canterbury. As
archbishop, his social skills and good humour made him popular. He was a consistent supporter
of the administration of Lord North, and led efforts in support of dispossessed Anglican clergy in
the American colonies during the American Revolution. On the whole, Cornwallis has generally
been judged as a competent administrator, but an uninspiring leader of the eighteenth century
church whose lack of zeal paved the way for the differing responses of both the Evangelicals and
the Oxford Movement in the early 19th century. His nephew was Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquis
Cornwallis who was a British general during the American Revolution and later became
governor-general of India. He succeeded Thomas Secker [see 1758] and was succeeded by
John Moore [see 1783].
COUNTESS OF HUNTINGDON CONNECTION [1707-1791] – A body founded by Countess
Selina Hastings after her conversion and joining the Methodists. More calvinistic than Wesley
she appointed evangelical Anglicans as her chaplains among them George Whitefield [see
below]. She funded in 1768 a college in South Wales for the training of evangelical clergy. The
Countess also helped to sponsor Whitefield’s orphanages in Georgia, took interest in American
Indians, and encouraged the beginnings of Dartmouth College and Princetown University in
America.
EMS, CONGRESS OF [1768] – This was a meeting at Ems of the representatives of the three
elector-archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier and the prince-archbishop of Salzburg. It
sought to prevent a papal move to establish a new see at Munich that would have enabled the
Bavarian Crown to communicate directly with the Romans instead of going through the
archbishops as before. Another see was created at Cologne. The leaders of the congress said
that they would accept only a limited primacy of the pope, require Episcopal agreement to papal
communications and decrees, discontinue appeals to Rome and payment to the Roman Curia
and hold authority over members of religious orders themselves. Joseph II approved the
recommendations of the congress but many bishops and German princes opposed them as an
unwarranted use of authority by the archbishops. The effect of the French Revolution in
Germany terminated the controversy.
WITHERSPOON, JOHN [1723-1794] – President of Princeton University, Witherspoon was a
descendant of John Knox. He graduated from Edinburgh and ministered in the parishes of Beith
and Paisley. He attacked abuses in the church and satirised the Moderates [see 1733] as
“paganised Christian ministers”. He accepted the presidency of Princeton in 1768 and held it for
25 years. He made a number of improvements and lectured in divinity, moral philosophy, and
eloquence. He worked for union with Congregationalists and Dutch Reformed, and favoured a
general assembly, and influenced Scots and Irish Presbyterians to support the Whigs.
Witherspoon encouraged the Declaration of Independence and was the only cleric and educator
to sign it.
1769
CLEMENT XIV – Pope [1769-1774]. He received his education from the Jesuits at Rimini and in
1724, at the age of nineteen, entered the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor Conventual. He
became a friend of Pope Benedict XIV (1740–58). In 1758 he was appointed by that pope to
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investigate the issue of the traditional blood libel regarding the Jews which he found to be untrue.
He was elected Pope Clement XIV on 19th May 1769 and was installed on 4th June, 1769, after
a conclave that had been sitting since 15th February 1769. Deliberations were heavily
influenced by the political manoeuvres of the ambassadors of Catholic sovereigns who were
opposed to the Jesuits. His policies were calculated from the outset to smooth the breaches with
the Catholic crowns that had developed during the previous pontificate. The dispute between the
temporal and the spiritual Catholic authorities was seen as a threat by Church authority, and
Clement XIV worked towards the reconciliation of the European sovereigns. The pope went on to
engage in the suppression of the Jesuits, the decree to this effect being written in November
1772, and signed in July 1773.
Pope Clement XIV and the customs of the Catholic Church in Rome are described in letters
of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his father Leopold Mozart written from Rome in April and May
of 1770 during their tour of Italy the same year. Leopold found the upper clergy offensively
haughty, but was received by the pope with his son after Wolfgang demonstrated an amazing
feat of musical memory. The papal chapel was famous for performing a Miserere mei, Deus by
the seventeenth-century composer Gregorio Allegri whose music was not to be copied outside of
the chapel on pain of excommunication. The fourteen-year-old Wolfgang was able to transcribe
the composition in its entirety after a single hearing. Clement XIV knighted the young Mozart, the
only ruler who ever accorded him a similar honour in his lifetime. Ever after, Mozart was able to
pass himself off as a noble when he cared to. Clement XIV succeeded Clement XIII [see 1758]
and was succeeded by Pius VI [see 1775].
MELETIUS II – Patriarch of Constantinople [1769] succeeded Samuel I [see 1763]. There is no
additional information readily available.
OBERLIN, JEAN FREDERIC [1740-1826] – Alsatian Lutheran minister and philanthropist. He
studied theology at Strasbourg and in 1769 became a pastor in Waldersbach. He was a social
reformer through his endeavours in the formation of schools, building roads and bridges,
encouraging better agricultural techniques, and establishment of factories, stores, and savings
and loans associations. Although deeply pious and devoted to his parishioners he had an
ecumenical outlook which embraced both Catholics and Calvinists. He welcomed the French
Revolution. Under various French regimes he was admired for his philanthropic ways and many
in the church regarded his love of Christ and deep mystical devotion combined with a desire to
promote the welfare of mankind as a symbol of hope.
THEODOSIUS II – Patriarch of Constantinople [1769-1773] succeeded Meletius II [see above].
There is no additional information readily available.
1770
CARLYLE, ALEXANDER [1722-1805] – Moderator of the Church of Scotland in this year. A
Scottish minister known by the nickname “Jupiter” because of his imposing appearance and a
brilliant conversationalist who scandalised many by going openly to the theatre and playing cards
at home “with unlocked doors”. He was very capable at pastoral work being ordained as a
minister at Inveresk in 1746, a post he held to his death.
HOPKINS, SAMUEL [1721-1803] – Congregationalist theologian of the New England Theology
or Hopkinsianism [see 1750]. He trained at Yale and was ordained in 1743 as a pastor in
Massachusetts. In 1770 he became pastor of the Congregational Church in Newport Rhode
Island. He was an early exponent of the abolitionist cause seeing slavery is a moral evil. He was
even better known for his modification of Calvinism.
KANT, IMMANUEL [1724-1804] – German philosopher born into a Pietist family in Prussia and
lived there all his life. He was professor of logic and metaphysics in the University of Konigsberg
from 1770. His contact with the ideas of David Hume [see 1739] awoke him from his dogmatic
slumbers and turned him into the critical philosopher of the “Critique of Pure Reason” and later
works. Kant had a view that any knowledge of God is impossible and this has been extremely
influential in Protestantism ever since. Theology has become anthropology. With the view that
God is unknowable has gone a recasting of classic dogmatic theology from the notion of
revelation onward.
WELSH BIBLE – Published by Peter Williams and led to a revival of interest in the Scriptures.
YOANNIS XVIII - Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1770-1797] see 1745 and 1797 He became a
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monk in the Monastery of Saint Anthony. At the death of Pope Markos he was unanimously
chosen to succeed him. During his papacy, Pope Pius VI of Rome attempted to attract the
Eastern Churches to Roman Catholicism. Thus, he published the proceedings of the Council of
Chalcedon and distributed it in all the countries of the East. Pope Pius VI of Rome even sent an
envoy to Pope Yoannis XVIII of Alexandria asking him to unite with the Roman Catholic Church.
The famous scholar and theologian Joseph el-Abbah, Bishop of Girga responded to the
message, refuting its claims and defending Orthodoxy. During his papacy the Copts were
persecuted by the Ottoman rulers. The ”Jizya” was increased to unprecedented amounts of
money, and those who could not pay it had to convert to Islam or be executed. The commander
of the Ottoman army stationed in Egypt seized the treasury of the Patriarchate and confiscated
all its funds. Pope John XVIII had to go into hiding for some time. The Pope was a good friend of
the famous Coptic layman Ibrahim El-Gohary. Together, they worked on restoring monasteries
and churches. They also prepared the Holy Myron.
1771-1780 AD
1771
CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS [1740-1815] – Poet and Hymn Writer. Claudius was born at Reinfeld,
near Lübeck, and studied at Jena. He spent the greater part of his life in the little town of
Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, where he earned his first literary reputation by editing from 1771 to
1775, a newspaper called the Wandsbeck Messenger, in which he published a large number of
prose essays and poems. They were written in pure and simple German, and appealed to the
popular taste; in many there was a vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque, while others
were full of quiet meditation and solemn sentiment. In his later days Claudius became strongly
pietistic, and the graver side of his nature showed itself. He is known for his harvest hymn sung
both in German and English “We plough the fields and scatter” In 1814 he moved to Hamburg, to
the house of his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph Perthes, where he died in 1815.
SOPHRONIOS V Patriarch of Jerusalem [1771-1775] see 1766 and 1775
SWEDENBORG, EMANUEL [1688-1772] – Swedish scientist, philosopher, and theologian who
was the son of a minister who was later appointed bishop of Skara. Emanual became very
interested in mathematics and natural sciences and in 1709 went abroad to study languages and
mechanics at London, Oxford, Amsterdam, and Paris. He returned to Sweden and was
appointed assessor of the Royal Board of Mines from 1715 to 1747 when he resigned to study
the Scriptures. He was made a noble in 1719 and now applied himself to discover the nature of
the soul and spirit by means of anatomical studies. He experienced strange dreams and visions
which increasing frequency after 1739 and led to a profound spiritual crisis in 1743-1745 relieved
by a vision of Jesus Christ which he felt confirmed his interpretation of Christianity. In 1787 his
religious followers organised into a group known as the New Church or New Jerusalem Church
[see 1787].
1772
1773
BARCLAY, JOHN [1734-1798] – The founder of the Bereans who trained as a Presbyterian
minister at St Andrews where he came under the influence of Dr Archibald Campbell. He went to
England and in 1773 was ordained in Newcastle. He believed that man could not reach belief in
God using rationalism, that the revealed truth of the Bible could only be received by illumination
of the Holy Spirit, that assurance of salvation is the hallmark of Christianity and that unbelief is a
sin against the Holy Spirit.
BEREANS – Founded by John Barclay [see above]. After Barclay’s death the Berean Church in
Edinburgh flourished for twenty five years under James Donaldson. However after Donaldson’s
death the Bereans split and like other Berean churches eventually merged with the
Congregationalists.
DIDEROT, DENIS [1713-1784] – French encyclopaedist and key figure of the Enlightenment
[see 1793] was educated in local Jesuit schools and in Paris where he received his master’s
degree in 1732. He married his secretary in 1743. He became editor-in-chief of the
Encyclopaedia which monumental enterprise was his chief occupation until its completion in
1772. He travelled through Russia in 1773-1774 meeting Catherine the Great, who purchased
his library, paying in advance to provide his daughter’s dowry.
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EMMONS, NATHANIEL [1745-1840] – Congregational theologian who was educated at Yale
college and entered the ministry of the Congregational Church. He served as a pastor in
Massachusetts from 1773-1827 during which period he published more than 200 articles in
periodicals, and personally instructed about 100 young men in theology and preaching, many of
whom obtained positions of leadership in the church and in theological education. He generally
followed the teachings of Jonathan Edwards [see 1740] as developed by Samuel Hopkins [see
1770]. He helped to found the Massachusetts Missionary Society, favoured the abolition of
slavery, was a zealous patriot during the American Revolution, and became a Federalist
thereafter.
HOWARD, JOHN [1726-1790] – Prison reformer, born in Hackney. After a short period as
apprentice to a grocer came into a modest inheritance in 1742 and travelled in Europe. After one
trip to Portugal his boat was captured by a pirate on the return journey and he was imprisoned in
France. This caused him to reflect on where his life was going. In 1758 he settled in Bedfordshire
where he built model cottages, promoted educational experiments, and developed rural
industries. He travelled again after the death of his second wife and on his return in 1773 was
made high sheriff of Bedfordshire. Thereafter he devoted his time, strength, and a good part of
his fortune to the reform of conditions in prisons in England and Europe. He publicised terrible
conditions in many institutions and agitated for reform. In 1789 he took his last journey which led
him to Prussia and Poland and on to Russia where he caught camp fever and died. Howard was
a very earnest evangelical Christian whose life was devoted to the cause of prison reform.
1774
QUEBEC ACT [1774] – An act of the British Parliament which superseded the Royal
Proclamation of 1763, this was the constitution of the colony of Quebec. The Act extended the
boundaries to the west and south so that they approached the earlier limits of the French colony.
The Roman Catholic Church was officially recognised and permitted to collect its accustomed
dues. English criminal law remained in force. The Act marked the abandonment of the policy of
assimilation or Anglicisation and was resented by the English in Quebec and the other British
North American colonies.
SOPHRONIUS II – Patriarch of Constantinople [1774-1780] succeeded Samuel I [see 1763].
There is no additional information readily available.
1775
ABRAHAM II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1775-1787] see 1771 and 1787
ALLINE, HENRY [1748-1784] – Born in Rhode Island, Alline underwent an unusually powerful
conversion experience in 1775. He became an itinerant preacher and started a revival called the
“New Light “ movement. Leader of the Great Awakening Movement in Nova Scotia fostering the
growth of Baptist churches in that Canadian province even though many considered him a
fanatic.
AMERICAN NEGRO CHURCHES were first known in America in a Baptist Church founded at
Silver Bluff Carolina in 1775. Prior to that slaves attended church with their master or were
provided minimal religious instruction by master, pastor or missionary. After the Great
Awakening [see 1740], Baptist and Methodist missionaries reached them with simple, personal
gospels giving them more meaning in their lives. After the Civil War there was a great expansion
in Negro churches. The migration to the cities after World War I contributed to the rise of the
storefront church and numerous organised cults such as Black Muslims, Black Jews, and Father
Divine’s Peace Mission. The theology of the orthodox Negro churches is typically fundamentalist
and evangelical and they have a greater proportion of ministers and churches than the general
population of America. The struggle for racial and social equality has created a crisis of identity
within many Negro churches.
DES BRISAY, THEOPHILUS [1755-1825] – The first Anglican clergymen on Prince Edward
Island when he went there in 1775, and although the only Protestant clergyman he received no
stipend and so became the chaplain for the army regiment stationed there. He was a tolerant
churchman, and welcomed the Methodist evangelist William Black during the latter's preaching
tour of 1783.
FULLER, ANDREW [1754-1815] – Baptist theologian who was the son of a Cambridge farmer
and a powerful wrestler in his youth. He was ordained as a minister of the Baptist Church in
1775. Entirely self-taught Fuller was the greatest original theologian among 18th century Baptists.
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He had been brought up among the hyper Calvinist but due to his studies became an evangelical
Calvinist and this involved him in various controversies with hyper Calvinists. As the Baptist
Church is Britain responded increasingly to his evangelicalism, Fuller's role in denominational
affairs grew more important and he had a profound influence on William Carey [see 1793] and
the Baptist Missionary Society for which he was a secretary from 1792 to 1815.
GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON [1749-1832] – German poet, novelist, and scientist. As a
student of law at Leipzig and Strasbourg he became interested in occult philosophy and
mysticism. In 1775 he was appointed to the court at Weimar and had at this time and increasing
interest in scientific questions. The central philosophical influences on him were those of
Spinoza, Jacobi, and Kant. Goethe's religious views were ambiguous as he was a pantheist
when studying nature but a monotheist in morality.
GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB [1745-1812] – German New Testament scholar who became
professor at Halle in 1773 and professor of New Testament at Jena in 1775. He was the first
critic to make systematic application of literary analysis to the Gospels, maintaining that Mark
was the latest of synoptic gospel basing his work on Matthew and Luke (the ‘dependence
theory’). Subsequent New Testament criticism has built on his work.
MILNER, ISAAC [1750-1820] – Evangelical clergyman who after his father's death became a
weaver and managed to teach himself Latin and Greek and mathematics. When he was 18 his
brother Joseph [see 1797] became headmaster of Hull Grammar School and appointed Isaac to
the staff. Joseph then paid for Isaac to go to Queens College Cambridge. He was ordained in
1775 and in 1784 went to France with William Wilberforce [see 1807] and their reading of the
New Testament together led to Wilberforce's conversion. Back in Cambridge Milner encouraged
the spreading of the Evangelical influence. He was made a dean of Carlisle in 1791. He has
been described as “an Evangelical Doctor Johnson” and was learned in many fields of science,
mathematics and philosophy.
PIUS VI – Pope [1775-1799]. Born of noble parents and educated by the Jesuits. In 1740 he
went to Rome and eventually became secretary to Benedict XIV, however, he was not ordained
until 1758. In 1773 he was created cardinal despite his opposition to the Jesuit Order which took
place the same year. As pope, by delicate diplomatic efforts, he contrived to secure the Jesuits
resettlement in Prussia and Russia. In the Holy Roman Empire Febronianism spread rapidly with
the encouragement of the archbishop electors though at the Ems Congress of 1786 their aims
were cleverly frustrated by the pope and the movement soon came to the end. Most seriously
Josephinism in the Hapsburg Empire led to the pope’s journeying to Vienna in 1782 to plead with
the reforming emperor. The following year after the threat of excommunication Emperor Joseph
returned to visit Pius who partially reasserted his authority. When four years later Joseph tried to
extend his policies to the Spanish Netherlands the devoutly Catholic inhabitants rose in a clerical
nationalist revolt and the pope had the satisfaction of seeing princely reforms opposed by the
people themselves. The French Revolution and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790 led
the pope to anathematise the revolutionaries and those clerics who accepted the reform. This
caused the Papal States to be in the first anti French Coalition of 1796 but this led to the invasion
of the Papal States and the seizure of Rome itself in 1798. Pius was captured and carried away
by the French which led to his death in the depths of an Alpine winter of 1799. He succeeded
Clement XIV [see 1769] and was succeeded by Pius VII [see 1800].
SAILER, JOHANN MICHAEL [1751-1832] – Jesuit scholar who entered the Jesuits in 1770 and
was ordained in 1775. Five years later he became professor of dogmatics at Ingolstadt and this
was followed by other academic appointments. As the mentor of prospective priests, Sailer
influenced a circle of evangelicals which included Martin Boos [see 1797], Johannes Gossner
[see 1829], and Baron von Wessenberg [see 1817]. In 1829 Sailer was appointed bishop of
Regensburg.
1776
PAINE, THOMAS [1737-1809] – Deistic writer and political propagandist. Born in Norfolk he was
a corset maker, tax collector, teacher, and grocer until he sailed to America in 1774 with letters
of introduction from Benjamin Franklin [see 1732]. In 1776 he published his famous “Common
Sense” which argued for a republic. He returned to England in 1787 and in 1792 was indicted for
treason on publication of his book “The Rights of Man”. He escaped to France where he had
been made a citizen, and published “The Age of Reason”, which brought imprisonment and
roused British indignation with its Deistic arguments. He returned to America in 1802 and died
there seven years later having alienated most of his friends by his unpredictable allegiances.
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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [see also 1607 and 1914] – The Reformation led to a host of
national churches, sects, and dissenters, and the refuge for many of those persecuted in Europe
was colonial America. In 1790 the religious groups in the majority were British in background and
Puritan in Theology, and even among the remaining minorities, Germans, Dutch, French, and
Swedes, the Protestant background prevailed. The Great Awakening gave Puritanism a
decidedly evangelical character, and the spiritual vision that had almost disappeared was
revitalised. When the winds of revolution filled the air, many of the churches were in support of
independence. Because of religious diversity the Declaration of Independence banned any test
for public office and separated the spheres of church and state. Immediately people began
streaming westward, by 1860 states were rapidly forming west of the Mississippi, and the
Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians proved most adaptable to the frontier. Revivalism was
the preaching used to reach the un-churched masses which sought to make listeners vividly
aware of their eternal destiny, and “camp meetings” of great outdoor gatherings lasted several
days. Sunday Schools, academies, and societies for social reforms were developed. However,
the generation just prior to the Civil War was marked by controversy and division among the
denominations. The Roman Catholic Church whose beginnings went back to the Franciscan
missions in the Southwest received an influx of immigrants especially from Ireland which caused
Protestant fears. The greatest cause of controversy however was the national slavery issue with
the agricultural boom in the South dependent upon slave labour and a radical abolitionist
movement in the North contributing to the widening breach of the country with denominations
torn apart by diverging ideologies. During reconstruction various church agencies poured money
and men into the South to bring religion and education to the Negroes just released from slavery
with Baptist and Methodist churches having the greatest appeal to the Negro. After 1860
independent Lutheran churches were formed from waves of Scandinavian immigrants and after
1880 millions of additional Roman Catholics from Eastern and Southern Europe. Another conflict
swirled around the emerging social conscience within the churches with certain Protestant
leaders calling for the application of the principles of Jesus to the new industrial-urban problems.
This new concern was labelled the “Social Gospel” with its most persuasive advocate in Walter
Rauschenbusch, and its goals stated in the Social Creed of the Federal Council of Churches.
1777
COKE, THOMAS [1747-1814] – Methodist preacher and missionary enthusiast who was closely
associated with Wesley from 1777 who set him aside as superintendent for America seven years
later. He was a staunch opponent of slavery and a vigorous promoter of missions organising the
Negro Mission in the West Indies and developed missionary activity in Gibraltar, Sierra Leone,
and the Cape of Good Hope. He died on his way to Ceylon with a party of missionaries.
1778
BRETHREN IN CHRIST – Originated in a society formed along the Susquehanna River in
Pennsylvania by Jacob and John Engel of Swiss Mennonite [see 1536] ancestry. After a century
of fairly quiet growth the group burst into activity beginning Sunday schools, orphanages, homes
for the aged, and education as well as missions. By 1970 more than one third of their members
were in mission churches in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
1779
COWPER, WILLIAM [1731-1800] – English poet who suffered all his life with depression which
more than once developed into mania. From 1765 he was cared for by Mary Unwin until her
death in 1796 which did much to keep Cowper serene and happy. In collaboration with John
Newton [see below ] were published the Olney Hymns in 1779 including “O for a closer walk with
God”, “God moves in a mysterious way”, “Hark my soul it is the Lord”, as well as the
controversial “There is a fountain filled with blood”. The most moving expressions in his poetry
relate to his intense feeling of his own predetermined damnation especially in his last terrible
poem ”The Castaway”.
NEWTON, JOHN [1725-1807] – Anglican clergyman and hymn writer, son of a merchant who
had an unstable childhood and was forced to join the Royal Navy. He tried to escape but was
arrested in West Africa and eventually became virtually the slave of a white slave trader’s black
wife who completely humiliated him and he lived hungry and destitute for two years involved in
the slave trade. In 1747 he boarded a ship for England and a violent storm in the north Atlantic
nearly sank them. For Newton it was a moment of revelation and he turned the God.
Nevertheless further slave trading followed but in 1755 he gave up the sea and in 1764 he
became curate of Olney in Buckinghamshire. There he met the poet William Cowper [see 1779]
and with him produced the “Olney Hymns” of which a number are still in common use including
“Amazing Grace”, “How sweet the name of Jesus sounds”, and “Glorious things of thee are
spoken”. In 1779 Newton moved to London and became vicar of St Mary's Woolnoth. His
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influence was widely felt especially in the evangelical world. Handel's Messiah made an
enormous impact in London and Newton preached a famous series of sermons on the texts in
the Messiah that Handel had used for the lyrics. After one of the sermons the young William
Wilberforce [see 1807] sought his counsel. Newton played a part in the abolition of the slave
trade because of his relationship with Wilberforce.
PERRONET, EDWARD [1726-1792] – Hymn Writer and Poet. He was the son of an Anglican
priest, who worked closely with John and Charles Wesley for many years in England's
eighteenth century revival. He is perhaps most famous for penning the lyrics to the well known
hymn, "All Hail the Power of Jesus' Name" in 1779. He was born Kent and was the descendant
of a French Huguenot family which fled first to Switzerland and then to England to escape
religious persecution. At the time, persecution of Methodists was common. John Wesley once
noted in his diary that Edward himself "was thrown down and rolled in mud and mire" at Bolton.
Though considered a capable preacher, Perronet was uneasy about doing so in front of John
Wesley, despite Wesley's persistent urging. After wearying of his requests, Wesley simply
announced one day that Brother Perronet would speak. Edward cleverly managed to escape
Wesley's intention by mounting the pulpit, declaring he would deliver the greatest sermon ever
preached, and proceeding to read Christ's "Sermon on the Mount"; after which, he immediately
sat down. During his life, Edward published three volumes of Christian poems, including a poetic
rendering of the Scriptures. Shortly before he died on January 2, l792 in Canterbury he uttered
these last words: "Glory to God in the height of His divinity! Glory to God in the depth of his
humanity! Glory to God in His all sufficiency! Into His hands I commend my spirit." Perronet was
buried in the Canterbury Cathedral.
1780
BAMPTON LECTURES were named after Canon John Bampton who died in 1751 and in his will
endowed an annual lectureship to St May’s Church Oxford. He specified that the lectures shall
cover the defence of the Christian faith set out in the creeds and on the authority of the
Scriptures and Church Fathers. The lectures were first given in 1780.
EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED [1752-1827] – German biblical scholar who became
professor at Jena in 1775 and at Gottingen in 1788. He dismissed as spurious many of the Old
Testament books and was a pioneer of Higher Criticism. His three volume introduction to the Old
Testament was influential for many years after its publication in 1780-1783. He was one of the
early advocates of the so-called primitive gospel hypothesis, which holds that all three Synoptic
gospels are based on a lost Aramaic gospel.
GABRIEL IV – Patriarch of Constantinople [1780-1785] succeeded Sophronius II [see 1774].
There is no additional information readily available.
GORDON RIOTS [1780] – These broke out in London on 2nd June when Lord George Gordon
led a mob to the House of Commons with a petition for the repeal of the Catholic Relief Act of
1778. Lord George was a fanatical anti-papist and became president of the Protestant
Association in 1779. The demonstrations soon became violent. Roman Catholic chapels were
destroyed. On 6th June, Newgate and other prisons were burned down and the following day
attacks made upon the Bank. While the magistrates were acting feebly, the crowd had been
swollen by released criminals and resorted to wholesale looting. Many of the rioters were
convicted and 25 executed. Gordon was arrested for high treason but was acquitted then he was
later convicted for libel and died in Newgate prison in 1793.
HORNE, GEORGE [1730-1792] – Bishop of Norwich who was educated Oxford and was dean of
Canterbury in 1781 before going to Norwich in 1790. He was a High Churchman but
sympathised with Methodist spiritual earnestness. He strongly disapproved of the expulsion of
Methodist students from St. Edmunds Hall Oxford and refused to forbid John Wesley to preach
in his diocese. He actively promoted the Naval and Military Bible Society founded in 1780 and
supported the cause of Scottish bishops who petitioned Parliament in 1789. He wrote a
commentary on Psalms, interpreting them messianically.
PALEY, WILLIAM [1743-1805] – Anglican scholar, archdeacon of Carlisle from 1780. Educated
at Cambridge, Paley gained fame through his books. He was not an original or subtle thinker but
he was an unrivalled expositor of plain arguments. His “Natural Theology” of 1802 sought to
prove the being and goodness of God from the order of the world. Paley took a lax view of the 39
Articles and was perhaps inclined to Unitarianism [see 1558] on certain points although he was a
conservative apologist of the Church of England and the British Constitution.
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RAIKES, ROBERT [1735-1811] – Promoter of Sunday schools. He was the publisher of the
“Gloucester Journal” through which he was enabled to maintain his interest in neglected children.
After meeting with Thomas Stock [1749-83] who had started a Sunday school in Ashbury, Raikes
set up one in his own parish in 1780 which met a glaring need. The idea caught fire and schools
sprang up in other places. Despite popular opinion however he is not the movement's founder
and never claimed to be. By 1786 some 200,000 children were being taught in England and a
London society for establishing Sunday schools had been organised by William Fox in 1785.
They spread into Wales in 1789 through Thomas Charles of Bala [see 1784] as well as to
Scotland, Ireland, and America. John Wesley encouraged them and Adam Smith praised their
cultivating of good manners. They taught children to read and write along with giving Bible
instruction. At first teachers were paid, later they volunteered. In 1803 a Sunday School Union
was founded.
RANDALL, BENJAMIN [1749-1808] – Founder and organiser of the Freewill Baptists. Born in
New Hampshire he early went to sea with his father and became a sail maker. Three sermons by
George Whitefield [see 1737] and the shock of Whitefield's death converted him in 1770. He
became a Congregationalist but his views led him in 1776 to become a Baptist. He was ordained
in 1780 and organised a Free Baptist Church. He drew up the covenant which became the basis
of the later Freewill Baptist Church. His ardent evangelism won so many that by 1783 he
organised a quarterly and in 1792 a yearly meeting of his group. When he died there are about
6000 adherents.
RICCI, SCIPONE DE’ [1741-1810] – Bishop of Pistoia-Prato. Originally from Florence he was
influenced by Jansenism in the Roman College and while a student at Pisa encountered
Gallicanism. Ricci was ordained in 1766 and became vice general of the archdiocese of Florence
in 1755 and bishop of Pistoia-Prato in 1780. In 1783 he founded a theological college at Prato
with lecturers who were sympathetic with his views. He presided over the Synod of Pistola in
1786 where his schismatic propositions brought his downfall. His final years were spent in
confinement. Zeal for reform and lack of proper training made his innovations dangerous and
subject to political pressures.
SUNDAY SCHOOLS – The beginnings of an organised movement are usually dated from 1780
when Robert Raikes [see 1780], a Gloucester journalist established a small school to care for the
local slum children who were neglected and illiterate. He wrote an article about his work which
caught people's imaginations and encouraged the setting up of Sunday schools throughout
England. The movement spread to the Continent and to America where the First Day Society
was established in Philadelphia in 1790. Raikes saw the culmination of his efforts when the
Sunday School Union was founded in 1803 and received great support in evangelical circles.
1781-1790 AD
1781
1782
SIMEON, CHARLES [1759-1836] – Evangelical leader who was educated at Cambridge and on
entering the college discovered that attendance at Communion was compulsory. His preparation
to take the sacrament was the main factor in his subsequent conversion. His own adoption of
evangelical views was fostered by his friendship with Henry and John Venn [see 1749 and
1783]. Appointed vicar of Holy Trinity in Cambridge in 1782 he ministered there until his death.
He overcame early opposition mainly through the pastoral care he gave, and while firmly
attached to the Church of England, he became the centre of the evangelicalism in Cambridge.
As well as encouraging the British and Foreign Bible Society he helped to found the Church
Missionary Society and the London Jews Society, and his curate Henry Martyn [see 1805] as a
chaplain of the East India Company became one of India's best known pioneer missionaries. He
established the Simeon Trust, which purchased livings for Evangelicals, and this trust still exists.
1783
CRABBE, GEORGE [1754-1832] – English poet who was born in Suffolk and hence much of his
poetry was set in that county including “The Village” of 1783 which is an exposure of social
conditions in a small seaside community. He was successively rector at Muston and
Trowbridge. There is a strong underlying moral comment in his skilful analyses of character and
action and this is found also in his sermons.
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GERASIMUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1783-1788] see 1766 and 1788
JONES, THOMAS [1756-1820] – Welsh Calvinistic Methodist theologian whose education was
limited but it gave him an excellent grounding in the classics. He began to preach among the
Calvinistic Methodists in 1783 and ministered to their societies for the next 40 years. He was
closely associated with Thomas Charles after whose death in 1814 Jones was the most learned
and distinguished leader of the Calvinistic Methodists. In the theological controversies that
dominated Welsh intellectual life at the beginning of the 19th century he took a firm but moderate
Calvinist position.
MOORE, JOHN – Archbishop of Canterbury [1783-1805]. He was the son of a butcher from
Gloucester and was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford. Patronage from the third duke of
Marlborough gained him a position at Durham Cathedral in 1761 and held a number of other
positions including bishop of Bangor [1774-1783] before taking up his appointment of archbishop
of Canterbury which he held until his death in 1805. He succeeded Frederick Cornwallis [see
1768] and was succeeded by Charles Manners Sutton [see 1805].
VENN, JOHN [1759-1815] – Clapham Sect chaplain who was the son of Henry Venn [see 1749].
He was educated at Cambridge and became a rector in Norfolk in 1783 and nine years later
became rector at Clapham through Charles Simeon [see 1782]. The Thorntons, Wilberforce and
Zachary Macaulay were among his parishioners and he became virtually the chaplain to the
Clapham Sect of Christian political activists [see 1844]. Venn took an active part in the formation
of the Church Missionary Society. His health, always bad, required his resignation of these
duties in 1808.
1784
ALLEN, ETHAN [1737-1789] – American soldier and exponent on Deism who was the military
leader of the Green Mountain Boys of Vermont during the War of Independence and captured
Fort Ticonderoga .He then identified himself with the ideals of the French Enlightenment and
became Deistic in outlook. In 1784 he wrote the first book to be published in America openly
attacking Christianity called “Reason the Only Oracle for Man” in which he rejected the Christian
claim that the Bible is the special revelation of God to man.
ASBURY, FRANCIS [1745-1816] – Born in Birmingham England, he was one of two American
Methodist bishops appointed by Wesley after responding to Wesley’s call for ministers for
America. He was viewed by some as autocratic but he emphasised discipline and the values of
itinerant ministry. Although sickly he travelled some 300,000 miles on horseback to nurture the
emerging denomination which by the time of his death had grown from a few hundred to a
membership of 200,000.
ARTICLES OF RELIGION was the doctrinal standard of the United Methodist Church of
America. In 1784 John Wesley prepared a revised and shortened version of the Thirty Nine
Articles [see 1536] for use in American Methodism. Wesley’s objective was to remove from the
Articles whatever inclined toward ritualism or Calvinism. The American Methodists added an
article of their own affirming their loyalty to the American government following the War of
Independence. The Twenty Five Articles were adopted in 1784 by the Baltimore Conference.
CHARLES, THOMAS [1755-1814] – Welsh Methodist educator. He was converted under the
ministry of Daniel Rowland [see 1763] and lived at Bala from 1784 being involved with the
Methodist Society. He organised Sunday Schools as an extension of day schools and from his
approach to the Religious Tract Society for Welsh Bibles in 1802 initiated the start of the British
and Foreign Bible Society [see 1804]. He was responsible for the separation of the Calvinistic
Methodist Church of Wales separating from the Anglican Church by ordaining ministers [see
1811].
1785
BALTIMORE CONFERENCE adopted the 25 articles of the Limited Methodist church of America
all except one having been drawn up by John Wesley. The 25th affirmed their loyalty to the
American Government.
BRAMWELL, WILLIAM [1759-1818] – Lancastrian Wesleyan preacher who was the tenth of
eleven children born to a devout Anglican family in Elswick. While apprenticed he devoted spare
time to Bible study and was converted but finding a lack of Christian companionship within the
Anglicans he joined the unpopular “Wesleyan devils” to the horror of his parents. He was an
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evangelist who led hundreds to the Lord and well known for his preaching, generosity and self
denial. He preached until the last, dying suddenly after declaring the Lord had told him he only
had a short time to live.
HALL, ROBERT [1764-1831] – English Baptist minister who was a precocious child writing
hymns before he was nine and preaching his first sermon at 11. He was educated at the famous
Nonconformist academy run by John Ryland and graduated in 1785 from Aberdeen University,
beginning his ministry in Bristol. Theologically he moved his position from an early Calvinism
view to a basically Arminian system. He was deeply interested in the rapid progress of scientific
research. In 1791 he moved to the pastorate of Cambridge. A period of ill health including two
mental breakdowns caused him to seek relief in drugs, then after a period of rest he became the
minister of a Baptist church in Leicester in 1807. Like many evangelicals of the time,
Nonconformist and Anglican, he took close interest in social need. He published a pamphlet
appealing for help for a fund to provide relief for the distressed stocking-makers of Leicester
during periods of unemployment. A germ of the Trade Union movement could be seen in this
development.
HOFBAUER, CLEMENT MARY [1751-1820] – Redemptorist [see 1732] priest whose father was
a Moravian grazier and butcher. He worked as a baker from his father's death in 1757 to 1771
and then for a period lived as a hermit until 1775. The generosity of three Viennese ladies saw
him through Vienna University, after which he went to Rome and joined the recently founded
Redemptorists. He was ordained in 1785, returned to Vienna, and then went to Warsaw from
1787 to 1808 doing a lot of pastoral work in urban schools; he founded several houses in
Poland, working mainly in the German-speaking population. Driven from Warsaw by Napoleon
he returned to Vienna. He established the Redemptionists in Austria in 1819 and at his death
Pius VII said “Religion in Austria has lost its chief support”.
PROCOPIUS I – Patriarch of Constantinople [1785-1789] succeeded Gabriel IV [see 1780].
There is no additional information readily available.
1786
JOHNSON, RICHARD [1753-1827] – Anglican clergymen who was educated at Cambridge and
was appointed as the first chaplain to the convict colony at Botany Bay, New South Wales,
Australia in 1786. He was a member of the Clapham Sect [see 1844] which helped to secure his
appointment. He conducted the first service in Australia on 3rd February 1788. As the only
chaplain his task was made more difficult by opposition from the military junta in the colony. He
built a church at his own expense. His emphasis on personal salvation brought charges of
Methodism against him. Independent observers however recognised his unsparing help towards
the sick among the convicts and the orphans. Like most government officials he acted as farmer
and magistrate but he made his main concern was for his clerical duties. Johnson left the colony
in 1800.
MACGREGOR, JAMES [1759-1820] – Presbyterian minister in Nova Scotia born and educated
in Edinburgh he was ordained in 1786. The following year he was sent to Pictou in Nova Scotia
by the General Associate Synod. He became concerned about the decline in moral and cultural
life in the Scottish communities there. Because of this he became a part-time itinerant minister
and appealed for more workers from Scotland. He was the first Presbyterian minister to preach
in New Brunswick and on Prince Edward Island. He aided the establishment of the Pictou
Academy in 1817.
PISTOIA, SYNOD OF [1786] – This was a Jansenist attempt at ecclesiastical renewal. Its 57
points of church reform included the desire for liturgical revision, a just distribution of church
goods, purification of private and public piety, and reorganisation of the clergy. Doctrine was
widely discussed and the proceedings published in many languages. The pope however
condemned many of the proposals.
WHITE, WILLIAM [1748-1836] – Organiser of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United
States of America. Born in Philadelphia he studied at the College of Philadelphia and was
ordained in England in 1772 serving in Christ Church and St Peter's in Philadelphia [1772-1836].
He was joint chaplain of the Continental Congress and its successor. White drafted the
constitution for the church to be free of state in which the laity were equally represented with the
clergy. He was elected bishop of Pennsylvania in 1786 and served in Philadelphia from 1787
until his death.
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1787
ALLEN, RICHARD [1760-1831] – American founder of the African Episcopal Methodist Church.
Born a slave he was sold to a farmer in Delaware. Converted under Methodist influences he was
allowed to conduct services in his home which resulted in the conversion of his master and
freedom for him and his family. He self-educated while working at woodcutting and hauling. He
began to preach in churches and his preaching attracted so many Africans to the services that it
caused a reaction from the white congregation. He withdrew from the Methodist Church to form
this predominantly black church group called the “Free African Society” in 1787. Fifteen other
Negro churches joined the group and he became the first bishop of the denomination in 1816.
CLARKSON, THOMAS [1760-1846] – Abolitionist and author who in 1785 wrote a prize winning
essay on abolition and two years later joined with William Wilberforce [see 1807] and others to
campaign on this issue. His main work was collecting information for the group. The campaign
was successful with the ending of the slave trade in 1807 and emancipation in the British Empire
in 1833.
HIGHER CRITICISM – This name seems to have been first applied to biblical literature by J. G.
Eichhorn [see 1780] in the preface to the second edition of his Old Testament Introduction in
1787. Higher criticism is so designated to distinguish it from lower or textual criticism. Although
higher criticism is essentially a positive term it is used by conservative Christians in a negative
sense.
HUNGARY [see also 1525] – Not until 1787 did Hungarian Protestants gain a degree of
freedom, when the Habsburg Edict of that year either eased or removed entirely the earlier
restrictions. Protestants were thereafter given the same civic rights as Roman Catholics. During
the 19th century Protestants in Hungary felt the effects of evangelical movements which were so
influential in Britain, Switzerland, and the USA. With the restoration of the monarchy in 1920 after
a short period of communist control, the religious situation of the 19th century was restored, but
in 1944 the Nazi regime was created which brought great hardship to both Protestants and
Catholics. When the Nazis gave way to Communists after World War II the situation was even
worse, and all branches of the Christian Church suffered from 1949.
INGLIS, CHARLES [1734-1816] – First Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia who was born and
educated in Ireland and ordained in London in 1758 before being sent as a missionary to
Delaware. In 1783 he sailed with a group of loyalists to Nova Scotia and in 1787 was
consecrated the first bishop of Nova Scotia. A devoted churchman and incessant traveller, he did
much to organise the Anglican cause in his diocese. Because of failing healthy he retired to his
farm in 1796 but remained active being named to the Council of Nova Scotia in 1809.
NEW JERUSALEM, CHURCH OF THE – This church is commonly called Swedenborgians and
was a group organised in London in 1787 by followers of the theological teaching of Emanuel
Swedenborg [see 1771]. The organisation and growth of the church is peculiar because the
movement was started by books without the influence of any personal leadership. Swedenborg
never preached a sermon and made no effort to gather followers about him but he left his Latin
works in 20 volumes to ministers and university librarians. They were translated and won
disciples who were organised by Robert Hindmarsh a Methodist. The emphasis in their worship
is liturgical concentrating on Jesus Christ with preaching based on the “inspired parts” of the
Bible, 29 books of the Old Testament and 5 in the New Testament. Baptism and Lord's Supper
are observed and in addition to the usual Christian holidays, New Church Day is observed on
June 19. The New Churches maintain active missionary programmes and have very successful
work in Africa.
PORTEUS, BEILBY [1731-1808] – Bishop of London who was educated at Cambridge and
became rector of Hunton where he displayed great pastoral concern. In 1762 he became
chaplain to Archbishop Secker [see 1758] and in 1769 a royal chaplain. He was appointed
bishop of Chester in 1776 and transferred to London in 1787. As bishop he encourage residency
of incumbents, better stipends for curates, regular preaching, and higher standards of clerical
duty. In the House of Lords he battled for public morality and vainly tried to hedge divorce
legislation. As bishop of London he was responsible for the overseas interests of the church, and
he opposed slavery and founded the “Christian Faith Society” for West Indian slaves and
proposed other forms of church mission. He was more sympathetic to the Evangelicals and
enterprises like the Church Missionary Society and the Bible Society than were most high
churchmen.
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PROCOPIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1787-1788] see 1775 and 1788
SHAKERS – The common name of the celibate communities of United Society of Believers in
Christ's Second Appearing which originated in the Quaker revivals of mid 18th century England.
Mother Ann Lee [d.1784] [see 1766] is generally considered the founder of the movement.
Persecution, limited success, and a direct revelation led Mother Ann and seven followers to
migrate to New York in 1774. In 1787 the first Shaker settlement was established at New
Lebanon, New York which became the main base of the society's missionary enterprise in
America. They believed that in Mother Ann the female principle of Christ was manifested and in
her the promise of the Second Coming was fulfilled. The society reached its zenith in the decade
before the Americans Civil War but by the second half of the 20th century only a handful of
Shakers remained in three small communities.
1788
ANTHIMOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1788-1808] see 1787 and 1808
HORSLEY, SAMUEL [1733-1806] – Anglican bishop who was educated at Cambridge and was
made a fellow of the Royal Society in 1767. He was consecrated bishop of St David’s in 1788,
Rochester in 1793, and St Asaph in 1802. He enjoyed science and was a High Churchmen and
a prominent Tory. He upheld the establishment and opposed all innovations, particularly Sunday
schools. Through the impact of the French Revolution he became mentally unbalanced and
remained so until he died.
MORE, HANNAH [1745-1833] – English writer and philanthropist who was born near Bristol
where she and her sisters developed a successful school. An unexpected settlement gave her
financial independence and enabled her to exploit a remarkable range of literary and artistic gifts
which were combined with marked administrative ability. In the second phase of her life from the
1780s John Newton [see 1779] became a strong influence and she was brought into close
contact with the entire evangelical community centred on Clapham [see 1844]. Hannah More
was much inspired by William Wilberforce who together with Henry Thornton financed many of
her activities. The local action was based on a Sunday School in Cheddar to which was attached
a school of industry, training personnel in spinning and domestic service. From about 1788 she
aimed at producing cheap tracts for a wide range of readers. The result financed by Thornton
was the series of Cheap Repository Tracts. Though the connection is not clear some of the
inspiration of the Religious Tract Society can be traced to the success of Hannah’s work.
Because of her work she caused some controversy. William Cobbett described her as the “Old
Bishop in Petticoats”. Hannah More never married but following the custom of the time assumed
the designation of Mrs.
PARTHENIUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1788-1805] see 1783 and 1805
1789
EVANS, CHRISTMAS [1766-1838] – Welsh Baptist preacher who was born on Christmas Day,
the son of a cobbler. He had some informal instruction by a well-known schoolmaster David
Davis as well as a short period at his school. He joined the Baptist Church and was sent as a
missionary to Caernarfon and was ordained in 1789. From 1791 to 1826 he ministered in
Anglesey and apart from a short period in southern Wales he was in the Caernarfon area until
the end of his life. Together with John Elias [see 1811] and William Williams [see 1744]
Christmas Evans is enshrined in Welsh tradition as one of the three greatest figures in the
history of the nation's preaching. These men were exceptionally able communicators with the
largely uneducated public of the period. His sermons on such themes as the Prodigal Son or the
Last Judgement became existential dramas of the most poignant kind at his hands. Evans’
preaching was inspired by profound personal godliness and a passion for souls however he
tended to be somewhat wayward in his theological opinions.
NEOPHYTUS VII – Patriarch of Constantinople [1789-1794, 1798-1801] succeeded Procopius I
[see 1785]. There is no additional information readily available.
UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS – Lord Dorchester, governor general of British North America,
proposed in 1789 to honour all those who had by their actions adhered to the unity of the empire.
These immigrants to British North America who came during and immediately after the American
Revolution settled in the Niagara Peninsula and in Nova Scotia were inscribed on a list and
entitled to distinguish themselves by affixing the letters U.E. to their names. The Loyalists
migration from south of the border altered the distribution of French and British in Canada in
favour of the British.
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1790
BRANT, JOSEPH [1742-1807] – Christian Mohawk Chief who was an Anglican convert.
Educated in Connecticut he became the assistant to Sir William Johnson Indian commissioner
who had sponsored his education. Chosen chief of the Mohawks he went to England in 1775
where he was well received. He was involved in the American War of Independence and
afterwards was given an estate in Canada at the head of Lake Ontario. He built the first church in
Upper Canada.
CARROLL, JOHN [1735-1815] – First Roman Catholic bishop in America. Educated in France by
the Society of Jesus. When they were dissolved in 1773 he returned to America and became the
leader of the Catholics in the colonies defending their rights to religious freedom. He founded
Georgetown College for the training of native priests. He became in 1808 the first archbishop of
Baltimore.
CLAPHAM SECT – The name given to a group of wealthy Anglican evangelicals who lived
mainly in Clapham London. Its most famous member was William Wilberforce around whom
included many talented people. Their most famous achievements were the establishment of
Sierra Leone as a colony for ex slaves in 1807 and the abolition of the slave trade in the British
colonies in 1833. There were also significant attempts to widen the basis of education and to
make the evangelical message known to the upper classes. They were also closely connected
with the foundation of the Church Missionary Society [1799], the British and Foreign Bible
Society [1804], and the successful parliamentary battle of 1813 to legalise the sending of
missionaries to India.
ENLIGHTENMENT, THE – A movement seen in particular clear-cut form in 18th century
Germany. Karl Barth characterised it as “a system founded upon the presumption of faith in the
omnipotence of human ability.” Emanuel Kant defined it in his Religion Within the Bounds of
Reason Only in 1793 as follows: “The Enlightenment represents man's emergence from a selfinflicted state of minority. A minor is one who is incapable of making use of his understanding
without guidance from someone else.” The concept was to seek a path yourself to absolute truth
through pure reason. Deists rejected supernatural revelation and expressed the concept that
man had developed beyond the need for Christianity. G. E. Lessing [see 1774] argued that truth
was found in Christianity, Islam and Judaism, therefore toleration was imperative. Based upon
the reliability of reason, The Enlightenment rejected both supernatural revelation and man's
sinfulness.
FRONTIER RELIGION – A reference to the character of Christianity on the American frontier
during the century of western expansion 1790-1890. Pioneer religion tended to encourage an
individualistic faith, emotion filled meetings, and democratic church government. Employing
revivals and camp meetings freely, Baptists and Methodists proved to be the most effective
denominations in winning frontiersmen to the Christian faith. The Baptist ministers were
generally farmers during the week and preachers of the ‘simple gospel’ on Sundays while the
Methodist circuit-riding preachers with their message of free will and free grace seemed to offer
the right combination of method and message for the scattered democratically minded
frontiersmen.
GREGOIRE, HENRI [1750-1831] – Bishop of Blois who was a Roman Catholic bishop of the
constitutional church during the French Revolution. He led the marathon session of the Third
Estate during the attack on the Bastille in 1789. He was the first priest to sign a loyalty oath of
the civil constitution of the clergy demanded by the constituent assembly of 1790. As bishop of
Blois 1790-1801 he was elected president of the National Assembly in 1792. At the height of the
Terror of 1793 Gregoire refused to reject his faith or remove his robes. His opposition to
Napoleon's conciliation with the Vatican caused his resignation as bishop in 1801.
VAN ESS, LEANDER [1772-1847] – German biblical scholar who entered the Benedictine Order
in 1790 and was ordained six years later. Appointed professor of Catholic theology at Marburg in
1812 he remained there for 10 years. In 1807 he collaborated with his cousin Karl and produced
a German translation of the New Testament with the Old Testament following in 1822.
Divergence from the Vulgate led to his version being placed on the Index. Nevertheless more
than half a million copies of the New Testament were circulated with financial aid from the British
and Foreign Bible Society.
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1791-1800 AD
1791
CLERGY RESERVES was the name applied to the one seventh of all land in Canada set aside
under the Canada Act of 1791 for the support and maintenance of protestant clergy. Because
the proceeds were used in the interests of the Church of England the other denominations soon
started to urge that the funds be used for the support of all denominations. This was realised in
the Imperial Act of 1840. The reserves were eventually secularised in 1854 with payments to
various denominations and the Anglicans and Presbyterians retaining their former grants of land.
CONSTITUTIONAL CHURCH – Established in France at the Revolution by the Civil Constitution
of the Clergy in 1790 and was organised in 1791 under the protection of the National Assembly
which had passed a law requiring all bishops , pastors and functionary priests to take an oath of
fidelity to the Civil Committee under the pain of deposition. After the fall of Robespierre in 1794 a
measure of toleration was adopted but the Thermidorian Convention adopted a regime in 1795
separating the state and churches thereby abandoning the Civil Convention and refusing to pay
Constitutional priests. When Napoleon concluded the Concordant of 1801 [see 1801] Pope Pius
VII [see 1800] had little difficulty in obtaining the church’s abolition.
HOPKINSON, FRANCIS [1737-1791] – American composer who was very active in the early
musical life of Philadelphia. He was one of the first American-born composers and took great
interest in church music as well as secular.
LOSEE, WILLIAM [b. c.1764] – Methodist Episcopal Church itinerant preacher from the New
York area who organised the first Methodist circuit in Upper Canada. While visiting relatives in
the Bay of Quinte in Upper Canada he preached a number of sermons which resulted in the
people asking for a permanent minister from the New York Conference. Losee himself was sent
and he set up a circuit by 1791. The following year the first Methodist church in Upper Canada
was built at Adolphustown. Losee was only the first of a number of itinerant preachers who came
to Canada as a result of the second great American frontier revival.
MCKENDREE, WILLIAM [1757-1835] – First American-born bishop of the Methodist Episcopal
Church. He was converted the age of 29 and with very little formal education began preaching
two years later. In 1790 Bishop Francis Asbury [see 1784] ordained him a deacon, and in 1791
an elder. He worked closely with Asbury and served on circuits for 20 years. He was elected
bishop in 1808 and served until his death in Tennessee.
MOZART, WOLFGANG AMADEUS [1756-1791] – Austrian composer whose meteoric and tragic
career began in Salzburg, where his father Leopold was the court composer to the ruling
archbishop. Taught by his father and briefly by several outstanding musicians encountered
during his childhood travels to the leading music centres in Europe, Mozart learned to compose
with a rapidity and sureness of technique that are almost beyond comprehension. Much of his
childhood and youth was spent on musical tours planned by his ambitious father. In his late
teens and early 20s he wrote much church music in the classical symphonic style. Among the
works which were written in Salzburg was the Coronation Mass. In 1782 Mozart's relations with
the archbishop reached an impasse and he moved to Vienna where he wrote only three more
sacred works an unfinished Mass in C Minor, the exquisite miniature Ave Verum and the
Requiem which others finished after his death.
ROUTH, MARTIN JOSEPH [1755-1854] – English patristic scholar who was educated at Oxford
and became the president of Magdalen College Oxford in 1791 an office which he held until his
death. He was ordained in 1810 and much revered by the Tractarians. Descended from a niece
of Archbishop Laud, theologically he linked the outlook of the Nonjurors [see 1688] with the
Oxford Movement [see 1833] to which he gave support.
1792
BMS WORLD MISSION is a missionary society founded by Baptists from England in 1792. It
was originally called the “Particular Baptist Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Amongst
the Heathen” but for most of its life was known as the Baptist Missionary Society. The current
name was adopted in 2000. The first missionaries, William Carey [see 1793] and John Thomas,
were sent to Bengal, India in 1793. They were followed by many co-workers, firstly to India, and
subsequently to other countries in Asia, the Caribbean, Africa, Europe and South America.
Timothy Richard [see 1870] is perhaps one of the most well-known Baptist missionaries to
China. Today BMS World Mission supports over 350 workers in 40 countries. Few missionaries
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are sent today who do not have practical skills to enable positive social and economic changes
on a local scale. Obvious examples of such skills are medical workers and teachers.
EUTHYMIUS V Patriarch of Antioch [1792-1813] see also 1767 and 1813
GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE [1770-1840] – Roman Catholic priest and missionary
who was the son of a freethinking Russian scientist and ambassador to Holland. He was, after
his mother's return to the faith, converted to Catholicism. He came to America in 1792 and after
training at Baltimore Seminary he was ordained and devoted his life to building the church in the
Alleghenies. In this he exhausted his personal fortune.
KELLY, THOMAS [1769-1854] – Irish hymn writer who intended to be a lawyer initially but was
converted in 1792 and ordained. He remained in the Church of Ireland only a short time and for
most of his life conducted a vigorous evangelical ministry in un-consecrated buildings in Dublin,
Wexford, and elsewhere. As a hymn writer his name has been often been linked with those of
Watts and Newton. He is credited with 765 hymns in all, of which the best known are “Look ye
saints the sight is glorious”, “The head that once was crowned with thorns”, and “We sing the
praise of Him who died”.
SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA [1750-1814] – Self-styled prophet who was a daughter of a farmer and
was eccentric from an early age. Originally an Anglican, Joanna became a Methodist in 1791
and the following year began to write a book of prophecies. In 1802 she began to issue seals to
the faithful including one to Mary Bateman, the notorious murderess. In 1805 she had a chapel in
London and in 1813 announced that though unmarried she was to have a child called Shiloh.
She died of unknown causes.
1793
CAREY, WILLIAM [1761-1834] – Missionary to India [1793-1834]. From a calvinistic Baptist
background he formed the forerunner of the Baptist Missionary Society. In 1792 he preached his
great sermon "Expect great things from God, Attempt great things for God". In 1793
accompanied by John Thomas he sailed for India. In India he supervised the translation of the
Scriptures into 36 languages, evangelised, planted churches, educated and provided medical
relief. Carey has been generally acclaimed as "The Father of Modern Missions".
FRANCE [see also 1598 and 1905] – The 18th century brought a dramatic reaction to the
growing power of the Church in the life of the nation. Voltaire [see 1726], Diderot and other men
of the Enlightenment flourished where once the 17th century French believers had walked. This
caused great hostility towards organised religion. These religious trends culminated with the
French Revolution of 1789 with the revolutionaries trying to abolish the church in France. From
1793 rigorous attempts were made to remove all traces of the Christian past from France: Notre
Dame cathedral became the Temple of Reason, with a prostitute being crowned as the Queen of
Reason. The church persisted however and regained its freedom and some of its former
privileges under Napoleon I. The French emperor and the pope reached an understanding in the
Concordat of 1801.
INDIA [see also 1542 and 1919] – When William Carey [see 1793] and Dr. John Thomas of the
Baptist Missionary Society came to Calcutta in 1793 they were considered undesirable, illegal
immigrants. They found employment as managers of indigo plantations, and Carey prepared
himself in Bengali and Sanskrit for his real mission. The next Baptist families in 1799 had to
bypass the Company and make for Danish territory at Serampore some 25 kilometres from
Calcutta so that Denmark here again had a special place in history proving to be the birthplace of
the modern missionary movement. The Serampore trio of Carey, Joshua Marshman [see 1799],
and William Ward [see 1799] attempted great things for God and their college [1819] and their
translations of the Bible, by the time of Carey’s death in 1834 had been translated into six
languages, indicates the foundations they laid for later work. The Serampore men were not really
alone for there were evangelical chaplains at the Company who shared their missionary vision.
Most famous of these was Henry Martyn [see 1805] who translated into Urdu the New
Testament. Early bishops of Calcutta included such men as Reginald Heber [see 1822] and
Daniel Wilson [see 1833]. Church of England missionary societies had important roles in helping
the Syrian Church in Kerala. In 1833 restrictions on non-British missions was lifted and the whole
process of covering the map of India was accelerated. Some of the local converts were
themselves leaders. They included Pandita Ramabai [see 1891], Narayan Vaman Tilak [see
1904], and Sadhu Sundar Singh [see 1905]. Christian missions led the way in education.
Alexander Duff [see 1830] used higher education as a means of evangelism but the belief that
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Western education would necessarily erode Hinduism and win over the higher castes did not
occur. There was a revival in orthodox Hinduism and some of it was militantly anti-Christian.
There was active co-operation in such union institutions as the Madras Christian College [1887]
and the 1910 World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh which evolved into the National
Christian Council.
KIRKLAND, SAMUEL [1741–1808] – He was a Presbyterian missionary among the Oneida and
Tuscarora people in North America. Kirkland was the founder in 1793 of the Hamilton-Oneida
Academy. He was a student of Native American languages and lived for many years with Indian
tribes. He began his missionary work as a protégé of Reverend Eleazar Wheelock, but the two
parted company in 1770. He became an advisor and ambassador for the Iroquois during the
American Revolutionary War and was able to persuade many Oneidas and Tuscaroras to assist
the American revolutionaries. After the war, he maintained good relations with the Indians and
helped negotiate treaties and keep peace between Indians and whites. He is considered by
many to be the peacekeeper of the Iroquois and the Settlers. On the other hand, Kirkland is also
seen by some as a key person for the Americans during the revolutionary war and helped to
subjugate the Oneida people. Kirkland also secured large parcels of the Oneida ancestral land
for himself and his friends.
MACAULAY, ZACHARY [1768-1838] – Evangelical leader who was son of a Scots Presbyterian
minister. He was sent out to Jamaica at the age of 16 as a book keeper on an estate which used
slave labour. Deeply impressed by the evils of slavery, he returned to England in 1792 and
became a member of the Sierra Leone Company. From 1793 to 1799 he was governor of the
colony and ruined his health with overwork. Thereafter he was secretary of the company until the
colony was transferred to the Crown in 1808 and an editor of the Christian Observer 1802-1816.
He resided in Clapham with other prominent evangelicals and played a leading role in the
abolition of the slave trade in 1807. Macaulay also had a great part in the affairs of the Bible
Society and Church Missionary Society. His son was the famous historian and essayist.
MOUNTAIN, JACOB [1749-1825] – First Anglican bishop of Quebec who was educated at
Cambridge and after being ordained in 1780 held several livings in England before being
appointed bishop of the new diocese of Quebec in 1793 where he quickly became the centre of
controversy. This was because he considered the Anglican Church to be the established church
and held that the proceeds from the clergy reserves [see 1791] were therefore at his disposal.
This concept was deeply resented by other denominations. Apart from this however Mountain
ministered extensively during his 30 years as bishop over his large diocese travelling from one
end to the other by sleigh, carriage, canoe, and on foot.
MURRAY, JOHN [1741-1815] – Founder of American Universalism. Murray was brought up as a
Calvinist in England and moved to Cork, Ireland, where this emotional man became a Calvinistic
Methodist shortly before he rejected Calvinism for the Universalism preached by John Relly. He
was excommunicated by the Methodists. He migrated in 1770 to America where he preached his
ideas throughout New England. He served as pastor from 1793 to 1809 of the Universalist
Church in Boston, preaching that all men would ultimately be saved.
1794
BALLOU, HOSEA [1771-1852] – American leader of the Universalist Church [1794-1852]. He
was the son of a Baptist minister who was originally calvinistic but by his study of the Scriptures
became to believe that all would be saved, and lacking conviction on the Trinity moved his group
towards Unitarianism [see 1558]. He also denied the deity of Christ, human depravity, atonement
and everlasting punishment.
BILLINGS, WILLIAM [1746-1800] – American composer who had a major influence on the
development of church music of his time. His most famous collection was "Continental Harmony"
which was published in 1794 and was very influential in New England.
BROTHERS, RICHARD [1757-1824] – British Israelite and prophet who was born in
Newfoundland and joined the Navy in 1771, rising to the rank of lieutenant and seeing action in
1781 under Admiral Rodney. He retired as a pacifist in 1782. From about 1790 he became
progressively more eccentric and was placed in a madhouse in Islington until 1806. He predicted
that by 1794 the ten lost tribes of Israel, that is, the English, would return to Jerusalem where he
the Nephew of the Almighty would be proclaimed their Prince.
GERASIMUS III – Patriarch of Constantinople [1794-1797] succeeded Neophytus VII [see 1789].
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There is no additional information readily available.
MARSDEN, SAMUEL [1764-1838] – Anglican chaplain to the convict colony of New South
Wales. Marsden was educated at Cambridge and at the suggestion of William Wilberforce [see
1807] left for Australia without taking his degree. He arrived in Sydney in 1794 and was stationed
at Parramatta where he remained until his death. On the departure of Richard Johnson [see
1786] in 1800 he was the only chaplain in the colony and by 1810 he became senior chaplain
after a visit to England to recruit others. Marsden's activities have been the subject of much
controversy. On appointment as a magistrate he gained a reputation of severity scarcely
excused by the character of the colony. He is famous as the founder of the mission to the Maoris
of New Zealand under the Church Missionary Society. He preached the first sermon in New
Zealand in 1814 and made seven journeys in support of the infant mission at his own expense.
He did much to establish the evangelical character of the Church of England in Sydney.
PAKISTAN [also see 1601 and 1947] – William Carey [see 1793] preached in the Dinajpur
district between 1794 and 1800. Baptist work was began in Dinajpur in 1800 by an ex Catholic;
in Jessore and Khulna in 1812 and in Barisal in 1829. The Church Missionary Society began
work in Kushtia district in 1821 and about 5000 baptisms followed a severe famine. Other
missions followed. In Pakistan American Presbyterians began working in Lahore in 1849
followed by the Anglican CMS in 1851, American United Presbyterians in 1855 and the Church
of Scotland in 1857. Roman Catholic work was resumed in 1843 in Karachi and in 1852 at
Lahore. The events of 1857 led to the death of Thomas Hunter, the first Church of Scotland
missionary with his wife and son at Sialkot. In the mid-1870s a mass movement began among
low caste people in the Punjab which brought thousands into the church but this slowed down
after 1915.
1795
BILDERDIJK, WILLEM [1756-1831] – Dutch poet who was born into a calvinistic Royalist family
and developed keen interest in study as he was incapacitated by a foot injury. He practiced as a
lawyer in the Hague until going into exile in 1795 returning to the Netherlands eleven years later.
A committed Christian his testimony led Isaak da Costa [see 1851] to conversion.
DWIGHT, TIMOTHY [1752-1817] – Congregational theologian and educator. Born in
Massachusetts he graduated from Yale and taught for some years before ordination as a
congregational pastor in Connecticut 1783-95. He became famous as an educator and the
College of New Jersey and Harvard both conferred doctorates on him. From 1795 until his death
he was professor of divinity at Yale, tripling enrolment. A religious revival took place under his
preaching which by 1802 converted a third of the students. He was a leading conservative force
in New England and exerted powerful influence in the Second Great Awakening.
HALDANE, ROBERT [1764-1842] – Scottish evangelist and philanthropist who was educated at
Dundee and Edinburgh before he joined the Navy in 1780. Leaving that career he lived in
Stirlingshire. Converted in 1795 Haldane resolved to devote life, talents and fortune to the
Christian cause. He sold his estate, determined to finance and participate in missionary work in
India, but that door was closed through opposition from the East India Company. In 1796 the
Church of Scotland general assembly decided against foreign mission work and much of
Haldane’s money went into establishing preaching tabernacles and theological seminaries. He
co-operated with his brother James [see 1797] in furthering the work of evangelism and was
seen as the moving spirit behind the bringing of 24 children from Sierra Leone to be educated in
Britain for five years. He himself was prepared to assume complete financial responsibility for the
project. As an active friend of the Bible Society he challenged its circulation of the apocrypha
with the Bible in continental Europe, beginning a controversy that lasted many years.
LINGARD, JOHN [1771-1851] – English Roman Catholic historian who was trained at Douai and
ordained a priest in 1795. He is said to have had a kindly temperament, and produced between
1819 and 1830 an eight-volume History of England. In 1836 he produced a new version of the
four Gospels which relied on the Greek rather than the Vulgate text. This aroused criticism from
the hierarchy.
The LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY was a non-denominational missionary society formed in
England in 1795 by evangelical Anglicans and Nonconformists who were largely
Congregationalist in outlook. They formed missions in the islands of the South Pacific and Africa.
It now forms part of the Council for World Mission (CWM). Proposals for the Missionary Society
began in 1794 after a Baptist minister, John Rylands, received word from William Carey [see
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1793] about the need to spread Christianity. Carey suggested that Ryland join forces with others
along the non-denominational lines of the Anti-Slavery Society to design a society that could
prevail against the difficulties that evangelicals often faced when spreading the Word. This
included the fierce opponents who wanted unrestricted commercial and military relations with
native peoples throughout the world. The first group of missionaries arrived on the “Duff”
skippered by a Captain Wilson who had offered to ship them unpaid to Tahiti. On his second
voyage the ship was captured by French privateers who sold the ship. This incident cost the
LMS ten thousand pounds which was initially devastating to the society. After recovering they
were able to establish a mission in China under Robert Morrison.[see 1807] Other prominent
missionaries to serve with the LMS were James Legge in China [see 1839], David Livingstone in
Africa [see 1841], George Pratt in Samoa [see 1839] Edward Stallybrass in Siberia [see 1817]
and John Williams in Polynesia [see 1817]
1796
HAUGE, HANS NIELSEN [1771-1824] – Norwegian lay preacher who was a farmer's son and
brought up in a pious Lutheran home. In 1796 he had a religious experience in which he felt
called by God to exhort the people of Norway to repentance. He travelled throughout the country
from 1796 to 1804, usually on foot, preaching his message and gathering followers wherever he
went. Arrested 10 times he was in prison from 1804 to 1811 and after a prolonged trial was
sentenced in 1814 to pay a fine for unlawful preaching and strong criticism of the clergy. Helped
by friends Hauge bought a farm near Oslo and during his last years relations with the authorities
were friendly. His preaching stressed personal holiness and he is generally regarded as the
initiator of the powerful Christian layman's movement in Norway.
KILHAM, ALEXANDER [1762-1798] – Founder of the Methodist New Connexion [see 1798], he
was a son of a Methodist weaver. He entered the service of Robert Carr Brackenbury, the
Methodist gentleman-preacher and assisted him in pioneer preaching in the Channel Islands. He
became an itinerant preacher in 1785 and was soon involved in controversies about the relation
of Methodism to the Church of England. The attack on conference abuses brought his expulsion
in 1796 and the Methodist New Connexion was formed, embodying his principles. He died still
only 36 worn out by extreme toil. His widow Hannah [1774-1832] joined the Society of Friends
and became a pioneer of African linguistics and education.
KING, EDWARD [c.1735-1807] – Archaeologist and writer on science and religion. Educated at
Cambridge he practised law and studied Scripture. His writing is characterised by Christian
devotion. In his time his writings were rejected as he was before his time. In a brilliant book in
1796 he argued on biblical and observational ground the reality of meteorites at a time when this
view was commonly ridiculed. His discussions and speculations on the use of “heaven” and
“heavens” in the New Testament, the meaning of Genesis 1 to 3, and the possibility of a multipopulated universe are abiding interest.
MONTGOMERY, JAMES [1771-1854] – Hymn writer born in Scotland, a son of a Moravian
missionary. He became editor of the Sheffield Register and for 31 years continued to edit the
renamed Sheffield Iris. Twice he was imprisoned for his radical political opinions. He advocated
foreign missions, the Bible Society, and the abolition of slavery. At various times he associated
with Moravians, Wesleyans, and Anglicans. Over 50 of his 400 hymns were contributed to
Thomas Cotterill’s “Selection of Psalms and Hymns” in 1819 among them “Angels from the
realms of glory”, “Hail to the Lord's Anointed”, and “Stand up and bless the Lord”.
NORWAY [see also 1537] – The era of Enlightenment lasted in Norway from 1750 to 1820. The
theology professors of the newly established university in Oslo [1811] and the awakening by
H.N. Hauge [see 1796] heralded a period are richer spiritual life. In 1842 lay preaching became
lawful and in 1845 the “Dissenters Law” for the first time gave citizens opportunity to cancel
membership in the state church and to organise free churches. Free churches however have
never become very strong in Norway as Christian believers chose to stay and make their
influence felt within the state church. The Norwegian Missionary Society was founded in 1842
later followed by several other organisations for foreign missions. In 1891 the Luther Foundation
which had been formed in 1868 was reorganised under the name Norwegian Home Mission
Society. The greatest of these new organisations was the Norwegian Lutheran Mission whose
spiritual leader was a lay preacher Ludvig Hope who died in 1954. Christian believers worship in
prayer houses listening to lay preachers and some also celebrate the Lord's Supper there. The
same believers may not go to the parish church to worship there. This lay activity which runs
parallel to the activity of the established church has been of vital importance for the missionary
activity of the Norwegians. In the 20th century, liberal theology has caused severe struggle which
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led to the formation of the conservative Free Faculty of Theology where the majority of pastors
are educated [see Hallesby [1902]. During the Nazi occupation, the Norwegian church resisted.
SCOTTISH UNITED PRESBYTERIAN MISSION was a Scottish Presbyterian missionary society
that was involved in sending workers to countries such as China during the late Qing Dynasty
starting in 1864. Work was commenced at Ningbo, and afterwards extended to Yantai, but these
stations were left, and Manchuria became the special sphere of the Society. The Rev. Alexander
Williamson, [see 1863] was the patriarch of the Mission, having been in China since 1855,
working in various departments. He devoted himself entirely to literary work, and prepared some
books of Christian history and doctrine. The Rev J. Ross and Rev J. Mclntyre, who went out in
1872, were at the head of the two great centres of operation, Hai-chung and Moukden. A
medical hospital operated in each of these places. Mr. Ross completed a translation of the New
Testament into the Korean language. In 1890 there were seven missionaries employed, one lady
agent, fourteen native helpers, and about eight hundred communicants reported.
SMITH, SYDNEY [1771-1845] – English minister, writer, and wit, who was educated at Oxford
and ordained in 1796. In 1802 he helped to found the "Edinburgh Review" and contributed to it
for 25 years. Bigotry and tyranny, hypocrisy and cruelty were his particular targets. His own
prejudices however led him to unjustified attacks on William Carey and other early missionaries
abroad as well as evangelicals at home whom he described as fanatics. He became canon at St
Paul's London which delivered him from his vicarage in the rural countryside which he loathed.
1797
BOOS, MARTIN [1762-1825] – German preacher involved in the Wiggenbach revival. Failing to
find forgiveness through asceticism he adopted the doctrine of justification through faith which
was very close to Lutheranism. His preaching resulted in revival and he was tried for
unorthodoxy in 1797 but acquitted and fled to Austria where he remained until forced to leave in
1816. He spent the final years of his life as a parish priest in the Rhineland. His motto was
"Christ for us and in us".
GREGORY V – Patriarch of Constantinople [1797-1798, 1806-1808, 1818-1821]. He succeeded
Gerasimus III [see 1794]. Gregory V was ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople over three
periods. He was responsible for much restoration work to the Patriarchal Cathedral of St George,
which had been badly damaged by fire in 1738. At the onset of the Greek War of Independence
Gregory V was blamed by Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II for his inability to suppress the Greek
uprising. He was taken out of the patriarchal cathedral on Easter Sunday, 1821, directly after
celebrating the solemn Easter Liturgy, and hanged in full patriarchal vestments for three days
from the main gate of the patriarchate compound by order of the Sultan. His body was then
taken down and delivered to a squad of Jews, who dragged it through the streets and finally
threw it into the Bosphorus. The body was later recovered by Greek sailors and was eventually
enshrined in the Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens. He is commemorated by the Eastern
Orthodox Church as a martyr. In his memory, the main gates of the patriarchate compound were
welded shut in 1821 and have remained shut ever since.
GRIFFITHS, ANN [1776-1805] – Welsh hymn writer who joined the Methodist Society at
Pontrobert in 1797 after experiencing evangelical conversion. She married John Griffiths of
Meifod in 1804 and died the following year after the birth of a child. She was in the habit of
composing hymns which she recited to her servant Ruth Evans, who later married Methodist
minister John Hughes. Between them they preserved and published the hymns of Ann Griffiths
which had a profound Christocentric mysticism.
HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER [1768-1851] – Scottish evangelist who became an orphan at
the age of six. He studied at Edinburgh University then joined the Navy in 1785 quickly rising in
command due to his character. After spiritual self-questioning he left the sea in 1794 and after
conversion was an itinerant evangelist in every part of Scotland. In 1797 he founded the Society
for Propagating the Gospel at Home, after discovering that the Church of Scotland had as little
interest in home as in foreign missions. Haldane became the first Congregational minister in
Scotland in 1799 and ministered in Edinburgh for almost 50 years. Like his brother Robert [see
1795], he adopted Baptist principles. He was an advocate of restoring the life and conditions of
the apostolic church and developing up-and-coming ministers.
MARKOS IX Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1797-1810] see 1770 and 1810. He became a monk
in the Monastery of Saint Anthony. During his papacy there were two major changes in the
government of Egypt as at the beginning Egypt was ruled by the Ottoman Empire then the
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French Invasion of Egypt in 1798 which was followed by the return of the Ottomans in 1801. He
inaugurated Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Azbakeya in Cairo and moved the Seat
of the Coptic Pope to this cathedral in 1800 from Saint Mary Church (Haret Elroum).
MILNER, JOSEPH [1744-1797] – Evangelical clergyman educated at Cambridge, ordained, and
served in Yorkshire. In 1768 he became headmaster of Hull Grammar School where one of his
pupils was William Wilberforce [see 1807]. He employed his brother Isaac [see 1775] at the
school. In 1770 he became a keen Evangelical and his preaching was very popular among the
poor but resented by others. In due course the opposition died out and in 1797 he was appointed
vicar of Holy Trinity Church in Hull through the influence of Wilberforce but died before he could
be installed.
RIPLEY, DOROTHY [1767-1832] was an English missionary and writer who spent thirty years in
the United States trying to secure better conditions for the slaves. Later in her life she became
involved in prison reform. She was the daughter of a Methodist minister who had been expelled
from his native home and had settled in Whitby. In 1797 she had a mystical experience during
which she felt that God commanded her to leave her home in England and travel to the United
States on a mission to help the African slaves. During the course of this mission, which she
made her entire life’s work, she had occasion to meet with Thomas Jefferson, then President of
the United States, preach to congregations in various churches and meetings and write several
books about her own life. According to one Library of Congress source, she was the "first woman
to preach before the House. She conducted a church service on January 12, 1806. Among those
in attendance were Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr.
SECOND GREAT AWAKENING – This served as a corrective to the spiritual decline in the
United States of America that set in during and following the Revolution. Deism and scepticism
was popular among the educated especially the students. The rigorous life of the rapidly
expanding frontier without benefit of church and society was demoralising. This revival in the
East was centred in the colleges and towns along the coast. The revival in the West was filled
with religious excitement and emotional outbursts. It apparently began in 1797 in the three
Presbyterian churches that James McGready [see 1800] pastored in Logan County Kentucky
which climaxed in a large outdoor communion service during the summer of 1800. Barton Stone
[see 1801] carried the revival to Cane Ridge Kentucky where a large interdenominational six-day
camp meeting occurred the following year with 10 to 20,000 in attendance. Significant church
growth, improvement of morals and national life, reduction of the spread of Deism, the
emergence of new religious groups such as Cumberland Presbyterians [see 1810], home and
foreign missionary outreach, abolition and social reform movements, the introduction of the camp
meetings and the influence upon great men like Archibald Alexander [see 1812], Adoniram
Judson [see 1812] and Samuel J. Mills, were all the results of the Awakening
1798
METHODIST NEW CONNEXION – The death of John Wesley in 1791 forced constitutional
changes in Methodism. Alexander Kilham [see 1796] and others argued for a radical recognition
of separation from the Church of England, and for lay participation in Methodist government. The
Methodist New Connexion which was formed after Kilham's expulsion included these ideas. Its
second conference in 1798 had 15 preaches and 17 laymen. The new body made slow headway
and it was 25 years before it doubled its numbers. The problems in the 1840’s saw the departure
of a radical element associated with Joseph Barker. Barker's chief opponent William Cooke was
perhaps the Connexion’s most considerable mid-century figure. By the end of the century there
were some 30,000 members, with a strong movement in Ireland and missions in China. In 1907
the Methodist New Connexion joined the United Methodist Free Churches and the Bible
Christians to form the United Methodist Church and their principles were eventually adopted by
that group.
1799
BUNTING, JABEZ [1779-1858] – English Wesleyan Methodist who became a minister in 1799.
Due to his great organisational skills he was, more than anyone else, responsible for the shaping
of Wesleyan Methodism. Bunting was well known for his sincerity, eloquence, and prayer.
The CHURCH MISSONIONARY SOCIETY is a group of evangelistic societies working with the
Anglican Communion and Protestant Christians around the world. Founded in 1799, CMS has
attracted upwards of nine thousand men and women to serve as mission partners during its 210
year history. The Society for Missions to Africa and the East, as it was first called, was founded
on 12 April 1799 at a meeting of the Eclectic Society, supported by members of the Clapham
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Sect, a group of activist evangelical Christians whose number included Henry Thornton and
William Wilberforce. The first missionaries, who came from the Evangelical Lutheran Church in
Wurttemberg, and had trained at the Berlin Seminary went out in 1804. In 1812 the Society was
renamed The Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East, and the first English ministers
to work as the Society's missionaries went out in 1815. From 1825 onward, the Society
concentrated its Mediterranean resources on the Coptic Church and its daughter Ethiopian
Church, which included the creation of a translation of the Bible in Amharic at the instigation of
William Jowett [see 1860] , as well as the posting of two missionaries to Ethiopia, Samuel Gobat
[see 1845] who was later the Anglican Bishop of Jerusalem and Christian Kugler, who arrived in
that country in 1827. During the early twentieth century, the Society's theology moved in a liberal
direction under the leadership of Eugene Stock. There was considerable debate over the
possible introduction of a doctrinal test for missionaries, which advocates claimed would restore
the Society's original evangelical theology. In 1922, the Society split, with the liberal evangelicals
remaining in control of CMS headquarters, whilst conservative evangelicals established the Bible
Churchmen's Missionary Society. The British-based Church Missionary Society began
operations in Sydney Australia in 1825, with the intention of bringing the gospel to the aboriginal
population. CMS Associations were set up around Australia, and the first CMS-sponsored
Australian missionary, Helen Philips, sailed for Ceylon in 1888. Today CMS-Australia has 160
missionaries serving in 33 countries worldwide. The Church Missionary Society sent the first
missionaries to settle in New Zealand. Its agent the Rev. Samuel Marsden performed the first full
Christian service in that country on Christmas Day in 1814, at Oihi Bay in the Bay of Islands.
MARSHMAN, JOSHUA [1768-1837] – Baptist missionary who had little education but read avidly
while working with his weaver father. He married Hannah Shepherd in 1791 and they had 12
children. He became master of the Baptist school in Bristol in 1794 and offered for the Baptist
Missionary Society. He sailed to India with William Ward to join William Carey [see 1793] in
1799. Forbidden to land by the East India Company they settled at Danish Serampore where
Carey joined them. There they preached, taught, travelled, and translated. Joshua and Hannah
opened boarding schools to help pay for printing the Scriptures. An able Orientalist, he published
the works of Confucius, Chinese grammars, and a Chinese version of the Bible.
The RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY was founded in 1799 and was a major British publisher of
Christian literature intended initially for evangelism, and including literature aimed at children,
women, and the poor. The founders were of the same type of evangelicals who founded the
London Missionary Society and the British and Foreign Bible Society. The society started by
publishing tracts, but rapidly expanded their work into the production of books and periodicals.
Their books were mostly small but did include larger works such as the multi-volume Devotional
Commentary and the massive Analytical Concordance to the Bible of Robert Young. In 1935 the
Society merged with the Christian Literature Society for India and Africa to form the United
Society for Christian Literature.
The RHENISH MISSIONARY SOCIETY was one of the largest missionary societies in Germany.
Formed from smaller missions founded as far back as 1799, the Society was amalgamated on 3
September 1828, and its first missionaries were ordained and sent off to South Africa by the end
of the year. The London Missionary Society was already active in the area, and a closer working
relationship was formed with them. The Society established its first mission station in the
Cederberg in 1829, named Wupperthal, and predated the naming of the German city by 100
years. Very soon, the missionaries started migrating north through the barren and inhospitable
south-western Africa. Here they encountered various local tribes such as the Herero, Nama and
Damara, and were frequently in the middle of wars between them. The missionaries tried to
broker peace deals between the tribes, and for this reason were later seen as political assets by
the tribes. Around the same time, debate started in Germany regarding its colonial empire, with
the activities of the RMS in distant Africa fanning imaginations. The unclaimed area to the north
of the Cape Colony was proclaimed German South West Africa in 1880, but they quickly ran into
numerous problems, since Germany was inexperienced at colonization. The Herero and
Namaqua Genocide during 1904-1907 proved to be the nadir of their rule, and combined with the
effects of World War I, Germany was unable to maintain a foothold so far from home. South
Africa annexed the area in 1915, renaming it South West Africa. During this time, missionaries'
reactions ranged from compassion and help for the local tribes, to patriotism and support of
colonial interests. During the 20th century, the Society focused on its work in southern Africa.
The Society ultimately amalgamated all of its mission stations in South Africa into the Dutch
Reformed Church, except for Wupperthal which chose to join the Moravian Church. The mission
stations in Namibia became part of the Evangelical Lutheran Church there. In 1971, the Rhenish
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Mission and the Bethel Mission were combined into the Vereinigten Evangelischen Mission.
VANDERKEMP, JOHANNES THEODORUS [1747-1811] – Dutch missionary to South Africa.
Born in Rotterdam he had an early career as an army officer and doctor. He was converted from
Deism in 1791 shortly after the drowning of his wife and daughter and offered his services to the
London Missionary Society in 1796. In 1799 he reached the Cape as leader of the pioneer
London Missionary Society party. After an unsuccessful period among the Xhosa he began
working with the Hottentots and established a missionary institution at Bethelsdorp in 1803.
Conditions here were poor and discipline weak. This drew criticism from the colonists as did
Vanderkemp’s simple manner of life and marriage to a Malagasy slave. However his chief
offence in their eyes was his defence of the Hottentot’s interests in the face of widespread
injustice.
WARD, WILLIAM [1769-1823] – The son of a carpenter and apprenticed to a printer and
bookseller and printed newspapers. Early in life he became an Anabaptist and was educated at
Ewood Hall Theological Academy. In 1798, the Baptist Mission Committee visited Ewood, and
Ward offered himself as a missionary, influenced by a remark made to him in 1793 by William
Carey concerning the need for a printer in the Indian mission field. He sailed to India in 1799 in
company with Joshua Marshman [see above]. On arriving at Calcutta he was prevented from
joining Carey by an order from the government, and proceeded to the Danish settlement
of Serampore, where he was then joined by Carey. In India, Ward's time was chiefly occupied in
overseeing the community's printing press and in preaching the Gospel. In 1812 the printing
office was destroyed by fire. It contained the types of all the scriptures that had been printed, to
the value of at least ten thousand pounds. The moulds for casting fresh type, however, were
recovered from the debris, and with the help of friends in Great Britain the loss was soon
repaired. He returned to Europe in 1818 in poor health and was able to raise funds for a college
at Serampore. He sailed for India in 1821 carrying the funds and as a result, Ward, Marshman
and Carey became known as the Serampore trio. He died of cholera at Serampore.
1800
JANICKE, JOHANNES [1748-1827] – Founder of the first German missionary training school. A
Bohemian-born weaver he was influenced by the Moravians and eventually became a pastor in
Berlin. In 1800 Janicke opened a school to train young men for missionary service. It was a faith
venture. He gave the instruction himself and received assistance from English missionary
societies, individual German Christians, and even the Prussian king. Its 80 graduates, including
Karl Rhenius [see 1814], and Karl Gutzlaff [see 1823], served under various societies in Africa
and Asia. In 1805 Janicke formed a Bible Society and in 1811 a Tract Society which were
forerunners of the later Prussian Bible [1814] and Tract [1816] societies.
MCGREADY, JAMES [c.1758-1817] – American Presbyterian revivalist who in 1788 was
licensed to preach. His early ministry in North Carolina resulted in the conversion of some 12
young men who entered the ministry among them B.W. Stone [see 1801]. In 1796 McGready
moved to pastor three churches in Kentucky. Revival began the following year and was climaxed
during the summer of 1800 at a great outdoor camp meeting to celebrate Communion and
admission of church members. The revival is known as the Second Great Awakening [see 1797].
Revival spread through the Western and Southern states. He is credited with originating the
camp meeting [see 1801] at Gaspar River in 1800. He finished his life as a pioneer missionary in
South Indiana.
PIUS VII – Pope [1800-1823]. He trained as a Benedictine and held the sees of Tivoli and Imola
before becoming pope. He was immediately met by the demands of Napoleon who, in order to
strengthen his hold on France wanted a new concordat. The pope remained immovable in
regards to his spiritual authority while seeking to accommodate the church in the new forms of
society. The Concordat of 1801 restored the church in France but as amended by the Organic
Articles of 1802 left Napoleon in complete charge. Pius who was still conciliatory agreed to be
present at Napoleon’s self coronation as emperor in Paris in December 1804. Pius was
constantly complaining and he was seized in 1809 and deported to Savona near Genoa and
finally to Fontainebleau in 1812. Napoleon never succeeded in dominating Pius and on his
release the pope re-entered Rome in May 1814. His resistance to Napoleon provided an
example of devotion for masses of the faithful. At the Congress of Vienna the negotiator for the
papacy was able to get the re establishment of most of the Papal States. The church was
effectively restored by concordats with Bavaria and Sardinia in 1817, Naples and Russia in 1818,
and Prussia in 1821. Pius restored the Jesuits in 1814 and revitalised Catholic missions in Asia
and Latin America. He succeeded Pius VI [see 1775] and was succeeded by Leo XII [see 1823].
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UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST – An America denomination organised in 1800 which
developed out of the activities of P.W. Otterbein [see 1752] and Martin Boehm [see 1768] among
German settlements chiefly in Pennsylvania. The new Methodist-type denomination was
evangelical, Arminian, and perfectionist in doctrine, with an Episcopal government. The parent
body were merged in 1946 with the Evangelical United Brethren which united with the Methodist
Church in 1968 to create the United Methodist Church.
1801-1810 AD
1801
CALLINICUS IV – Patriarch of Constantinople [1801-06, 1808-09] who succeeded Neophytus VI
[see 1789]. There is no additional information readily available.
CAMP MEETINGS were a distinctive feature of religious life on the American frontier in the early
decades of the 19th century. The meetings promoted vivid conversion experiences, emotional
and even physical activities such as jerks, prostration and dancing. James McGready [see 1800]
developed the technique in Logan County Kentucky in the summer of 1800 while the most
famous camp meeting was in the following August at Cane Ridge Bourbon County Kentucky
where the crowd was in excess of 10,000.
CONCORDAT OF 1801 – An agreement made between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII by
which the Roman Catholic Church was formally restored in France. By its terms the French
government recognised the Roman Catholic Church as the national faith. In 1802 these
provisions were significantly modified by Napoleon’s Organic Articles in which Protestants were
accorded full religious rights. The Concordat was to govern relations between France and the
papacy until the separation of church and state in 1905.
CONSALVI, ERCOLE [1757-1824] – Italian statesman who, after the French invasion of the
Papal States in 1798, was imprisoned and later exiled. Gaining his freedom he worked for the
election of Pius VII [see 1800] who made him secretary of state. He was mainly responsible for
the Concordat of 1801 [see above] with Napoleon. When Napoleon seized Rome in 1809 he was
forced to go to Paris to lead the black cardinals but after Napoleon’s defeat he represented the
pope at the Congress of Vienna securing the restoration of the Papal States.
ICELAND [see also 1514] – In 1801 due to rationalistic inroads and led by Magnus Stephensen,
Holar and Skaholt were merged into one diocese located at Reykjavik. The Lutheran hymnal and
service were altered to reflect the new thought. This liberalism has been perpetuated in the
recent century by the church's bishops and theological faculty.
JEFFERSON, THOMAS [1743-1826] – Third president of the United States and political
philosopher who became president in 1801. His administration saw the Louisiana Purchase, the
Lewis and Clark Expedition, and war with Algerian pirates. He was a founder of the Democratic
Republican party and advocated democratic simplicity, agrarianism, state rights, and the
separation of church and state. He was a Deist who deleted the miraculous from his edition of
the gospels “The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth”.
LEE, JESSE [1758-1816] – The apostle of Methodism in New England. He was born in Virginia
and was a pacifist during the Revolutionary War. He was appointed as the circuit preacher in
1789 and presiding elder of the South District of Virginia in 1801. He served three terms as
chaplain in the House of Representatives and one in the Senate of the United States.
PLAN OF UNION, THE [1801-1852] – The scheme to prevent duplication of Presbyterian and
Congregational work on the western American frontier fostered by the development of
Presbyterianism more than Congregationalism there. The Plan united adherents of the two
denominations in the West into congregations with local church government being that of the
majority. The minister could be of either denomination. The Presbyterian General Assembly
ended co-operation in 1837 and the Plan was finally ended by a Congregational convention in
October 1852.
SCOTT, THOMAS [1747-1821] – Biblical commentator who was a son of a Lincolnshire grazier.
Scott was employed for nine years in menial farm work which permanently ruined his health.
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Driven from home by his father's cruelty he was ordained a deacon in 1772 by the bishop of
Lincoln and in 1781 having held a number of curacies succeeded John Newton at Olney. He was
chaplain at the Lock Hospital and lecturer at St Mildred's London and from 1801 to 1821 rector of
Aston Sandford where he helped to train missionaries for the Church Missionary Society. He is
chiefly famous for Force of Truth published in 1779 which is his spiritual autobiography and
follows his development from early Unitarian beliefs to the adoption of evangelical Calvinism
under the influence of Newton, and for his Commentary on the Bible which became immediately
popular but brought its author not only no financial rewards and charges of Arminianism from
extreme Calvinistic critics.
STONE, BARTON WARREN [1772-1844] – American frontier Presbyterian evangelist who
crossed into Kentucky at the close the American Revolution. Essentially an Arminian revivalist he
broke with the Presbyterian Church on the subject of unconditional election and limited
atonement after the great Cane Ridge Meeting of 1801 in which he was a participant and
recorder. He organised the "Christian Church". His ecumenical outlook brought him into contact
with many Christians of "the Reformation of the 19th century" including Alexander Campbell with
whose "Disciples" many of the "Christians" merged in 1852.
1802
CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS RENE VICOMTE DE [1768-1848] – French aristocrat, author,
who originally supported the French Revolution but emigrated to London during the Terror of
1793. He was converted and wrote a defence of Christianity in his 1802 book “The Genie du
Chistianisme.”
DE MAISTRE, JOSEPH MARIE [1754-1821] – Catholic philosopher and one of the initial
proponents of Ultramontanism [see 1814]. He experienced the French Revolution as terror and
anarchy when the revolutionary armies invaded Savoy in 1792. He believed it is God who
establishes authority by divine sovereignty which is then reflected in the sovereignty of the
popes, who are infallible in spiritual things, and of monarchs, infallible in temporal things. De
Maistre’s emphasis on faith, rather than rationalism, and on organic, rather than mechanistic
view of history, found wide acceptance among Catholics in France. He formulated most of his
ideas while serving as Savoy's ambassador to Russia in 1802 to 1816.
ORGANIC ARTICLES [1802] – A French law unilaterally amending and implementing the
Concordat of 1801 to which it was attached without papal agreement. On grounds of concern for
“public tranquillity” Napoleon hereby succeeded in seizing total control of the French Church,
tightly centralised under the state. The law contains 77 articles arranged in four main titles.
Although condemned by Pius VII [see 1800] and later popes, the Organic Articles remained law
with some parts disused until 1905.
1803
EVANGELICAL CHURCH [Albright Brethren] – An American Protestant denomination founded
by Jacob Albright 1759-1808, a Pennsylvania tile maker and farmer. Following his conversion to
evangelical Christianity in 1791, Albright, raised as a Lutheran, associated himself with a class
meeting of the Methodist Episcopal Church and was licensed as a lay preacher. Stressing a
personal and experiential relationship with God, the Evangelical Church held their first council in
1803. In 1891 controversies led to a schism and the birth of the United Evangelical Church in
1894. The two groups however were reunited in 1922 in the Evangelical Church. In 1968 this
body merged with the Methodist Church to form the United Methodist Church, healing the
division caused by the old language barrier and bringing together into one body the church of
Francis Asbury and the church of Jacob Albright.
1804
BRITISH and FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY formed in London. [See Thomas Charles 1784]
KRUDENER, BARBARA JULIANA VON [1764-1824] – Russian born Pietist who was unfaithful
to her husband a Russian minister of state, and formed an attachment with a young French
officer. A few months later in 1804 whilst in Riga she experienced a sudden conversion after
which she held pietistic concepts. As a confidant of Tsar Alexander I she was regarded by some
as a prime mover of the Holy Alliance with Prussia and Austria although Alexander contended
that he had conceived of the alliance while in Vienna in 1815. She died during a visit to the
Crimea.
RENQVIST, HENRIK [1789-1866] – Finnish pastor who experienced a personal revival while at
school and was greatly influenced by a book on conversion by Arthur Dent the English Puritan.
He came into contact with a movement which emphasised repentance and conversion called the
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“Prayers”. Another important influence on him was the Scot, John Patterson, who promoted the
Bible Society which had been founded in Britain in 1804. Thereafter Renqvist was especially
interested in the printing and spreading of inexpensive Bibles and Christian literature. He started
writing and translating Christian books some 60 titles altogether. His own Christian outlook was a
mystical one, and he pioneered temperance work and missions in Finland.
SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH DANIEL ERNST [1768-1834] – German theologian who
rejected Pietism in his youth but in later life regarded himself as a Pietist and of a higher order.
He studied at Halle and was ordained in 1794. He served as a minister to the Charity Hospital in
Berlin then returned as the professor to Halle in 1804. His next years were overshadowed by the
Napoleonic Wars and the revival of German nationalism. With the closure of Halle a new
university was formed at Berlin where he was made a professor of theology and was
instrumental in bringing Hegel [see 1818] to Berlin but their relationship became strained through
differences in outlook. He stated that the basis of religion is neither activity nor knowledge but
something which underlines them both, the continuous feeling of awareness which we call the
self consciousness. The common factor of religious experience is the feeling or sense of
absolute dependence. Sin he saw as essentially a wrongful desire for independence. Christ
being a man in whom dependence was complete and his profound experience of God through
his sense of dependence constitutes an existence of God in him. Jesus is therefore able to
mediate a new redemptive awareness of God to humanity. The influence of Schleiermacher
extended far beyond his disciples who made up the school of Mediating Theology in the mid 19th
century. To Karl Barth [see 1921] he epitomised the liberal approach to religion which dwelt on
man rather than God.
1805
CLOWES, WILLIAM [1780-1851] – Became an active Methodist in 1805 and co founded the
Primitive Methodist Connexion. He participated in the first Mow Cop meeting in the county of
Cheshire. Like Hugh Bourne [see 1811] he was expelled by the Methodists in 1810 through
Methodist alarm at their association however many local Methodists supported him calling him
as a fulltime preacher paid from their meagre wages. Clowes became a hard living travelling
evangelist with many recording the remarkable power of his preaching. He worked until a couple
of days before his decease.
HARMONY SOCIETY – A Protestant communal society established in 1805 north of Pittsburgh
by 500 Pietist dissenters from Germany seeking religious freedom. Led by George Rapp [17571847] and his adopted son Frederick, the group moved to 30,000 acres at New Harmony Indiana
in 1815. Practising first century Christian communal living, Harmonists laboured corporately as
farmers, brewers, millers, and spinners, making their communities show pieces of economic
growth and security. They pioneered prefabricated buildings, oil refinery, and underwriting
railroad construction. In 1807 they adopted celibacy, a factor in the society's ultimate demise
which occurred in 1916.
MARTYN, HENRY [1781-1812] – Anglican missionary to India who was born in Cornwall and
educated at Cambridge. The sudden death of his father eventually led to a spiritual awakening
and his ordination in 1803 as curate to Charles Simeon [see 1782] at Holy Trinity Church in
Cambridge. He was the first Englishman to offer to the newly formed Church Missionary Society,
but for reasons beyond his control he was not accepted. Further disappointment and intense
unhappiness came when after a protracted period his proposal of marriage was not accepted. In
1805 Martyn sailed for India as a chaplain in the East India Company and arrived in Calcutta
where he enjoyed fellowship with two other evangelical chaplains, Daniel Corrie and David
Brown. Martyn’s outstanding linguistic gifts led to his great life’s work, the translation of the New
Testament and the Book of Common Prayer into Hindustani. His forthright preaching to British
contemporaries caused offence as did his constant attempts to make contact with native Indians
both Hindus and Muslims. In 1809 the beginnings of tuberculosis and the intense summer heat
almost caused his death. The following year he was advised to take a sea voyage and being
anxious to complete an Arabic and Persian translation of the New Testament travelled to Shiraz
where he talked and worked for long hours with Persian scholars gaining their respect and
confidence in argument and debate and finishing his task in February 1812. He set out for home
but the hard travelling and constant fever brought about his death in Armenia in October of that
year. He was buried there.
MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES – Archbishop of Canterbury [1805-1828]. He was educated at
Charterhouse and Cambridge. He married at age 23, probably eloped with his cousin Mary
Thoroton. In 1785, Manners-Sutton was appointed to the family living at Averham with Kelham,
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in Nottinghamshire, and in 1791, became dean of Peterborough. He was consecrated bishop of
Norwich in 1792 and in 1805 he was chosen to succeed John Moore as archbishop of
Canterbury. During his primacy the old archiepiscopal palace at Croydon was sold and the
country palace of Addington bought with the proceeds. He presided over the first meeting which
issued in the foundation of the National Society, and subsequently lent the scheme his strong
support. He also exerted himself to promote the establishment of the Indian episcopate. As
archbishop of Canterbury, Manners-Sutton appointed his cousin Evelyn Levett Sutton as one of
six preachers of Canterbury Cathedral in 1811. His only published works are two sermons, one
preached before the lords in London in 1794, the other before the Society for the Propagation of
the Gospel three years later. His son Charles Manners-Sutton served as speaker of the House
of Commons and was created Viscount Canterbury in 1835. He succeeded John Moore [see
1783] and was succeeded by William Howley [see 1828].
THEOPHILUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1805-1825] see 1788 and 1825
1806
PLESSIS, JOSEPH OCTAVE [1762-1825] – Roman Catholic archbishop of Quebec who was a
son of a blacksmith and received a classical education in Montréal College and then trained for
the priesthood in Quebec. Completing the studies he taught for a time at Montréal College and
became secretary to Bishop Briand [see 1766]. Plessis was ordained as a priest in 1786 and in
1806 was made bishop of Quebec. Enmity between the French and the British increased and at
the time of the outbreak of the War of 1812 he urged the French to be loyal to Canada thus
winning the appreciation of the government. He was granted in 1814 a seat in the Legislative
Council and was consecrated archbishop of Quebec in 1818.
1807
ALBRIGHT, JACOB [1759-1808] – American preacher of German origin who had been born into
the Lutheran church and founded the Evangelical Church in 1807. The group was Arminian in
doctrine but Methodist in policy. He was a prosperous brick maker but the unexpected death of
several of his children resulted in his conversion in 1790. He joined a Methodist group and
became a lay preacher. In 1968 this group combined to form the United Methodist Church.
CAMPBELL, THOMAS [1763-1854] – One of the founders of the Disciples of Christ who was a
Scots Irish minister in the Secession church that had broken away from the Church of Scotland.
He emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1807 where he established a Christian Association for people
from various professions. Later the group merged with a similar group organised by B. Stone
[see 1801]. Becoming blind in later life he stayed with his son Alexander who wrote his
biography “The Memoirs of Elder Thomas Campbell” seven years after his death.
MORRISON, ROBERT [1782-1834] – Missionary to China, born of Scottish Presbyterian artisan
parents, he was converted when an apprentice at Newcastle. He educated himself and in 1802
entered into a Dissenting Academy near London and became a Congregationalist. Morrison
offered to the London Missionary Society, then looking for someone to translate and distribute
the Bible in the almost completely closed Chinese Empire. Morrison learned the rudiments of the
language which was nearly unknown in England and was ordained in 1807. He sailed to Canton
via the USA and Cape Horn because the controlling East India Company refused to transport
missionaries. He could never get any further than the trading “factories” at Canton. He saw
scarcely any converts and he could remain only because he learned Chinese so well that he
swiftly became the official Company interpreter. However he completed a translation of the
whole Bible by 1818. His dictionary published in 1821 was the standard work until long after
China opened fully. He wrote tracts and hymns. When he obtained an assistant William Milne
[see 1815] in 1813 Morrison sent him to found the Anglo-Chinese college in Malacca which
proved to be an important element in the eventual growth of missions in China. He encouraged
work among expatriate Chinese and dreamt of opening up Japan. Dying alone in Canton eight
years before missionaries were admitted anywhere else this austere Scott is the “Father of
Protestant Missions in China”.
WILBERFORCE, WILLIAM [1759-1833] – Slave trade abolitionist who was born in Hull and was
educated at the grammar school where he came under the influence of Joseph Milner the
headmaster [see 1797] and his brother Isaac [see 1775]. Isaac used to lift the small boy onto the
table so that the other scholars could hear him read with his beautiful voice. At the age of 14 he
wrote a letter to a York paper about the evils of the slave trade. He studied at Cambridge and
went on a tour of Europe with Isaac Milner during which he was converted as they studied the
New Testament together. In 1780 he was elected the member of Parliament for Hull after laying
out a large amount of money on the election. He was in Parliament for many years. James
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Boswell records how the smallness of his stature was forgotten in the midst of his eloquence and
that “the shrimp grew and grew and became a whale”. Wilberforce became associated with the
Clapham Sect, a group of evangelicals who were active in public life. Through his friendship with
John Newton [see 1779] and Thomas Clarkson [see 1787] on one hand, and William Pitt on the
other, Wilberforce was persuaded to put most of his energies into the abolition of the slave trade.
It was abolished in 1807 but the complete abolition of slavery was not achieved until just before
his death in 1833. He helped with the formation of the Church Missionary Society [1799] and the
British and Foreign Bible Society in 1804.
1808
POLYCARP I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1808-1827] see 1788 and 1827
SPAIN [see also 1576] – With the French occupation of Spain in 1808 political liberalism and
anticlericalism were introduced into the country and these new forces confronted traditionalism in
church and state and led to a century and a half of civil strife. With the revolution of 1931
Protestant activities could proceed unimpeded: churches were opened as well as schools
including "El Porvenir" the one which was considered the finest secondary school in Spain. The
Nationalists however denounced the Protestants as being in league with the Republicans and
after 1939 persecution began again. The war of 1936-1939 resulted in victory for the Nationalists
and the restoration of the Catholic Church, which had suffered severely during the period of the
Republic [1931-1936]. Church and state were at one again and a notable concordat was
concluded in 1953. Though Spain is regarded as the most devout of nations probably only about
20% of the people are practising Catholics.
TYLER, BENNET [1783-1858] – American Congregational theologian who graduated from Yale
College in 1804. Tyler was ordained in 1808 and became president of Dartmouth College in
1822 and the pastor of the Second Church Portland Maine in 1828. This was the final period of
the Second Great Awakening which had begun in 1799 with Charles Finney [see 1821] and
other evangelists interpreting popularly the revivalist doctrines of Nathaniel W. Taylor [see 1812].
Orthodox Calvinists became increasingly alarmed by the concessions to Arminianism, in
teaching human ability and choice, involved with the teachings coming out of Taylor’s New
Haven Theology. Tyler, a Yale classmate of Taylor entered into discussions with him in 1829
which lasted several years and resulted in the founding of the Pastoral Union in 1833 and a
theological institution in 1834, which eventually became Hartford Seminary, with the purpose of
combating the New Haven Theology [see 1834]. Tyler was called to assume the presidency and
remained to this position to 1857.
WILLIAMS, WILLIAM [1781-1840] – Welsh preacher who was the son of a carpenter and
followed that trade in early life. He was educated at Wrexham Academy and ordained into the
Congregational ministry near Wrexham in 1808. He moved to the Tabernacle, Crosshall Street
Liverpool in 1836 but returned to Wern in 1839 and died there five months later. Tradition has it
in Wales that Williams, John Elias [see 1811], and Christmas Evans [see 1789] were the three
greatest names among the nation's preachers. Unlike the two others, Williams’ preaching style
was quiet and persuasive rather than tempestuous. His influence with many congregations
throughout North Wales was that he brought a new evangelical and missionary enthusiasm into
being just at the time when the great flood of the Methodist Revival was showing signs of
waning.
1809
CHURCH'S MINISTRY AMONG JEWISH PEOPLE which was formerly the London Society for
Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews. This is an Anglican missionary society founded in
1809.The society began in the early 19th century, when leading evangelicals, including members
of the influential Clapham Sect such as William Wilberforce, and Charles Simeon, decided that
there was an unmet need to promote Christianity among the Jews. The original agenda of the
society was: [i] Declaring the Messiahship of Jesus to the Jew first and also to the non-Jew. [ii]
Endeavouring to teach the Church its Jewish roots, [iii] Encouraging the physical restoration of
the Jewish people to the Land of Israel and [iv] Encouraging the Hebrew Christian/Messianic
Jewish movement. The society's work began among the poor Jewish immigrants in the East End
of London and soon spread to Europe, South America, Africa and Palestine. In 1811, a five-acre
field on the Cambridge Road in Bethnal Green, east London, was leased as a centre for
missionary operations. A school, training college and a church called the Episcopal Jews' Chapel
were built here. The complex was named Palestine Place. In 1813, a Hebrew-Christian
congregation called “Children of Abraham” started meeting at the chapel in Palestine Place. This
was the first recorded assembly of Jewish believers in Jesus and the forerunner of today's
Messianic Jewish congregations. The London Jews Society was the first such society to work on
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a global basis. In 1836, two missionaries were sent to Jerusalem: Dr. Albert Gerstmann, a
physician, and Melville Bergheim, a pharmacist, who opened a clinic that provided free medical
services. By 1844, it had become a 24-bed hospital. In its heyday, the society had over 250
missionaries. It supported the creation of the post of Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem in 1841, and
the first incumbent was one of its workers, Michael Solomon Alexander. The society was active
in the establishment of Christ Church, Jerusalem, the oldest Protestant church in the Middle
East, completed in 1849. A hospital was established at Jerusalem in 1897. The organisation is
one of the eleven official mission agencies of the Church of England. It currently has branches
in the United Kingdom, Israel, Ireland, the USA, South Africa, and Australia. It has always
supported the Jews which in recent years has caused criticism and tension within the society
and resulted in 1992 in George Carey becoming the first Archbishop of Canterbury in 150 years
to decline to be the Patron of CMJ as he did not wish to endorse the organisation's missionary
work, which he felt was damaging to interfaith relations .
HAYDN, FRANZ JOSEPH [1732-1809] – Music composer, the son of a humble wheelwright in
lower Austria, who rose to the dazzling princely court of Esterhaz in Hungary and became one of
the most sought after composers in Europe. Although his greatest energies were spent in the
realms of symphony and the string quartet he wrote at least a dozen masses which are
considered by some critics as his crowning achievements. He also wrote his magnificent oratorio
“The Creation” inspired by his experiences with George F. Handel’s music in England. His
younger brother Michael was also a distinguished and voluminous composer of Catholic Church
music in the classical vein.
JEREMIAS IV – Patriarch of Constantinople [1809-1813] succeeded Callinicus [see 1801]. There
is no additional information readily available.
OBOOKIAH, HENRY [1792-1818] – Hawaiian Christian who inspired American missionary
interest in what was then the Sandwich Islands. Born on the island of Hawaii, at 12 years of age
he saw his parents slain in a local war and himself taken prisoner. Later he found refuge with an
uncle, a priest, who trained him in the same occupation. He however was discontent and sailed
to America arriving in New York in 1809. He inspired the sending of the first missionary party to
Hawaii but he himself died of typhus before he could return with them.
The SCOTTISH BIBLE SOCIETY was founded in 1809 as the Edinburgh Bible Society. It
amalgamated in 1861 with the Glasgow Bible Society, which had been founded 1812, to form the
National Bible Society of Scotland. It is a Scottish Christian charity that exists to make the Bible
available throughout the world. The Scottish Bible Society arose as a separate organisation to
the British & Foreign Bible Society over its desire to print Metrical Psalms as an additional book
at the back of the Bible. At the time BFBS did not allow additional books to be added to the Bible.
It also acted as a missionary society that was involved in sending workers to countries such as
China during the late Qing Dynasty.
1810
The AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS was the first
American Christian foreign mission agency. It was proposed in 1810 by recent graduates of
Williams College Massachusetts. Its first missionaries were sent to India and Ceylon in 1812. In
1818 it appointed the first two missionaries to the Near East and the following year sent the first
missionary group to Hawaii. In 1961 it merged with other societies to form the United Church
Board for World Ministries. The founding of the ABCFM is associated with the Second Great
Awakening. Congregationalist in origin, the American Board supported missions by Presbyterian
(1812–1870), Dutch-Reformed (1819–1857) and other denominational members. From 18121840 it became the leading missionary society in the United States. During this period it also led
the way in the fight against Indian removal under the Act of 1830. From the 1830’s the Board
sent many missionaries to China as well as to other places in the Far East. The Board was
Orthodox, Trinitarian and evangelical in their theology. Indigenous preachers associated with the
Board proclaimed an orthodox message. However they modified their presentation drawing upon
the positive and negative aspects of their own cultures. The native evangelists steeped their
messages in Biblical texts and themes with varied results. They also helped with Bible
translations which took place in a variety of settings. A number of Board missionaries also
received some medical training before leaving for the field.
CLARKE, ADAM [1762-1832] – Irish Methodist theologian who was appointed circuit preacher in
Wiltshire in 1782. His scholarship was impressive and while theologically orthodox in most areas
he denied Christ’s eternal sonship while maintaining His divinity and held that Judas had
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repented and had been saved. His great achievement was an eight volume commentary on the
Bible commenced in 1810.
CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH – Emerged as a new denomination during the
Second Great Awakening [see 1790] who maintained that ministers in the frontier regions of
Kentucky and Tennessee did not necessarily need a formal education as a requirement for their
religious vocations. In 1906 the attempted reunion with the Presbyterian Church met with only
limited success. The denomination currently has some 90,000 members.
PETROS VII - Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1810-1854] see 1797 and 1854. He was born in
Upper Egypt and became a monk at St. Anthony Monastery on the Red Sea. During his papacy,
sensing intimations of pressure from Roman Catholicism, the Coptic Church intensified her
teaching, her preaching, and her pastoral work, and the Coptic Pope himself intensified his
writing on matters of faith and doctrine. During the period, many private and public patriarchal
libraries were founded. When the Russian Czar sent his delegates with an offer to put the Coptic
Church under his protection, Pope Petros declined the proposal by asking, "Does your Emperor
live forever?" When the envoy answered that he would die, like all humans, the Pope told him
that he preferred the Protector of the Church who wouldn't die. Also during the papacy, Saint
Sidhom Bishay was martyred at the hands of Muslims in Damietta. His martyrdom made
possible the raising of the Cross openly during Christian funeral processions, a practice that was
previously forbidden.
1811-1820 AD
1811
BOURNE, HUGH [1772-1852] – English born founder of the Primitive Methodist Church [see
below]. Originally a Wesleyan Methodist for whom he built a chapel at his own expense, he
organised from 1807 camp meetings, however he was eventually expelled from the
denomination. He desired to have Methodism return to its primitive origins thus the Primitive
Methodists were born. By 1852 there were 110,000 members and by 1902 there were a quarter
of a million in Britain. The group joined the Methodist Church in 1932. Bourne worked as a
carpenter and builder so as not to be an expense to the church.
BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS [1766-1815] – Scottish Anglican chaplain educated at Glasgow and
Cambridge who while at Cambridge came under the influence of Charles Simeon [see 1782] and
his circle. He was ordained in 1796 then went to India. He was in India for over 15 years during
which he encouraged Scripture translation and native education even though being attached to
the East India Company which prevented ministering to the natives. He wrote "Christian
Researches in India" in 1811. On his return to England he helped to establish the first Indian
bishopric.
CALVINISTIC METHODIST CONNEXION – Officially recognised as a body and regular
ordinations commenced in 1811 [see Thomas Charles 1784]. In 1840 this group who until this
time had supported the London Missionary Society commenced their own missionary work in
France and India.
FAWCETT, JOHN [1740-1817] – English Baptist theologian who, after some time in secular
occupations, he was moved by the preaching of George Whitefield and became a Baptist pastor.
His ministry was spent entirely in the Halifax area of Yorkshire, where he also taught school for
most of his active life. He was a vigorous preacher, zealous and much respected among his
people and he might have held high office in his denomination had he been so inclined. He is
known for his “Devotional Commentary on the Holy Scriptures” published in 1811.
GESENIUS, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH WILHELM [1786-1842] – German Orientalist and biblical
scholar who studied at Gottingen and was professor of theology at Halle from 1811. He
concentrated on problems of Semitic philology, becoming the most outstanding Hebrew expert of
his generation. His work was the basis of the Hebrew lexicon of Brown, Driver and Briggs [1906].
He also produced his Hebrew Grammar in 1813.
INDONESIA [also see 1522 and 1934] – The evangelical movement in Europe transformed the
picture with the first efforts to evangelise Java made separately by a planter Coolen [1770-1863],
and watchmaker Emde [1774-1859] in the east of the island. Raffles, the British governor [1811CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
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1815] was the first to instigate missionary work, and thereafter Dutch and German missionaries
gave themselves to the Indies. The Dutch government prohibited working in politically sensitive
areas such as Atjeh and Bali. L. Nommensen [see 1861] evangelised the animistic Bataks of
Sumatra, Kam [1772 – 1833] earned by his labours in the nominally Christian eastern islands the
title of “Apostle of the Moluccas”, and Bruckner [1783-1847] pioneered Central Java. These are
only a few among many. Nowhere else in the world was so larger a church established in the
midst of Islam. Most of the schools and hospitals were provided by the missions. The weakness
however was that it was totally under missionary control and finance from Europe. Seeing this,
Depok Seminary was opened in 1878 to train indigenous evangelists.
1812
ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD [1772-1851] – American Presbyterian who after conversion studied
theology under William Graham was encouraged to preach. In 1812 he became the first
professor at Princeton Theological Seminary having been minister at Pine Street Church,
Philadelphia from 1807.
JUDSON, ADONIRAM [1788–1850] – American missionary, lexicographer and Bible translator
who graduated from Brown University in 1807. He was a leader in the founding of the American
Board of Commissions for Foreign Missions [see 1810]. In 1812 he was ordained and he and his
wife embarked for Burma as Congregational missionaries. During that voyage they re-examined
their views on baptism and both were baptised in Calcutta which cut off their support but this was
taken over by the Baptist Triennial Convention, organised in 1814. Reaching Rangoon, Judson
learned Burmese in order to preach and translate the Bible and worked on an English-Burmese
dictionary. The war with England in 1824 brought him 17 months imprisonment but peace saw
him work as an interpreter. He continued missionary work at Ava but by 1826 he had lost his wife
and two children. His second wife died in 1845, and he remarried again. He died at sea.
MANZONI, ALESSANDRO [1785-1873] – Romantic poet and Italian novelist. He came into
contact with the Jansenist circle in Paris and returned to the Christian faith and thereafter his
writings show a desire to proclaim Christianity. Between 1812 and 1832 he published sacred
lyrics in which he exalts great events in Christendom and their significant influence on humanity.
Though Manzoni’s conversion took place in Jansenist circles it is difficult to assess to what
extent he adhered to their doctrines.
RICE, LUTHER [1783-1836] – American missionary to India and promoter of missionary interest
among Baptist churches. He was one of a group of students who sparked the formation of the
first American foreign mission society. When the American Board appointed its first four
missionary couples in 1812, Rice's name was added few days before sailing on condition that he
was to secure his own support. Ordained a Congregational minister, after reaching India he
experienced the same change of mind on the subject of baptism as did Adoniram Judson [see
above] and became a Baptist. To stimulate missionary interest among Baptists they decided to
return temporarily to the USA. He helped start the Baptist Foreign Mission Society and was so
effective in gaining support for it that he never return to the Orient.
TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM [1786-1858] – American theologian and educator who studied
theology under Timothy Dwight [see 1795]. After graduating from Yale, Taylor was ordained in
the pastorate in the First Church of New Haven where he served from 1812 to 1822. He was
appointed the first professor of theology at Yale Divinity School and remained there for the rest
of life. His main thesis concerned the problem of moral depravity, and although he taught that sin
was inevitable, each person was nevertheless responsible for his own moral choice, a position
consistent with revivalist preaching. His views created such controversy among
Congregationalists that a more orthodox and Calvinistic seminary was formed at Hartford in
1834.
WATSON, RICHARD [1781-1833] – Wesleyan minister apprentice to a Lincoln joiner but
received his first appointment as a Methodist preacher when only 16 years of age. An enquiring
mind brought him under suspicion of heresy in his circuit and he resigned in 1801 becoming later
a preacher with the Methodist New Connexion [see 1798] and secretary of their conference. In
1807 shattered health induced his resignation. He became editor of a Liverpool newspaper and
in 1812 he returned to the Wesleyan Ministry and became, with Jabez Bunting [see 1799], one of
the most outstanding figures. He was a leading advocate for the abolition of slavery and his most
important written work was the first major Methodist systematic theology.
1813
CYRIL VI – Patriarch of Constantinople [1813-1818] who succeeded Jeremias IV [see 1809].
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There is no additional information readily available.
ENGLISH WESLEYAN MISSION was a British Methodist missionary society that was involved in
sending workers to countries such as China during the late Qing Dynasty. The Wesleyan
Missionary Society sent out Rev. W. R. Beach and Rev. J. Cox to Guangzhou in 1852. It
afterwards established itself in Hankow, and had its principal stations in that city and others of
the province of Hupeh. Lay agency, under the direction of Rev. David Hill, was a prominent
feature in the Mission at Hankow, and this Society also tried the experiment of giving to some of
its missionaries medical training, that they might combine preaching and healing gifts in their
ministry. In 1884 it resolved to open a college or high school in connection with their Central
Mission, and the Rev. W. T. A. Barber was appointed principal, and arrived at Hankow early in
1885. The object of the institution was to provide a liberal Western education for the sons of
official and other wealthy Chinese. Attempts to purchase land for the erection of a suitable
building were unsuccessful, but in 1887 a large house was rented in the main street of Wuchang,
and the work begun. A ladies auxiliary society also sent out female workers. In 1890 there were
twenty-five missionaries at work.
FRY, ELIZABETH [1780-1845] – Quaker prison reformer. Daughter of a Quaker banker she
married a London merchant in 1800 and had a large family. Because of her religious upbringing
she was deeply concerned about social issues and founded a girl’s school at East Ham London.
It was not until 1813 that she became interested in prison work and began her welfare work at
Newgate Prison among the women prisoners, visiting them daily, teaching them to sew, and
reading the Bible to them. In 1818 she gave evidence before a committee of the House of
Commons on the subject of prisons and her views played a significant part in the design of the
subsequent legislation. In 1839 realising the necessity of care and rehabilitation of discharged
criminals she formed a society with that as its prime concern. She did much to the foster prison
reform on the Continent by frequent visits. She sponsored the ‘Nightly Shelter for the Homeless
in London’ in 1820 as well as visiting societies in Brighton and other places. She also prepared a
report on social conditions in Ireland. She secured the provision of libraries at coastguard
stations in certain naval hospitals.
GRELLET, STEPHEN [1773-1855] – Quaker missionary who was born in France and educated
at the College of Oratorians at Lyons but became sceptical of Roman Catholic dogmas. During
the French Revolution he joined the Royal Army, but was taken prisoner. Escaping to
Amsterdam he sailed to Guyana in South America and in 1795 went to New York. By this time
he was a disciple of Voltaire and was moved by William Penn’s book “No cross, no crown”. He
joined the Friends or Quakers in 1796 and in England in 1813 he visited Newgate Prison and
introduced Elizabeth Fry [see 1813] to her life's work among prisoners.
NEANDER, JOHANN AUGUST WILHELM [1789-1850] – German Protestant church historian
who changed his name from David Mendel on his conversion to Christianity in 1806. He was
professor of church history at Berlin for nearly four decades from 1813. There he was a
determined opponent of the rationalistic views on F.C. Baur [see 1845], D.F. Strauss [see 1835]
and others. Neander wrote many volumes on the history of the church including a multivolume
church history [1826 -1852] concentrating on personalities rather than institutions.
ROSENMULLER, ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL [1768-1835] – German biblical scholar who was
the son of an evangelical Lutheran pastor. Educated at Leipzig he taught there from 1792
becoming professor of oriental languages in 1813. He prepared in 16 parts “Scholia” for the Old
Testament [1788-1817], drawing together the insights from the writings of rabbis, Church
Fathers, and mediaeval and Reformation scholars, and published a handbook on the natural
history of the biblical world in 1823.
SERAPHIM Patriarch of Antioch [1813-1823] see also 1792 and 1843
STRACHAN, JOHN [1778-1867] – Educator and bishop who was born in Scotland and educated
there. In 1799 he migrated to Canada where he taught school at Kingston until 1803 when he
was ordained in the Church of England and became curate in Cornwall. Strachan was rector of
St James Church Toronto [1813-1867] during which period he also served many years as a
member of both the executive council and legislative council of Upper Canada. He upheld the
sole right of the Anglican Church to income from the Clergy Reserves [see 1791].
1814
AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION which is also known as the American Baptist
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Foreign Mission Society or American Baptist International Ministries is an international Protestant
Christian missionary society founded in 1814 in the United States. The Society initially
sponsored two American missionaries in Burma, Adoniram Judson [see 1812] and Ann
Hasseltine Judson. The Union is the oldest Baptist missionary organization based in North
America. The Society was involved in sending workers to many different countries including
China during the late Qing Dynasty.
BURMA – British Baptists, including William Carey’s eldest son Felix, entered Burma first from
India but the most important initial work was by the American Baptists begun in 1814 by
Adoniram Judson and his wife Ann [see 1812] who were one of the first groups sent out by the
American Board [see 1810]. There, in spite of intense suffering he laid the foundation of a
flourishing Baptist work. Judson worked primarily with the Burmese who have never responded
greatly to the gospel and it was seven years before the first converts were baptised. However
when George Dana Boardman was sent to Tavoy he helped begin a great movement among the
Karen tribes that soon spread to other areas. Later, other tribes such as the Chins, Kachins, and
Shans were also effectively reached. After independence the Burmese government restricted
missionary activity and in 1966 resulted in the exclusion of all foreign missionaries in Burma.
LAMBRUSCHINI, RAFFAELLO [1788-1873] – Italian educational, social, and religious reformer.
He was ordained a Roman Catholic priest and because he opposed Napoleonic policies he was
imprisoned and sent to Corsica. Freed in 1814 he withdrew to Florence and devoted him self to
improving social conditions by means of schools, educational publications, political journals, and
other treatises. He was in close touch with the leading men of Tuscan and Swiss evangelism. He
opposed the temporal power of the pope and advocated reform of the Roman Catholic Church
from within, based on a deepening of the spiritual life of the individual and a return to the
simplicity of the Gospel.
LIANG A-FAH [1789-1855] – First ordained Chinese Protestant evangelist. When Robert
Morrison could not gain access to China he established a base in 1814 among the 4000 strong
Chinese community in Malacca. This is where his colleague William Milne [see 1815] set up a
printing press. Among Milne’s converts and assistants was Laing A-fah who became a Bible
Society colporteur and wrote a long treatise on Christianity entitled “Good Words Exhorting the
Age” which he eventually distributed among the civil service examinees in Canton. One of these
books fell into the hands of Hung Hsiu-ch’uan and sparked the Taiping Rebellion.
NEW ZEALAND – Christianity was found in New Zealand by 19th century European
missionaries and settlers with some American influence. Anglican missions in 1814 followed by
Wesleyans in 1822 and the Roman Catholics in 1838 made slow progress. Missionaries were
frequently used by chiefs to further their own political aims. The King Movement inspired by W.
Tamihana [1802-1866] combined Christian and Maori ideas, but aroused deep official
suspicions. Bitter land wars and unjust confiscations gave the missions a severe setback and by
1900 there were few Maori clergy. The healer, T.W. Ratana [1870-1939] inspired a significant
independent church combining Maori beliefs and Christianity which had by 1931 linked with the
Labour Party. Numerical European dominance hampered the development of indigenous Maori
Christianity although there were significant leaders. After World War II migrants from Samoa and
the Cook Islands introduced a vigorous Polynesian Christianity. European Christianity was
dominated by Anglicans, Presbyterians, Roman Catholics, and Methodists. Shortage of clergy,
isolation, and egalitarianism all contributed to greater lay participation in the church than in
Britain, notably among Anglicans. Apart from some notable secondary schools like Christ’s
College [1851], Protestants have worked within the state system. In Dunedin and Christchurch,
churchmen were active in foundation of universities but no faculty of theology emerged until
1945 at Otago. Theological colleges such as St John’s College [1844], the Theological Hall
[1876], Holy Cross College [1900], and Knox College [1909] have been the main Christian
contributors to tertiary education. New Zealanders such as J. Dickie, H. Ranston, J.A. Allan, and
E.M. Blaiklock have been more than of local importance. Radicals have been rare.
RHENIUS, KARL [1790-1838] – Missionary in South India who attended Janicke’s [see 1800]
mission school in Berlin and went to India under the Church Missionary Society in 1814. After
serving briefly in Madras [Chennai] he moved to Tinnevelly where he proved to be a competent
scholar, effective teacher, and outstanding organiser. He prepared a Tamil grammar and New
Testament, and introduced a system linking the village church and the school where the
schoolmaster had responsibility for worship and religious instruction. The work was selfsupporting and self propagating and so many lower class people were converted that the British
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authorities feared social unrest. Having never received Anglican orders, Rhenius ordained Indian
ministers himself but the Church Missionary Society forbade the practice. In 1835 he challenged
this and was discharged. Because many of the Tinnevelly congregations remained loyal to him
he formed a separate church and the schism was not healed until after his death.
ULTRAMONTANISM – The movement of Catholic revival, especially after the French
Revolution, which rediscovered and hoped to re-implement the unity and independence of the
Roman Church under the papacy. The name given was used derisively as it implied attachment
to Rome i.e. “beyond the mountains”. The movement was shaped by the resistance of Pius VII to
Napoleon, by the support of subsequent popes and public figures and by the re-establishment of
the Jesuits in 1814 and the establishment of new orders but especially by the marked devotion of
countless parish clergy and laity.
1815
BASEL MISSION was a Christian missionary society active from 1815 to 2007, when it was
merged into Mission 21. Members of the society came from many different Protestant
denominations. The mission was founded as the German Missionary Society in 1815. The
mission later changed its name to the Basel Evangelical Missionary Society, and finally the Basel
Mission. The society built a school to train Dutch and British missionaries in 1816. Since this
time, the mission has worked in Russia and had ministry the Gold Coast [Ghana] since 1828,
India 1834, China 1847, Cameroon 1886, Borneo 1921, Nigeria 1951, Latin America and the
Sudan in 1972 and 1973. On 18 December 1828, the Basel Mission Society sent its first
missionaries, Johannes Phillip Henke, Gottlieb Holzwarth, Carl Friedrich Salbach and Johannes
Gottlieb Schmid, to take up work in the Danish protectorate at Christianborg, Gold Coast. On 21
March 1832, a second group of missionaries including Andreas Riis, Peter Peterson Jäger, and
Christian Heinze, the first mission doctor, arrived on the Gold Coast only to discover that Henke
had died four months earlier. Since World War II, the mission has operated abroad via local
church congregations. As of November 2002, the major countries or regions of operation were
Bolivia, Cameroon, Chile, Hong Kong, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Nigeria, Peru, Singapore, Sudan, and Taiwan. A major focus for the Basel Mission
was to create employment opportunities for the people of the area where each mission was
located. To this end the society taught printing, tile manufacturing, and weaving, and employed
people in these fields.
BIBLE CHRISTIANS – Methodist body formed in Devon stemming from the preaching of William
O’Bryan. The first conference was held at Launceston in 1819. Bible Christians were sometimes
called Methodist Quakers. They flourished during the 19th century before joining the United
Methodist Church in 1907.
CHALMERS, THOMAS [1780-1847] – Scottish minister who was converted in 1811. In 1815 he
was inducted to Glasgow’s Tron Church. The city’s social needs were staggering and he created
a new parish, St John’s, with 10,000 of the poorest people in the city. He divided the parish into
25 areas each with an elder for spiritual guidance and a deacon for social needs. Day and
Sunday schools were provided. This pastoral experimentation made evangelicalism a force to be
reckoned with. In the 1830’s he built 216 churches and after the disruption [see 1843] became
moderator of the Free Church.
HOLY ALLIANCE – The declaration in treaty form signed on 26 September 1815 in Paris by the
Orthodox Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Catholic Emperor Francis I of Austria, and Protestant King
Frederick William III of Prussia after the final Allied victory over Napoleon. It proclaimed that
international relations would henceforth be based on “the sublime truths which the Holy Religion
teaches” and that the rulers of Europe would abide by the principle that they were brothers and
wherever necessary would “lend each other aid and assistance”. They would recognise no other
sovereign than “God our Divine Saviour, Jesus Christ”. Only the British government, the Sultan,
and the pope refused to accede to it. Although it had no practical binding power, for the liberals
and revolutionaries the term “Holy Alliance” took on a sinister connotation as a conspiracy of
reactionary powers to maintain the status quo in Eastern Europe.
MILNE, WILLIAM [1785-1822] – Missionary to China who studied at the London Missionary
Society’s college where he was ordained in 1812. In the following year he joined Robert Morrison
[see 1807] in Macao, but having been ordered out, he distributed literature in Canton and the
East Indies and then made his base in Malacca where he assisted Morrison in the translation
and printing of the Chinese Bible. In 1815 he cut the first fonts of Chinese type made by a
European, and wrote Christian pamphlets. He ordained his convert Liang A-fah [see 1814] and
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became principal of the Anglo-Chinese College in Malacca founded by Morrison in 1818. His son
later served in China.
MOHR, JOSEPH [1792-1848] – Parish priest and composer of Silent Night who was born in
Salzburg and was a chorister in the cathedral there. Mohr was ordained into the Roman Catholic
priesthood in 1815 and held several parish posts near Salzburg. His Silent Night was composed
in 1818 for a Christmas Eve service in Oberndorf near Salzburg and set for guitar
accompaniment by the organist and schoolmaster Franz Gruber [1787-1863]. This carol became
popular before publication when sung by wandering Tyrolese singers.
NUNCIO AND LEGATE, PAPAL – A nuncio is an official permanent papal representative from
the Holy See to both the state and the church of a given area. Usually a titular bishop or
archbishop, as papal envoy to the state, he has duties which are diplomatic in character not
unlike an ambassador, and his ambassadorial status was recognised by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815. As papal envoy to the church his duties are ecclesiastical. A legate was the papal
representative during the era of the 17th century and earlier. Four types are at times
distinguishable: Legate nati - the principal resident bishop who held special authority from the
pope; Legate missi - sent by the pope on special purpose missions; Legate a latere - the highest
rank of special papal envoy, reserved today for ceremonial functions; there was a fourth area
Nuncii et collectores - who were financial officials charged with gathering papal funds. The
modern nuncio gradually replaced and absorbed duties drawn from all such earlier legates as
the structures and states became more distinct.
1816
AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY was formed in 1816 to return freed slaves to Africa
establishing the country of Liberia. Started by minister Robert Finley with government help it
hoped that Christian freedmen might evangelise Africa. Even some slave holders supported the
scheme. Disease almost wiped out the first group of 114 settlers during 1820-21 but a group of
53 under Jehudi Ashmun made a permanent settlement near Monrovia. By 1867 about 10,000
freedmen had been transported to the colony.
AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY founded.
EDMESTON, JAMES [1791- 1867] – Hymn Writer. His maternal grandfather was the Rev.
Samuel Brewer who for 50 years was the pastor of an Independent congregation at Stepney. He
was an architect and surveyor from 1816 until his death in 1867. Although an Independent by
descent he joined the Established Church at a comparatively early age, and subsequently held
various offices, including that of churchwarden, in the Church of St. Barnabas, Homerton. His
hymns number nearly 2000. The best known is “Lead us, Heavenly Father, lead us”. Many of his
hymns were written for children, and from their simplicity are admirably adapted to the purpose.
For many years he contributed hymns to the Evangelical Magazine
ELLIS, WILLIAM [1794–1872] was an English missionary and author. He travelled through the
Society Islands, Hawaiian Islands and Madagascar, and wrote several books describing his
experiences. He was from a working class background and as a youth became a gardener. He
was accepted by the London Missionary Society and with his wife was posted to the South Sea
Islands arriving in the area in 1816. Here they joined John Orsmond and John Williams and their
wives at Huahine in 1818 before going to Hawaii. Here he learnt the local language, Romanized
it and set up a printing press as well as founding churches. In 1824 he returned to England due
to his wife’s poor health and became Chief Foreign Secretary of the LMS. His wife died in 1835.
His writings of the experiences of his ministry encouraged investors into supporting missionaries.
Having remarried he went as a missionary to Madagascar where he made progress after being
hindered by the French. Three years after he left Madagascar a Christian queen was enthroned
there in 1868. He and his second wife died within a week of each other in 1872.
MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also 1653] – Through the initiative of the British authorities in
South India and partly because of the findings of Claudius Buchanan [see 1811] work among the
Syrians was begun by the Church Missionary Society in 1816. The purpose was not to make
Anglicans of the Syrians but to see the renewal of the ancient church. Unhappily after two
decades the mission was unacceptable to the Syrian authorities and missionaries turned to other
work in Kerala. Some of the Syrians at this point seceded and became Anglicans, the outcome
causing the diocese of the churches seen today.
MARISTS [Society of Mary] – Founded in 1816 by Jean Claude Courveille and Jean Claude
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Marie Colin. The order held that Mary desired to aid the church through a namesake
congregation. Rome approved it in 1836. Comprising priests and lay brothers the society sent
missionaries to Oceania and spread rapidly to Europe, North America, and the Antipodes. Based
on the Jesuit Rule, the Marists did parish work, taught school and seminary, and held home
missions and chaplaincies.
MILMAN, HENRY HART [1791-1868] – Anglican historian who was educated at Oxford and
ordained a priest in 1816 leading him to becoming a canon of Westminster and dean of St
Paul's. He achieved acclaim as a poet and translator from the Sanskrit. A member of the Broad
Church school, Milman was never as extreme as Dean Stanley [see 1839], shunned public
controversy, and deplored the writings of the more radical German critics, particularly Strauss.
He wrote a life of Gibbon [see 1766] whose Decline and Fall he had also edited. In 1855 he
published his History of Latin Christianity. Milman wrote the hymn “Ride on, ride on, in majesty!”
which is often sung on Palm Sunday.
MOFFAT, ROBERT [1795-1883] – Scottish missionary to Africa. After conversion he was
accepted by the London Missionary Society for work in Africa. There he went in 1816 and in
1825 settled at Kuruman in Bechuanaland which became his headquarters for all his activities for
the next 45 years. Moffat saw his work as fourfold [1] evangelism, [2] exploration, [3] literature
and, [4] civilisation. Consecration, perfect disinterestedness, shrewdness, simplistic character,
and unwavering faith in the power of the gospel were some of the qualities which made Moffat a
man of God and an outstanding Christian leader. Failing health forced him to leave Africa in
1870. David Livingstone [see 1841] was his son-in-law who undertook a tremendous amount of
exploration. When Moffat left in 1870 a whole region had been Christianised and civilised with
many African Christian congregations ministered to by trained African ministers. He translated
the Bible into Sechuana, composed hymns and provided the Bechuanaland Africans with a basis
of education, tools for worship and study, and the beginnings of literature. He introduced
irrigation and the use of natural fertilisers, forest preservation and new crops.
1817
ARNDT, ERNST MORITZ [1769-1860] – German hymn writer and historian who fled to Sweden
because of his anti Napoleonic writings. After doubts caused by contemporary philosophy he
adopted, from 1817, a more Christian position. Of his 83 hymns 14 have been translated into
English though none are in common use today. When hope of a Catholic Protestant union
foundered he became a staunch Protestant.
D’ÁUBIGNE, JEAN HENRI MERLE [1794 -1872] – Protestant historian born near Geneva who
was a son of French Protestant refugees. He had initial studies in Geneva where he was
influenced by Robert Haldane [see 1795] and the current evangelical awakening. Later he
studied in Berlin and became a friend of J.A.W. Neander [see 1813]. He was ordained in 1817,
and in 1823 appointed court preacher at Brussels, but after the revolution of 1830 he declined
the post of tutor to the Prince of Orange and returned to Geneva. Here he deeply involved
himself in the work of the Evangelical Society of Geneva and was appointed to the professorship
in its theological school. His primary interest was church history. He was also a founder of the
Evangelical Church of Switzerland.
GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON [1776-1848] – German Roman Catholic publicist and lay
theologian. He had an initial enthusiasm for the French Revolution but became increasingly
disillusioned and moved in the direction of Catholic mysticism and German romanticism. During
the Napoleonic Wars Gorres was a vocal supporter of German nationalism. In 1814 he started
the first important German newspaper. Although suppressed by the Prussian government in
1816 it established his reputation as a founder of modern political journalism. He accepted a
professorship at Munich University in 1817 and dominated a circle of noted scholars who
promoted a Catholic renewal emphasising Romanticism and mysticism.
HALLBECK, HANS PETER [1784-1840] – Moravian missionary to South Africa. Born in Sweden,
he studied theology at Lund before joining the Moravian Brethren [see 1722]. From 1817 until his
death he was superintendent of their mission in the Cape Colony. This was a period of
consolidation and expansion. Five new missions were established, two of them among Africans
and pastoral work was extended from the closed settlements to neighbouring farms. Hallbeck
laid stress upon Christian education and established a training school at Genadendal to provide
indigenous helpers for the mission in 1838. After 1838 many emancipated slaves were
successfully integrated into the communities.
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MALAN, CESAR HENRI ABRAHAM [1787-1860] – Swiss preacher who studied theology at
Geneva and was ordained into the Reformed Church. He was converted in 1817 and this
brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical power in Geneva and he was forbidden to preach
on original sin, election, and related doctrines. When Malan disregarded this order he was
expelled from the pulpit. After 1830 he engaged in missionary tours to other parts of Switzerland,
Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Scotland. Although he may have never formally left the
established church he gathered a group first in his own home and may have joined the Scottish
Church.
MARIANISTS – Founded in 1817 in Bordeaux by William Joseph Chaminade [1761-1859] as the
Society of Mary and distinguished from the Marists [see1816]. The Marianist Order introduced an
original note in that the priests and lay members have equal rights and privileges, except those
relating to administration of the sacraments. Members consecrate themselves irreversibly to the
Blessed Virgin and wear a gold ring on the right hand as a token of fact. The order was
recognised by the pope in 1865.
PECK, JOHN MASON [1789-1858] – Pioneer Baptist missionary in Missouri, Illinois, and
Indiana. He was ordained in the Baptist Church in 1813 and ministered for several years before
hearing the missionary challenge through Luther Rice [see 1812]. In 1817 he and James E.
Welch were appointed by the Foreign Mission Board to start work in the Mississippi Valley.
Three years later the board dropped the mission but Peck stayed on, the Massachusetts Baptist
Missionary Society assuming partial support. He founded the Rock Spring Seminary which
became Shurtleff College and helped start the American Baptist Home Mission Society and was
connected with the Baptist Publication Society.
SMITH, JOHN [1790-1824] – Missionary to the West Indies who received his early education at
Sunday school, and trained to be a baker, after which he applied to be a missionary. He married
Jane Godden. Smith arrived in Demerara under the auspices of the London Missionary Society
in March, 1817. He lived at the 'Le Resouvenir' plantation, where he preached at Bethel Chapel,
primarily attended by African slaves. In the morning of 18 August 1823, in what is known as the
'Demerara rebellion of 1823', about ten to twelve thousand slaves drawn from plantations on the
East Coast of the Demerara colony rebelled, under the belief that their masters were concealing
news of the slaves' emancipation. Smith was subsequently charged with promoting discontent
and dissatisfaction in the minds of the African slaves, exciting the slaves to rebel, and failing to
notify the authorities that the slaves intended to rebel. John Smith was arraigned in court-martial
and was found guilty of the principal charges, and was given the death sentence. He died in
prison before the sentence could be carried out. Out of fear of stirring up slave sentiment, the
colonists interred him at four a.m., without marking his grave. His death was a major step
forward in the campaign to abolish slavery. News of his death was published in British
newspapers, provoked enormous outrage resulting in 200 petitions to Parliament.
STALLYBRASS EDWARD [1794-1884] – Congregational Missionary to Siberia who in 1817 was
sent out by the London Missionary Society [see 1795] to Russia to start a mission among the
Buryat people of Siberia. The mission received the blessing of Alexander I of Russia, but was
suppressed in 1840 under his successor Nicolas I of Russia following great opposition from the
Russian Orthodox Church. The mission was later re-opened in 1870 with Scottish missionary
James Gilmour [see 1870] but was now based in Beijing. Alongside Stallybrass worked
Cornelius Rahm of Sweden, William Swan and Robert Yuille of Scotland. Arriving in Irkutsk, they
soon found the area unsuitable; Stallybrass visited various places before setting up a mission
station in Selenginsk in 1819. Stallybrass and his company moved their mission to Khodon in
1828, where Sarah his wife died and was buried in 1833. In 1835 Stallybrass returned to
England via Denmark. In Copenhagen he married Charlotte Ellah. Afterward, they returned to
Siberia, where Charlotte died in 1839. Work at the mission consisted of preaching, tract
distribution, schools work and the translation of the Scriptures into the Buryat language.
Stallybrass returned to England in 1841 and left the LMS and became a pastor and school
headmaster.
THRELKELD, LANCELOT EDWARD [1788-1859) – Threlkeld was an English missionary who
was accepted by the London Missionary Society as a missionary to the heathen in 1814. In the
following year he was ordained as a missionary and sailed for Tahiti, but the illness and
subsequent death of his child detained Threlkeld for a year at Rio de Janeiro, where he started a
Protestant church. He arrived at Sydney in 1817 and after a short stay went to the South Sea
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Islands. A missionary station was formed at Raiatea and Threlkeld worked there for nearly seven
years. His wife died, and being left with four children he returned to Sydney in 1824. A mission to
the aborigines was founded at Lake Macquarie and Threlkeld was appointed missionary. He
went to live with the aborigines on their reservation. In 1828 he came in conflict with the London
Missionary Society which objected to his incurring unauthorized expenses in connection with the
mission. Threlkeld in reply published a pamphlet which the treasurer of the society described as
"virulent". The connection with the Missionary Society was severed and it was decided that
Threlkeld should be allowed to continue his work with a salary of £150 a year from the colonial
government. He was also allowed four convict servants with rations. He published a number of
books to assist the Aborigines and translation of the New Testament. He had little success and
in 1842 he became a Congregational minister
WESSENBERG, IGNAZ HEINRICH KARL VON [1774-1860] – Radical Roman Catholic
churchman who was recruited by Bishop Dalberg for the dioceses of Constance. After Dalberg’s
death in 1817 he was chosen unanimously by the cathedral chapter to fill the vacancy but the
Roman Curia refused to approve it. Wessenberg served as bishop-elect for ten years before
retiring to private life. A great deal of the conflict with the curia was that he wished to expand the
education of priests, wanted more elementary schools, the conversion of monasteries into
hospitals and schools, the suspension of clerical celibacy, permission for mixed marriage with
Protestants, and the vernacular Mass. It is not surprising that he didn't receive the confidence of
the Roman Curia.
WILLIAMS, JOHN [1796-1839] – Protestant missionary known as the “Apostle of Polynesia”.
Williams and his wife were sent out by the London Missionary Society in 1817 to one of the
Society Islands near Tahiti. In 1823 he discovered Rarotonga and founded the mission there. He
later translated parts of the Bible and other books into Rarotongan and founded a training school
to augment the missionary force carrying the Gospel to other islands and built a vessel “The
Messenger of Peace” to be used in evangelising the South Seas Islands. By 1834 no island of
importance within 2000 miles of Tahiti had been left unvisited. He returned to Britain to conduct
speaking tours from 1834 to 1838 to encourage people to work in Polynesia. Returning in
November 1839 he landed in the New Hebrides and was met by savages, killed and eaten in
return for cruelties previously inflicted by British sailors. Thousands of converts mourned his
martyrdom and a new burst of enthusiasm for missions was generated and a succession of ships
bearing the name John Williams was employed to evangelise the area for many years.
1818
CURE D’ARS, THE [1786-1859] – French priest who had little formal education and was unable
to be ordained due to his lack of knowledge of Latin. Dismissed from two seminaries he was
eventually ordained in 1815 and commenced his famous ministry at Ars en Dombes a village
with 230 inhabitants where the religious tone was transformed. He became so famous as a
confessor that towards the end of his life thousands would come to the confessional where it is
said he spent sixteen to eighteen hours a day.
HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH [1770-1831] – The dominant figure in German
idealism, and one of the great philosopher system builders. He studied at Tubingen and after
holding teaching positions at various universities including Jena and Bern was professor of
philosophy at Berlin from 1818 to 1830. Hegel rejected both realism and subjective idealism
because in his view they involved unavoidable contradictions. Hegel is important in any account
of the development of Christian thought, with which his philosophy is fundamentally
incompatible. Religion to Hegel was simply an imaginative pictorial way of representing
philosophical truth. Hegel's system was the inspiration behind the destructive biblical criticism of
D. F. Strauss [see 1835], and in a more complicated way Hegel influenced both Feuerbach and
Karl Marx.
PROVENCHER, JOSEPH NORBERT [1787-1853] – Roman Catholic bishop in Canada who was
educated in Montréal and ordained in 1811. In 1818 he was sent to Winnipeg to minister to the
people of the Red River. He later became assistant to the bishop of Quebec for the Northwest.
He was responsible for the Roman Catholic policy in the West and sought to weld together a
new nation of Metis, French, and Germans in order to preserve the French culture and Roman
Catholic religion in the West. He laboured over 30 years among the Metis, Indians, and Eskimos
in the north-west. In 1847 he became bishop of the new diocese of the Northwest.
1819
AMERICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION was an American Methodist missionary
society founded in 1819. The Mission was involved in sending workers to countries such as
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China during the late Qing Dynasty. In 1847, the American Methodist Episcopal Society (North)
entered the field of China, and soon surpassed all others in the number of its agents and
members. Its pioneer was Rev. Judson Dwight Collins, who passionately asked the society to
enter China. When he was told that no money was available for the purpose, he wrote “Engage
me a passage before the mast in the first vessel going to China. My own strong arm can pull me
to China and can support me when I arrive there.” Such enthusiasm was irresistible, and Collins
was sent to Fuzhou, where, after ten years weary preparation, a work broke out, which spread
itself over six large districts, and comprised sixty stations. A printing press was kept busily
employed, which, in the year 1888 alone, issued 14,000 pages of Christian literature. A large
college was also in use. The mission wound along the banks of the Yangtze for three hundred
miles, and had stations in Jiujiang and other large cities. Northwards it has churches in Beijing,
Tianjin and Isunhua, with full accompaniments of schools and hospitals, and it extended
westward to Chongqing, 1,400 miles from the sea.
GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG [1792-1854] – German Protestant church historian who
was educated at Halle and became professor of theology at the University of Bonn in 1819
where he became a colleague of K.I. Nitzsch [see 1847]. In 1831 he was appointed professor of
church history and doctrine at the University of Gottingen. He was noted as a writer.
HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL [1780-1862] – Librarian and Protestant biblical commentator. He
became a clerk to a barrister undertaking literary work in his spare time. At first a Wesleyan, he
was ordained in the Church of England in 1819 later joining the staff of the British Museum
where he worked on the compilation of the catalogue for many years. He wrote a number of
books on Christian apologetics and bibliography. He is remembered chiefly for his “Critical Study
of the Holy Scriptures” in 3 volumes published in 1818 which was widely used for half a century
by students.
KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM [1796-1868] – German Reformed pastor educated at
Halle and Jena. He became a pastor at Frankfurt in 1819 and in 1853 was appointed court
chaplain at Potsdam. He was a powerful preacher who strenuously opposed rationalism and was
an influential leader of the Evangelical Alliance in Germany.
RUSSIAN BIBLE SOCIETY – Founded in 1819.
VINET, ALEXANDRE RUDOLPHE [1797-1847] – French-speaking Swiss theologian often called
the “Schleiermacher of French Protestantism” who studied theology at Lausanne and taught
French at Basle for over 20 years. He returned to Lausanne as professor of practical theology.
Ordained in 1819 he tended to decry traditional doctrines unless they had been confirmed by
personal experience and he put great stress on a good conscience and right conduct. He
advocated separation of the church and state.
1820
BUCHANITES which was the most bizarre of the Scottish Sects. It was founded by Elspeth
Buchan who claimed to be the third person of the Trinity and the woman clothed with the sun in
the Book of the Revelation. She led a mixed multitude including the town clerk and a popular
young minister Hugh White on a weird pilgrimage to the south of Scotland where at a succession
of sites over many years a steadily dwindling band of followers waited for their translation to
heaven.
ELIAS, JOHN [1774-1841] – He is regarded by many as the greatest of all Welsh preachers. His
only formal education was at a private school and he was ordained as a Calvinistic Methodist
minister in 1811. Elias had an overwhelming conviction of the truth of the Gospel as a means of
salvation, and of the inerrancy of Scripture. There was an intense seriousness in his preaching,
and never a suggestion of humour. In theology he was an unreserved Calvinist and opposed
with great determination that tendency to flirt with modern Calvinism still less with Arminianism.
After the death of Thomas Jones [see 1783] he was the unchallenged leader of the Calvinistic
Methodists. He was energetic in his promotion of moral virtue and social betterment.
UNITED SECESSION CHURCH – Formed in Scotland in 1820, it was a union of the New Light
segments from Burghers [see 1733] and Anti-burghers, which latter groups were children of the
1733 secession under Ebenezer Erskine [see 1740] and his brother Ralph. In 1847 it united with
the Relief Church [see 1761] to form of the United Presbyterian Church.
WEST, JOHN [1775-1845] – Anglican missionary who was educated at Oxford, ordained in 1804
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and appointed chaplain to the Hudson Bay Company in 1819, and arrived at the Red River
settlement in 1820. His three years under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society were
filled with extensive travels on foot and by canoe. Publicity of his letters and journal established
his reputation as a pioneer churchman. He again travelled between 1825 and 1827 in Nova
Scotia and undertook a mission to the Mohawks. On his return to England he took up ministry at
Chettle and was involved in social reform including the establishment of a school for the
education and industrial training of gypsies in that town.
1821-1830 AD
1821
EUGENIUS II – Patriarch of Constantinople [1821-1822] succeeded Gregory V [see 1797].
There is no additional information readily available.
FINNEY, CHARLES GRANDISON [1792-1875] – American revivalist who entered a law office in
New York and was later admitted to the bar. He started attending church services conducted by
a friend, George Gale. Although at first critical of religious dogmas, Finney after studying the
Bible himself was converted in 1821. Turning from the law he began to preach and in 1824
received Presbyterian ordination. For the next eight years he conducted revivals in the eastern
states with notable results. In 1835 he became professor of theology at a new college in Ohio.
During the remainder of his life he was linked with the school and served as president from
1851-1866. In general he was a New School Calvinist, but laid heavy stress on man's ability to
repent.
KENRICK, FRANCIS PATRICK [1796-1863] – Roman Catholic archbishop and educator who
was born in Dublin and educated in Rome where he was ordained in 1821. Moving to America
he taught in Kentucky for 10 years before being consecrated bishop of Philadelphia in 1831. He
became archbishop of Baltimore in 1851 which post he held until his death. He published several
books on biblical, theological, and apologetic topics.
SCUDDER, JOHN [1793-1855] – American Dutch Reformed missionary to India who was a
graduate of the College of New Jersey in 1811 and New York College of Physicians and
Surgeons in 1813. He was attracted to missions by the reading of a tract. In 1819 he with his
wife left for Ceylon under the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Following
ordination in 1821 Scudder founded a hospital and several schools and later established a
printing press and mission at Madras [Chennai]. Failing health caused him to go to South Africa
where he died. Seven of his sons became medical missionaries and pastors in India.
SOUTH AFRICA MISSIONS – Mission opportunities in a healthy climate and relatively safe
conditions attracted numerous societies. They included the Glasgow Mission [Ciskei 1821], the
Rhenish Mission [Cape and South West Africa in 1829], the Paris Evangelical Mission [Lesotho
1834], the American Board [Natal 1835], South African General Mission [1889], the Berlin
Mission [Cape 1834], and the Hermannsburg Mission [Natal 1854].
ULLMANN, KARL [1796-1865] – German Lutheran theologian who was deeply influenced by
Schleiermacher [see 1804] and Neander [see 1813] and served as professor of theology at
Heidelberg University from 1821 with the exception of a seven-year period at Halle [1829-1836].
He stressed the significance of salvation through Jesus. Ullmann also occupied several posts in
the Baden church where he was eventually overthrown by the Liberals.
1822
ANTHIMUS III – Patriarch of Constantinople [1822-1824] who succeeded Eugenius [see 1821].
There is no additional material readily available on him
BROWN, JOHN of Edinburgh [1784-1858] – Scottish Presbyterian minister who was ordained at
Biggar in 1806 and translated to Edinburgh in 1822 and soon became one of the most influential
ministers of any denomination in the Scottish capital. He was appointed Scotland's first professor
of exegetical theology. He became involved in prolonged controversy and indicted on twelve
counts for liberal theological viewpoints on the Atonement and other important doctrines but was
cleared before a United Presbyterian synod.
DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBRECHT [1780-1849] – German biblical scholar and one of
the most influential theologians of the 19th century. He taught at the University of Heidelberg
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1807-10, Berlin 1810-19, and Basle 1822-1849. He wrote many books including Old Testament
and New Testament introductions and a monumental work on Christian ethics as well as
numerous commentaries on historical works and a translation of the Bible.
HEBER, REGINALD [1783 – 1826] – Bishop of Calcutta and Hymn writer. Heber was born in
Cheshire and showed remarkable promise. In 1800 he entered Brasenose College, Oxford,
where he proved a distinguished student, carrying off prizes in both Latin and English. After
completing his university career, he went on a long tour of Europe. He was ordained in 1807 and
took up the family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In 1809 he married Amelia Shipley, daughter of
the Dean of St Asaph. After a number of appointments he was made Bishop of Calcutta in 1822.
In India, Bishop Heber laboured indefatigably, not only for the good of his own diocese, but for
the spread of Christianity throughout the East. He toured the country, consecrating churches,
founding schools and discharging other Christian duties. His devotion to his work in a trying
climate told severely on his health. At Trichy he was seized with an apoplectic fit when in his
bath, and died. The Bishop Heber College at Trichy is named after him and is famous for
education and sports. His fame rests mainly on his hymns. These include “From Greenland’s icy
mountains”, Holy Holy Holy, and “The Son of God goes forth to war”.
IRVING, EDWARD [1792-1834] – Scottish minister who was educated at Edinburgh and became
assistant to Thomas Chalmers [see 1815] at St John's Glasgow. In 1822 he went to the
Caledonian Chapel London and because of the hundreds who wanted to hear him speak a new
church was built in Regent Square. Gradually however many people were alienated because of
his treatment of prophecy, eschatology, the high view of the sacraments, and his encouragement
of speaking in tongues during public worship. A sad process of deterioration set in. He wrote a
number of books including one that led to his arraignment before the London presbytery,
charged with holding the sinfulness of Christ’s humanity. He claimed his words had been
misunderstood but he was excommunicated and in 1833 deposed from the Church of Scotland
ministry.
NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM [1805-1897] – English scholar and younger brother of John
Cardinal Newman [see 1845]. He was converted to the evangelical faith at 14 and in 1822 went
to Oxford where John was already established as a don. He soon came to doubt the relevance
of infant baptism and so declined to take his MA degree. He associated with the early Brethren
and joined A.N. Groves [see 1833] in a mission to Baghdad where he was stoned by Muslims
and just escaped martyrdom. Returning to England in 1833 to collect funds for the mission he
suffered intensely as a result of rumours of his “unsoundness” which culminated in attack by J.N.
Darby [see 1845] and exclusion from Brethren circles. Spiritually isolated for many years though
earnestly longing for Christian fellowship he eventually lost his faith and though remaining a
theist became for a time the foremost anti-Christian writer in the country. He became professor
of classics at University College London, his knowledge was encyclopaedic. He became
renowned as a defender of lost causes.
1823
ELLIOT, CHARLOTTE [1789-1871] – Hymn Writer. Charlotte, was the daughter of Charles
Elliott, of Clapham and Brighton, and granddaughter of the Rev. Henry Venn, of the “Clapham
Sect”. The first 32 years of her life were spent mostly at Clapham. In 1823 she moved to
Brighton, and died there in 1871. To her acquaintance with Dr. C. Malan, of Geneva, is attributed
much of the deep spiritual mindedness which is so prominent in her hymns. She was an invalid
and often a great sufferer however though weak and feeble in body, she possessed a strong
imagination, and a well-cultured and intellectual mind. Her love of poetry and music was great,
and is reflected in her verse. Her hymns number about 150. The finest and most widely known of
these is “Just as I am without one plea” Her verse is characterized by tenderness of feeling,
plaintive simplicity, deep devotion, and perfect rhythm. For those in sickness and sorrow she has
sung as few others have done. Her hymns appeared in her brother's publication “Psalms &
Hymns”
GOODELL, WILLIAM [1792-1861] – Pioneer American Congregational missionary to the Near
East. He became one of a succession of notable scholarly missionaries in the Near East, serving
there for 40 years. Appointed by the American board in 1823 he helped established the work in
Beirut which became the centre of the Syrian Mission. In 1828 the mission was obliged to move
to Malta, where for three years he supervised the press and worked on his Armeno-Turkish
translation of the Bible from Hebrew and Greek which he eventually completed. Sent to
Constantinople in 1831 he helped found the work in Turkey.
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GUTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST [1803-1851] – Missionary to China who was sent by
the Netherlands Missionary Society to Singapore in 1823. Some three years later he went on to
Batavia where he met W.H. Medhurst [see 1843] and began to study Chinese. In the 1830’s he
travelled along the Chinese coast distributing Christian literature before succeeding Robert
Morrison [see 1807] as Chinese secretary to the East India Company at Canton. He helped
negotiate the Treaty of Nanking, and in Hong Kong elaborated a plan for the evangelisation of
China. He died in Hong Kong when he was 48 but not before inspiring others to form missions
for China’s evangelisation. The Chinese Evangelistic Society, under which J Hudson Taylor [see
1854] and Timothy Richard [see 1870] originally went to China, was one of which owed its
beginnings to Gutzlaff.
The INTERCONTINENTAL CHURCH SOCIETY is an organisation that provides a ministry to
English speaking people through Anglican churches around the world. The organisation was
founded in 1823. There are 55 chaplains in 65 locations both on permanent and temporary
bases. In the Paris area there are five ICS churches
LEO XII – Pope [1823-1829]. He was educated at Rome, where he was ordained priest in 1783.
In 1792 Pope Pius VI made him his private secretary creating him titular archbishop of Tyre the
following year. In 1794 he lived in Augsburg, Germany. During the dozen or more years he spent
in Germany he was entrusted with several missions, which brought him into contact with the
political leaders of the day including Napoleon. During this time however he was criticised for his
private life and unaccountability of his finances. After the Napoleonic abolition of the Papal
States in 1798 he was treated by the French as a state prisoner, and lived for some years at the
abbey of Monticelli, busying himself with music and with bird-shooting (pastimes which he
continued even after his election as pope).
After being chosen to carry the pope's
congratulations to Louis XVIII of France upon his restoration he was elevated to the position of
cardinal in 1816 and four years later became vicar general of Rome under Pius VII. In the
conclave of 1823 he was elected pope with election being facilitated because he was thought to
be at death's door, but he unexpectedly rallied. Personally most frugal, Leo XII reduced taxes,
made justice less costly, and was able to find money for certain public improvements, yet he left
the Church's finances more confused than he had found them, and even the elaborate jubilee of
1825 did not really mend financial matters. He succeeded Pius VII [see 1800] and was
succeeded by Pius VIII [see 1829].
LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS [1793 – 1847]. Lyte was an Anglican minister and hymn-writer. He was
born near Kelso, Scotland but his father deserted the family shortly after making arrangements
for his two oldest sons to attend Portora Royal School in Ireland. The headmaster at Portora, Dr.
Burrowes, recognized Henry Lyte's ability, paid the boy’s fees, and welcomed him into his own
family during the holidays. Lyte was effectively an adopted son, and he never forgot Burrowes'
generosity and compassion. Lyte was educated at Trinity College, Dublin and was ordained in
1815. In Dublin and underwent a great spiritual change after attending a friend's deathbed in
1817 and his whole outlook was altered and his preaching revitalised.For some time held a
curacy in Taghmon near Wexford and in 1817 but because of bad health moved to England, and
after several changes settled, in 1823, in the parish of Lower Brixham, a fishing village in Devon
where he helped educate Lord Salisbury, later British prime minister. In poor health throughout
his life, he developed tuberculosis. While in Brixham, Lyte wrote his most famous hymns
including “Praise, my soul, the King of heaven” which is his version of Psalm 103. In 1844 Lyte's
health finally gave way. After his last service, he penned his most famous hymn “Abide With Me”
after watching the sun set over Torbay. Lyte died just two weeks later in 1847 in Nice, southern
France, and was buried there.
SHAW, WILLIAM [1798-1872] – Wesleyan Methodist missionary to South Africa who
accompanied the 1820 settlers to South Africa. Although officially chaplain to one party he
established Methodism throughout Albany and used this settlers church as a base for advance
beyond the frontier. Between 1823 and 1830 he planted six missions in the Ciskei and Transkei,
others being added later. Shaw's high standing among the settlers and friendship with several
African chiefs gave him unique breadth of outlook and sympathy. In 1856 he returned to England
and did not return to the mission field. He is classified as the "Father of South African
Methodism".
STOCKTON, BETSY [1798–1865] – She was an African American educator and missionary who
was born in slavery in the U.S.A. about the year 1798. While a child, her owner Robert Stockton
gave her to his daughter upon her marriage to Reverend Ashbel Green, president of the College
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of New Jersey (now Princeton University). In 1817 she was admitted as a member of the First
Presbyterian Church in Princeton, New Jersey, and formally freed at that time. She remained as
a paid domestic servant with the family, learned from reading in their library and home schooling
by Dr. Green, and expressed a desire to go as a missionary to Africa. She also did some
teaching at this time. She learned of plans by Charles S. Stewart, a student at Princeton
Theological Seminary and friend of the Green family, to go to Hawaii as a missionary. She
expressed a desire to go with them. She was commissioned by the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions as a missionary, and became the first single American
woman sent overseas as a missionary. Her contract with the Board and with the Stewarts said
that she went "neither as an equal nor as a servant, but as a humble Christian friend" to the
Stewarts, and stipulated that she was not to be more occupied with domestic duties than the
other missionaries. They arrived in 1823 and she was the teacher of the first mission school
opened to the common people of Hawaii. She also trained native Hawaiian teachers who took
over from her upon her departure until the arrival of another missionary. She stayed with the
Stewart household until at least 1830. She established a school for Indians at Grape Island,
Canada, and then returned to Princeton in 1835 where she taught in its school for blacks until
her death on October 24, 1865.
1824
BACON, LEONARD [1802-1881] – American Congregational pastor was ordained in 1824 as an
evangelist to the Western frontier. He served as a pastor at New Haven for 41 years. Bacon was
active in the slavery issue and was noted as a peacemaker within the Congregational Union.
CARTWRIGHT, PETER [1785-1872] – American Methodist pioneer who was converted in 1801
after intense spiritual struggle over his delight in horse racing, card playing and dancing. He was
ordained a deacon in 1809 by Francis Ashbury [see 1784]. He served in circuits in Kentucky
until, due to his distaste for slavery, he relocated in 1824 to Illinois where he served as president
for 45 years. He was defeated by Abraham Lincoln in the 1846 race for Congress.
CHRYSANTHUS I – Patriarch of Constantinople [1824-1826] who succeeded Anthimus III [see
1822]. There is no additional information readily available.
KITTO, JOHN [1804-1854] – English biblical scholar who at the age of 12 sustained an accident
while assisting his father, a drunken stonemason, which left him permanently deaf. He was a
workhouse inmate and then shoemaker’s apprentice before becoming converted in 1824. He
was rescued by A.N. Groves [see 1833] who sent him to Islington Missionary College to train as
a printer for the Church Missionary Society. However this body found his services both in London
and Malta unsatisfactory and in 1829 he travelled to Muslim lands as one of Groves’ party of
Brethren missionaries. In Baghdad he set up a missionary school which was destroyed in 1832
when he returned to England. He now broke with the Brethren and began to write for the wider
evangelical world. He was honoured academically later but struggled against severe physical
and monetary hardship until his death.
KNIBB, WILLIAM [1803-1845] – An early Baptist missionary in Jamaica who arrived on the
island in 1824 to manage the Kingston school. In 1830 he went to minister to farmers near
Montego Bay where he remained until his death. His ministry at Falmouth spans momentous
years with the Slave Revolt of 1831-32, the persecution of evangelicals which followed it,
emancipation, the shift of plantation to freehold residence, all crowd into the 15 years of Knibb’s
ministry. He was a tireless champion of the Negroes, in slavery, in apprenticeship, and in
freedom, when he risked personal credit to settle the slaves on their own land. He was also a
prime mover in the decision to declare the Jamaica churches independent of the Baptist
Missionary Society, in the formation of the Calabar College for the training ministers, and in
organising the first West Indian mission to Africa.
SPITTA, KARL JOHANN PHILIPP [1801-1859] – Lutheran hymn writer, born in Hanover and
apprenticed to a watchmaker, Spitta eventually graduated in theology at Gottingen in 1824. As a
result of his conversion about that time he stopped writing secular verse and after four years as a
tutor became a Lutheran pastor. Some of his hymns have been translated into English.
1825
BOWRING, SIR JOHN [1792-1872] – English linguist, diplomat and hymn writer who after a
period of Consul in Canton became the Governor of Hong Kong. Author of many poems and
hymns he is generally remembered now for his hymn “In the cross of Christ I glory” which was
made famous by John Stainer in his oratorio The Crucifixion [see 1887].
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CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY [1780-1842] – Unitarian leader and abolitionist who was
ordained as pastor of a Congregational church in Boston 1803. Six years later he set forth the
basis of Unitarianism [see 1558] with denial of the Trinity, the deity of Christ, total depravity and
substitutionary atonement. He was a prime mover in the development of the American Unitarian
Association in 1825.
CHURCHES OF GOD which is a name designating about 200 various religious bodies in the
USA. It was first used by a revival group within the German Reformed Church [American] in this
year. The Churches of God are divided into five general categories, the Pentecostal, the
Wesleyan, a Seventh Day group, Small independent churches, and H W Armstrong’s Worldwide
Church of God founded in 1947.
DRUMMOND, HENRY [1786-1860] – Politician, writer, and a founder of the Catholic Apostolic
Church. Educated at Harrow and Oxford he entered the banking profession, was elected to
Parliament in 1810 where his vote on major issues was uninfluenced by party considerations. He
founded a chair of political economy at Oxford in 1825. Going to Switzerland he contended
strongly against Socinian [see 1578] tendencies in Genevan Protestantism. Meetings of those in
sympathy with the views of Edward Irvine [see 1822] were held for the study of prophecy at his
home in Surrey.
FREETHINKERS – Those who refuse to submit reason to the control of authority in questions of
religious belief. The term seems to have appeared first in 1692 and was used by Deists and
other opponents of Orthodox Christianity in the 18th century in promoting reason above all else.
It has been associated with a great number of movements. Modern secularism in its militant and
the atheistic form claims that the term brings together many different strands of thought. Among
these will be listed modern Unitarianism [1825] Mexican secularism [1833], the German free
religious movement [1848], organised positivism [1854], New Zealand rationalism [1856],
Australian secularism [1862], the Belgian league of the enlightenment [1864, the English religion
society [1864]. Italian anticlericalism [1869], Vosey's theistic church [1871], American free
thought [1873], American ethical culture [1876], the Dutch dawn [1881], Argentinian secularism
[1883], and Austrian secularism [1887] to which could legitimately be added the more radical
groups within the major denominations and extend the list even to include political
revolutionaries.
GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN [1783-1872] – Danish bishop and hymn writer
who, except for short periods of service as a pastor, lived as an independent writer [1810-25]
struggling for the reintroduction of an orthodox Lutheran Christianity. It was during a religious
crisis in 1824 that he made his ‘unique discovery’. This he published in 1825 in a pamphlet called
“The Church’s Reply”. This argued that the sure foundation of faith is not to be found in the Bible,
but in the risen Christ himself, who lives and works in his congregation when it gathers around
the sacraments. Around 1830 he visited England 3 times and was strongly impressed by the
spirit of liberty and activity which he found characteristic of English society. From 1825 he was
the leader of an ever increasing following. He was given the rank of bishop in 1861 by his
denomination.
HIEROTHEUS I - Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1825-1845] see 1805 and 1845
LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM [1793-1851] – German philologist and
founder of modern textural criticism. He joined the Prussian army in 1815 and became professor
of philology at Berlin from 1825 until his death. His life was spent in the study of philology
especially of Old and Middle High German and he was one of the finest classical scholars of the
day. He was the first scholar to produce an addition of the Greek New Testament in which the
Textus Receptus was abandoned in favour of older manuscripts. He gave impulse to later
scholars such as Tischendorf, Westcott, and Hort.
MULLER, JULIUS [1801-1878] – German Protestant theologian who studied at Breslau and
Gottingen changing from law to theology in 1821. He was ordained in Breslau in 1825 and
served in a parish before accepting an appointment as university preacher at Gottingen [183135]. He supported the Prussian Evangelical Union of Lutheran and Reformed Churches and
attempted to draw up a formula of consensus to serve as the doctrinal basis for the Evangelical
Church of Prussia.
RANKE, LEOPOLD VON [1795-1886] – Lutheran historian who became a professor at the
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University of Berlin [1825 to 1871]. Ranke’s most significant work in church history is his “History
of the Popes” in two volumes which covered the period from the Reformation to the Vatican
Council of 1869-70. The Prussian state named him official historian in 1841 and granted him the
aristocrat’s title “von” in 1865 for his efforts.
REVEIL, LE – Literally means The Awakening. It was an evangelical revival which began in
French-speaking Switzerland in the early 19th century and spread to France and the
Netherlands by 1825. It shook the state churches of Geneva and Vaud and spawned free
churches in those two cantons. It also deeply touched the French and Dutch Reformed
communities and complimented contemporary revivals in the British Isles and in the United
States. Le Reveil was basically a reaction against the rationalism and materialism which the
Enlightenment had brought to the established churches of the Continent. It had an able
leadership of Caesar Malan [see 1817], Francois Gaussen [see 1831], and Merle d’Aubigne [see
1817] in Geneva; Alexandre Vinet [see 1819] in Vaud; Felix Neff [d 1829], Henri Pyt [d 1835],
Adolphe [d.1856] and Frederdijk [d.1863] Monod in France; and Willem Bilderdijk [see 1795],
and Isaak da Costa [see 1851] in the Netherlands. By the end of the century Le Reveil had won
over a majority of the Venerable Company of Pastors of Geneva, permeated the French
Reformed Church, and rejuvenated hundreds of Dutch congregations.
SCHMUCKER, SAMUEL SIMON [1799-1873] – Lutheran clergyman who was the dominant
figure of American Lutheranism in his day. He was a founder of the Lutheran Theological
Seminary in Gettysburg Pennsylvania in 1825 and the first of its professors. He was also the
creator of the Pennsylvania College where he asserted that Lutheran Pietism was the best
weapon against rationalism.
1826
AGATHANGELUS I – Patriarch of Constantinople [1826-1830] who succeeded Chrysanthus I
[see 1824]. There is no additional material readily available.
DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON [1799-1890] – Roman Catholic church historian
and theologian who was ordained in 1822 and became a professor of church history in Munich
from 1826. A friend of Gladstone [see 1832] and Lammenais [see 1830] he like the latter
blended liberalism in theology and politics. He disliked the decree on Immaculate Conception
[see 1854] and saw the Syllabus of Errors [see 1864] as an outright attack on the modern world
and on some of his own positions. He was excommunicated in 1871 when he refused to accept
the doctrine of papal infallibility, and shared in the founding of the Old Catholic Church [see
1889] taking part in its discussions with Anglicans and Orthodox out of concern for Christian
reunion, but fell out with the Old Catholics when they discarded traditions such as celibacy of the
clergy, and aural confession.
MITCHELL, WILLIAM (1803 –1870) – He was an Anglican who was the first ordained person to
provide religious services in the Swan Valley area of the Swan River Colony later named
Western Australia. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin before deciding to become a missionary.
In 1826 he left Ireland with his wife for a missionary position in India under the Church
Missionary Society but in 1830 due to the failing health of his wife, the family returned to
England. She died in March 1831 and he remarried and returned to India but due to his own
health returned to England in 1835. Leaving the Church Missionary Society Mitchell joined the
Colonial and Continental Church Society and moved to Western Australia as a missionary priest
the following year.
PHILARET, DROZDOV [1782-1867] – Metropolitan of Moscow, humanitarian, who was
educated in Moscow and became a lecturer at the seminary in 1803. He was ordained in 1809
and later held the chair of philosophy at St Petersburg. After a series of appointments he
became metropolitan of Moscow in 1826. Having earlier been exposed to and much appreciated
Protestant thinking, he protested the Russian Church’s insinuation of heresy, even declaring that
their official pronouncements were only private opinions, doctrinal decisions being invalid as long
as there were no administrative canons. With the liberal reforms of Tsar Alexander II in 1861 he
was honoured by the production of a manifesto whereby the peasants were released from
serfdom.
SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER Seventh Earl of [1801-1885] – Evangelical
social reformer who was educated at Oxford and entered Parliament in 1826 as a Tory though
his growing concern with social issues and particularly his desire to improve working-class
conditions which had been created by the Industrial Revolution made him more independent
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politically. In 1828 he became a member of the Metropolitan Lunacy Commission and began his
work for the mentally ill. In 1845 he persuaded Parliament to establish a permanent Lunacy
Commission for the whole country and was the chairman of it until he died. From 1833 to 1847
his main political concern was the factory question which after long battle resulted in the 10
Hours Act and the Factory Act of 1874. He championed the cause of the women and children
working in mines and secured the setting up of a Royal Commission of Enquiry into children's
employment in general. In 1875 the Climbing Boys Act protected children being used as chimney
sweeps. He also promoted legislation to protect milliners and dressmakers as well as being
involved in social work in connection with slums and The Ragged School Union of which he was
chairman and his own schemes in industrial schools and training ships. He was a leading
evangelical in the mid century supporting Catholic Emancipation in 1829. As Lord Palmerston’s
stepson-in-law he advised him on ecclesiastical appointments during his premiership. He was
president of the British and Foreign Bible Society and closely associated with the London City
Mission, Church Missionary Society, YMCA, and the Church Pastoral-Aid Society.
SMITH, ELI [1801-1857] – American Congregational missionary and Orientalist who graduated
from the Yale in 1821 and Andover Seminary in 1826. He engaged in mission work under the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in Malta and Syria. In 1830 with H.G.
Dwight he explored Asia Minor, Armenia, Georgia, and Persia. The two explorers published a
book dealing with their trip which led to the establishment of the American mission among
Nestorian Christians. In 1838 Smith and Edward Robinson explored Sinai, Palestine, and
southern Syria. The last 10 years of Smith's life was spent translating the Bible into Arabic. He
died in Beirut.
THOLUCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST GOTTREU [1799-1877] – German Protestant theologian who
concentrated on the study of oriental languages at the universities of Breslau and Berlin and was
converted to Christ under Pietist influences and turned his study to theology. He was professor
of theology at Halle for 49 years from 1826 where he exerted a powerful influence on students
and on the churches. He was very influential in his day.
TUBINGEN SCHOOL – In the early 19th century there was a Tubingen School of conservative
theology but the Tubingen School commonly referred to is that headed up by F.C. Baur [see
1845] who taught there from 1826 until his death in 1860. Baur’s teaching was characterised by
his anti-supernaturalistic attitude to history, tendency criticism in the interpretation of biblical
writings, and the use of idealist philosophy in interpretation of history. He saw a fundamental
conflict between the Jewish church led by Peter and the Hellenistic Gentile church led by Paul.
The degree in which New Testament books exhibited tendencies of this conflict determined their
authenticity. Baur assigned most of them to the second century. It is questionable however
whether the school ever amounted to more than Baur and his immediate circle as despite the
attention Baur attracted, 19th century German liberal theology tended to follow other paths.
1827
ANDREWS, LORRIN (1795–1868) - An early American Missionary to Hawaii and judge who
sailed to Hawaii in 1827. On arrival he first learnt the language. He opened the first postsecondary school for Hawaiians called Lahainaluna Seminary and prepared a Hawaiian
dictionary and several works on the literature and antiquities of the Hawaiians. His students
published the first newspaper, and were involved in the first case of counterfeiting currency in
Hawaii. He later served as a judge and became a member of Hawaii's first Supreme Court.
ATHANASIUS V Patriarch of Jerusalem - [1827-1845] see 1808 and 1845
BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN [1770-1827] – German composer who became while still a boy
relief organist at Bonn Cathedral. Here he was introduced to music by J S Bach [see 1723]. He
moved to Vienna where he soon attained fame as a composer and pianist but before reaching
thirty he started to lose his hearing. He wrote some outstanding sacred compositions including
"Christ on the Mount of Olives"," Mass in C", and "Missa Solemnis".
BORROW, GEORGE HENRY [1803-1881] – English author and linguist who from 1818 was a
trainee to solicitors in Norwich. Moving to London in 1824 he was grossly underpaid for
translations while learning languages in his spare time. He left London as a tramp. He
commenced 23 years of wandering on foot in Europe and the East in 1827 working at times with
newspapers in Spain and Russia and for the British and Foreign Bible Society [see 1804].
Borrow was in danger many times and was reconciled to the fact that he might be martyred. In
his later years he was a missionary to the gypsies and published a complete Romany dictionary.
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DYER, SAMUEL [1804-1843] – English Congregational Missionary to Malaysia. Dyer and his
wife Maria arrived in Penang in 1827. He was known as a typographer for creating a steel
typeface of Chinese characters for printing to replace traditional wood blocks. Dyer's type was
accurate, aesthetically pleasing, durable and practical. He was converted in 1820 in London and
while at Cambridge he turned his thoughts to missionary service. He joined the London
Missionary Society and studied not only theology but Chinese and the art of printing. After
gaining some knowledge of the language in Penang Dyer faced the challenge of producing
movable metallic types for the thousands of Chinese characters. He started with a systematic
analysis of characters and strokes. At first, using wood reliefs to create the clay moulds from
which type could be cast, he soon moved to steel punches and copper matrixes. Dyer's linguistic
abilities, meticulous planning, and painstaking attention to detail resulted in Chinese fonts of high
quality. They were later passed on to the American Presbyterian Mission Press in China and
played a significant part in its development. By 1828 Samuel was preaching in Chinese only 5
months after their arrival. He grew committed to the production of Christian literature in Chinese,
printing Bibles, tracts, and books with the moveable, metal-cast type with a controlled vocabulary
that he developed. In 1835 they moved to Malacca and then to Singapore in 1841 where Samuel
worked on a revision of the Chinese Bible. In 1843 he left with John Stronach for the LMS
conference in Hong Kong where he was appointed Conference Secretary but he fell ill and died
in Macau later that year. His type was known as Dyer’s Penang was the Chinese standard print
until the 1860’s
EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON [1803-1875] – German biblical Scholar who studied
in Gottingen and therefore was put in touch with the first generation of modern critical studies of
the Old Testament. Ewald’s place in the history of biblical scholarship is fixed by his initiating role
in two of its major dimensions: Semitic linguistics in a historical vein from 1827 and the history of
the people of Israel from 1843. Political views forced him to leave Gottingen in 1837 and it was
10 years before he could return during which he taught at Tubingen. In later life he was deeply
involved in political affairs.
FARADAY, MICHAEL [1791-1867] – English scientist who was the son of a blacksmith and
became a laboratory assistant to Sir Humphrey Davy at the Royal institution in 1813 and later
succeeded him as professor of chemistry in 1827. His discoveries include the first electric motor,
the first dynamo, and the first transformer. His outlook on science was deeply influenced by
Christianity; in his lectures he often used science as evidence of God's power and wisdom. His
life was devoted to Christian work in science; he was a brilliant lecturer who made science
popular in his day. On Christian grounds he rejected wealth, and on retirement was very poor.
However a government pension was granted to him in 1858 together with a house in Hampton
Court which was provided for him by Queen Victoria.
GURNEY, JOSEPH JOHN [1788-1847] – Philanthropist and founder of the American Quaker
group Gurneyites named after him. Born in England he became a Quaker minister in 1818. The
“Friends” experienced a schism in 1827 when Elias Hicks of Long Island and his followers the
Hicksters [see below] rebelled against a thoroughly evangelical statement of faith adopted by
most of the Philadelphia Quakers. Between 1837 and 1840 Gurney toured America and the
West Indies preaching widely, becoming a rallying point in conforming to the revivalist pattern
and eventually giving his name to the movement. His followers in time took on the characteristics
of normal Protestants using the sacraments and having a minister preach at worship services.
On his return to England, Gurney helped his sister Elizabeth Fry [see 1813] in her work, and
collaborated with Thomas Clarkson [see 1787] and others for the abolition of the slave trade.
HICKSITES – In 1827 a number of American Quakers followed the preaching of Elias Hicks
[1748-1813] and withdrew from the orthodox Society of Friends and established their own yearly
meetings. Hicks was an eloquent preacher and social crusader who had attacked such
institutions as slavery, contended that man was capable of saving himself, and described the
Bible and church dogma as functional but not authoritative. This group included those who had
been influenced by Unitarianism [see 1558], those who wished to resist the attempt by
evangelical Quakers to unite all yearly meetings and create written doctrine, and those who
believed inner experience was primary. In the 20th century they have co-operated with orthodox
Quakers.
LACORDAIRE, JEAN-BAPTISTE HENRI [1802-1861] – Celebrated French Roman Catholic
orator who was ordained in 1827 and immediately became a revolutionary. He attempted to
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open a progressive school in Paris after the Revolution of 1830 failed. In addition the pope
condemned and terminated a periodical he edited. In a series of fiery sermons at Notre Dame he
electrified Paris and succeeded in reviving the Dominican Order which had been banned since
the Revolution. He experienced continuous conflicts with Rome over periodicals he launched to
air Republican principles.
SUMNER, CHARLES RICHARD [1790-1874] – Bishop of Winchester, brother of J.B. Sumner
archbishop of Canterbury [see 1848]. He was educated at Cambridge, ordained in 1814 and
made a royal chaplain by George IV. In 1826 he was consecrated bishop of Llandaff and the
following year was translated to Winchester. Although a convinced evangelical he voted for the
1829 Catholic Emancipation Bill against the king's wishes which he later regretted. In 1850 he
strongly protested against the restoration of the Roman Catholic hierarchy. Sumner established
new churches and poor schools in his diocese and improved the lot of agricultural labourers.
WAYLAND, FRANCIS [1796-1865] – Baptist pastor and social reformer who was born in New
York and graduated from Union College in 1813. He went to medical school where he
experienced a profound religious change which led him to the Andover Theological Seminary in
1816. After five years of teaching at Union College and five years as pastor of the First Baptist
Society of Boston he was elected as the president of Brown University in 1827, a position which
he held the next 28 years. He sponsored prison reform, emancipation of slaves, and free trade.
Baptist historians have hailed him as one of the strongest defenders of religious freedom and
toleration.
1828
ARNOLD, THOMAS [1795-1842] – Anglican teacher who in 1828 was ordained and appointed
headmaster of Rugby School laying the foundation of the modern public school system in
England with its emphasis on religious training, moral character and public service. He became
Regius professor of modern history at Oxford in 1841 but opposed the Oxford Movement [see
1833]. The essence of Christianity to him was practical goodness. Arnold also emphasised the
universal priesthood of all believers.
HOWLEY, WILLIAM – Archbishop of Canterbury [1828-1848]. Howley was born in 1766 at
Ropley, Hampshire, where his father was vicar. He was educated at Winchester School and in
1783 went to New College, Oxford. After some time working in Somerset as a private tutor he
was appointed regius professor of divinity at Oxford University and canon of Christ Church,
Oxford. He was an active English Freemason, having joined the 'Royal York Lodge' in Bristol in
December 1791 and served the lodge regularly until his elevation to the episcopate took him to
London. In October 1813, at Lambeth Palace, he was consecrated bishop of London, a post he
was to occupy until 1828, when he became archbishop of Canterbury. Howley was archbishop
during the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts (1828), the Emancipation of the
Catholics (1829) and the passing of the Great Reform Act (1832.) The bench of bishops was
generally opposed to all three measures. As archbishop, Howley was their spokesman and his
heart-felt opposition to the Great Reform Act led to his carriage being attacked in the streets of
Canterbury. Like very many other bishops at that time, Howley was an "old high-churchman."
These people inherited a tradition of high views of the sacraments from the Caroline Divines and
their successors. They held Catholic beliefs but were consistently anti-Roman. Archbishop
Howley presided over the coronation of William IV and Queen Adelaide in 1831. At 5 a.m. on
20th June 1837, accompanied by the lord chamberlain, the archbishop went to Kensington
Palace to inform Princess Victoria that she was now queen of Great Britain and Ireland. William
Howley was married on 29th August 1805. The Howleys had two sons and three daughters;
neither son reached adulthood. William Howley died in 1848 and was interred at Addington after
an elaborate funeral. He succeeded Charles Manners Sutton [see 1805] and was succeeded by
John Bird Sumner [see 1848].
MOHLER, JOHANN ADAM [1796-1838] – German scholar who studied at Tubingen and was
ordained there in 1819. Mohler was professor of church history at Tubingen from 1828 and later
at Munich from 1835. He became dean of Würzburg Cathedral just before he died from cholera,
pneumonia, and general exhaustion. His efforts to understand and be understood by Protestants
demonstrated his deep ecumenical interest.
PHILIP, JOHN [1775-1851] – Scottish missionary to South Africa. He was a Congregational
minister in Aberdeen before beginning his 30 years work as resident director of the London
Missionary Society in South Africa. He made frequent tours and aimed to silence his critics by
improving the quality of missionary work, and also assisted the Rhenish, Paris, and American
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Board missions to enter the field. He played a controversial role in colonial politics with his
vigorous campaign on behalf the Hottentots and prepared the ground for Ordinance 50 of 1828
which extended civil rights to coloured people. Philip was also active in various areas to give the
native population justice. He is often condemned as an ignorant negrophile and although his
information and judgements were sometimes faulty, few men were better informed. He had an
intolerant manner but this was outweighed by his passionate concern for justice and his acute
understanding of the colony’s true interests.
PUSEY, EDWARD BOUVERIE [1800-1882] – Leader of the Oxford Movement. He was
educated at Oxford and graduated in 1819. From 1825 to 1827 he studied biblical criticism in
Germany and in the process acquired a good knowledge of oriental languages. His works were
strongly conservative the best known is his commentary on the Minor Prophets and on Daniel. In
1828 he was appointed regis professor of Hebrew at Oriel where he was already acquainted with
Keble and Newman and contributed to the Tracts of the Times” which was edited by Newman.
Two of them, one on baptism and the other on the Eucharist, were much longer than the
previous tracts. In 1843 he was inhibited as a university preacher because of his sermon on the
Eucharist. When in 1845 Newman seceded to the Roman Church, Pusey became the bestknown figure in the Church of England. This encouraged others to remain in the Church of
England. His own desire for reunion with the Roman Church led to him providing a paper in 1870
but he was disappointed with the response. In later years however he was more occupied with
combating the growing strength of liberalism represented in Oxford by Benjamin Jowett [see
1860]. Pusey was a man of great personal devotion but his private life was haunted by tragedy.
His wife to whom he was devoted died after 11 years of marriage and all but one of his children
predeceased him.
THAILAND – The story Protestant Christian missionary work in this Buddhist land is one of
repeated disappointments and frustrations although there were some outstanding missionaries.
Karl Gutzlaff [see 1823] a German, was one of the first to arrive in 1828. In less than three years
he saw the Bible completely though imperfectly translated into Thai and produced a grammar
and dictionary. His wife and infant twin daughters died in 1831 and he himself had to leave the
country apparently in a dying condition. In all 61 missionaries have died on this field. The
American Board arrived in 1831 with David Abeel but in 1849 it officially withdrew. The American
Missionary Association through Daniel Beach Bradley was basically a one-man work. Bradley
made a greater impression on Thailand than any other missionary and was a good friend of King
Mongkut yet he had few converts. After his death in 1873 the American Missionary Association
also withdrew. The American Baptists came in 1833 with John Taylor Jones and the Chinese
Baptist Church was organised in 1837. This was the first Protestant church in the Far East. The
major continuing work was that of the American Presbyterians which began in 1840. In 1934 the
Presbyterians formed the Church of Christ in Thailand and in 1957 the mission dissolved and
turned over all the work to this national church. In 1929 the Christian and Missionary Alliance
entered East Thailand but it was not until after World War II that there was a great influx by a
number of new missions into the country.
1829
AUBER, HARRIET [1773-1862] – Hymn Writer and Poet. She was born in London but during the
greater part of her quiet and secluded life lived at Broxbourne and finally Hoddesdon in
Hertfordshire. She wrote devotional and other poetry, but only a portion of the former was
published in her “Spirit of the Psalms”, in 1829. This collection is mainly her work, and from it
some useful versions of the Psalms have been taken and included in modern hymn-books
including about 20 appearing in Spurgeon's Hymn Book. She is principally known through her
exquisite hymn "Our blest Redeemer, ere He breathed."
BINNEY, THOMAS [1798-1874] – Apprenticed to a bookseller before training for the
Congregational ministry. After pastorates at Bedford and the Isle of Wight he became pastor of
Weigh House Chapel, London [1829-1869]. His preaching style appealed to the youth for whom
he wrote his most popular book ”Is it possible to make the best of both worlds?”, which was
published in 1853. He also promoted the use of more attractive music in his services.
BLEEK, FRIEDRICH [1793-1859] – German biblical scholar who studied in Berlin from 18141817 under W. de Wette [see 1822], Johan Neander [see 1813], and F Schleiermacher [see
1804]. He held a conservative viewpoint opposing the Tubingen School [see 1826], and
defended the traditional authorship of the fourth gospel. He was professor of theology at Bonn
[1829-1859], and also was elected as rector of the university. His major work was a three part
commentary on Hebrews.
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BURTON, EDWARD [1794-1836] – Scholar and church historian. He was educated at Oxford
and studied on the continent for six years from 1818, and on his return to England gained a
reputation as a precise and widely educated scholar. He was appointed regius professor of
divinity at Oxford in 1829. He is chiefly remembered because of his untimely death which
resulted in R D Hampden succeeding him and the consequent campaigning of the Oxford
Movement [see 1833] against his successor.
GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA [1773–1858]. German founder of the Gossner
Missionary Society. In 1796 he was ordained as a priest and became an evangelical. He served
in a number of congregations in Germany and then served a German congregation at St
Petersburg Russia from 1822-1824 until doubts regarding the celibacy of the clergy forced him to
resign. In 1826 he joined the Lutheran Church and was appointed in 1829 to the pastorate of the
Bethlehem Church in Berlin where he remained for 17 years. Here he founded schools, asylums,
and the missionary society bearing his name in 1836. Missionaries from the society served
mainly in East India. After resigning from the Bethlehem Church in 1846 he devoted the
remainder of his life to the hospital which he had founded.
HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLPH VON [1806-1879] – German Lutheran theologian
who was influenced by F. Tholuck [see 1826] toward theology and particularly Luther's doctrine
of justification. He was a professor of New Testament exegesis at Erlangen from 1829 to 1845
where he considerably raised the standard of theological teaching. He became president of the
supreme consistory of Bavaria and reorganised the Lutheran state church giving them a new
hymn book and a new order of service. He was one of the most influential representatives of
Lutheran orthodoxy of his generation.
MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM [1800-1873] – German Protestant clergyman and New
Testament scholar. His chief contribution to scholarship was a famous commentary series on the
New Testament which he founded and commenced in 1829 and which has been revised over
the years and is still a very important academic commentary on the New Testament. In
introducing the work Meyer outlined the principles of historic grammatical exegesis as he
understood it.
PIUS VIII – Pope [1829-1830]. He studied Canon law and, in 1800 became bishop of Montalto.
After he refused to swear allegiance to Napoleon I of France (1804-14, 1815) he was taken to
France. Following the defeat of France he was elevated to cardinal priest in 1816. He continued
to live modestly, made no enemies, and although his own private life had always been
irreproachable, he had shown no signs of judgement where others were concerned. He suffered
from a very painful and distressing complaint, having perpetually weeping sores on his neck and
body, and was too ill and feeble to do more than sign the documents presented to him by
Giuseppe Cardinal Albani, who ruled the Papal States as autocratically as though he had himself
worn the triple crown. Expressing concern on the debate on religious pluralism which was
occurring in his own time he condemned the "foul contrivance of the sophists of this age" that
would place Catholicism on par with any other religion. Regarding Bible translations, he wrote
“We must also be wary of those who publish the Bible with new interpretations contrary to the
Church's laws. They skilfully distort the meaning by their own interpretation. They print the Bibles
in the vernacular and, absorbing an incredible expense, offer them free even to the uneducated.
Furthermore, the Bibles are rarely without perverse little inserts to ensure that the reader imbibes
their lethal poison instead of the saving water of salvation”. In 1830 he condemned Masonic
secret societies and modernist biblical translations. Pius VIII accepted the situation on mixed
marriages between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but opposed liberalising tendencies in
Ireland and Poland. He succeeded Leo XII [see 1823] and was succeeded by Gregory XVI [see
1831].
WILLIAMS, ISAAC [1802-1865] – Welsh Tractarian, poet, and theologian who was educated at
Harrow and Oxford and deeply influenced by John and Thomas Keble and by Richard Froude.
Ordained in 1829 he was tutor and dean at Trinity by 1833. Williams was curate to J.H. Newman
at St Mary's. He produced many translation of hymns from Greek and Latin and was recognised
to be the natural successor to John Keble for the professorship of poetry at Oxford in 1841.
However his tract 80 raised great alarm and then antagonism in the Anglican Church cost him
the chair so that he spent the rest of his life in semi-retirement writing hymns, poetry, sermons,
and devotional works.
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1830
BARNES, ALBERT [1798-1870] – American Presbyterian minister born in Rome New York into a
Methodist family. Trained at Princeton Seminary he became a Presbyterian. He was a dynamic
evangelical preacher who sought to challenge the human will to respond to God’s offer of
salvation. In 1830 he was charged with doctrinal error by the Calvinist wing of the Presbytery but
acquitted by the general assembly although admonished about what they saw as objectionable
passages in a sermon.
BICKERSTETH, EDWARD [1786-1850] – English evangelical author and compiler of hymn
books who worked in a post office and as a lawyer until he was converted in 1805. As a result he
wrote the popular “Help to Studying the Scriptures”. Ordained in 1815 he went to Sierra Leone
to report on the work of the Church Missionary Society. In 1830 he accepted a post at Watton
but retained his connection with the CMS and soon after compiled his Christian Psalmody a
collection of 900 hymns. He was active in the formation of the Evangelical Alliance and Irish
Missions.
BRAY, WILLIAM (Billy) [1794-1868] – Cornish Methodist preacher who was a son of a mining
convert from Wesley’s visit. He worked in a mine early after his father’s death, was dismissed
and led a dissolute life. Converted after reading Bunyan [see 1678] he became an itinerant
preacher often sleeping outdoors and poorly dressed. He was famous in Cornwall for his native
wit showing a great joy in Christ.
BRIDGMAN, ELIJAH [1801-1861] – First American missionary to China who after graduation in
1829 was appointed to China by the American Board. For a year he and David Abeel of the
Seaman’s Friend Society were supported by D W Oliphant a China trader. Bridgman learned the
Cantonese dialect and prepared a 730 page manual on it. After the First Opium War he started
work in Shanghai and supervised the production of the Bible and was a pastor of a church.
CAMPBELL, JOHN [1800-1872] – Scottish Presbyterian minister convicted in 1830 of heresy for
preaching the doctrine of universal atonement and pardon through the death of Christ, and that
assurance is of the essence of faith and necessary for salvation. He was deposed in 1831 and
became a minister to an independent congregation in Glasgow. His views were later
incorporated in “The Nature of the Atonement“, published in 1856 which is regarded as a
substantial contribution in the development of Scottish theology.
CONSTANTIUS I – Patriarch of Constantinople [1830-1834] who succeeded Agathangelus I [see
1826]. There is no additional information readily available.
DUFF, ALEXANDER [1806-1878] – Scottish missionary to India who was educated at St
Andrews University and became the first Church of Scotland missionary to go to India. He and
his wife were twice shipwrecked en route to Calcutta. Realising the value of a strong educational
policy, he opened an English school in which the Bible was the central textbook, but which
offered a range of subjects to university standard. There was some opposition from both Hindus
and fellow missionaries, but he had a powerful ally in the British governor general and the school
developed notably. Poor health compelled his return home in 1834 but he recovered sufficiently
to see India again in 1840. In 1851 he was moderator of his church's general assembly and
three years later he impressed his concern for missions on American and Canadian listeners. A
further spell in India 1856-1864 was concerned with the advancement of higher education in the
country specifically with the foundation of the University of Calcutta. Through ill health he was
forced to leave India but he laboured in his missionary cause until his death. From 1867 he
occupied the first chair of evangelical theology at New College in Edinburgh.
KHOMYAKOV, ALEKSEI STEPANOVICH [1804-1860] – Russian philosopher and theologian
who was a member of the landed gentry and graduated from the University of Moscow in 1822
after which he served in the army during the Russo-Turkish War. In 1830 he retired to his estates
where he tried to improve the conditions of his serfs and eventually advocated the abolition of
serfdom. His writings cover a wide range of subjects from tragedy and poetry to philosophy and
theology. Although a layman he was well read in theology and believed the Orthodox Church as
a mystical body was the guiding light of true Christianity. He criticised both Roman Catholicism
and Protestantism for destroying the unity of Christianity. He saw the Russian peasant commune
as that which preserved Christianity in its pure form and would lead the nations into a new
Christian era.
KING, JONAS [1792–1869] – American Congregational author and missionary to Greece.
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Educated at Williams College and Andover Seminary he was ordained in 1819 then went to
Palestine under the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions from 1822 to 1825.
He married a Greek and was assigned to Greece in 1830 where he began a career of
distinguished missionary and consular service. Besides founding a Greek Protestant church,
King also started a school and wrote Christian literature in several languages. His “Farewell
Letters” [1825] discuss his reasons for not becoming a Roman Catholic. It was translated into
several languages.
LAMENNAIS, FELICITE ROBERT DE [1782-1854] – French Roman Catholic writer whose
personally epitomised the spiritual conflict between Catholic faith and the new democratic ideal.
From a budding rationalist he converted to the Catholic faith and became a priest in 1816 and by
1830 founded newspaper to promote liberty for the church from the state. Even though he did
not then accept the secularist basis of liberalism, his ideas were condemned by Gregory XVI.
Gradually he left the church to advocate the new liberal democratic ideal and to extol out the
common man, not the church, as the hope for social regeneration. Liberal Catholicism counts
him among its founders.
MIGNE, JACQUES PAUL [1800-1875] – French Roman Catholic publisher who because of his
controversy with the bishop concerning the revolution of 1830 left his diocese and went to Paris.
He turned to journalism and decided to publish a universal library for the clergy. In 2000 volumes
he hoped to publish at a moderate price all the Catholic literature to his own day. His press
employed 300 people and he showed himself expert at managing the enterprise. Among other
works he published editions of the Latin Fathers in 221 volumes and the Greek Fathers in 162
volumes. His work remains valuable as despite errors it is still one of the most uniform
collections of Church Fathers to ever approach completion.
MORMONISM – On 6 April 1830 the Church of the Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was
organised at Fayette, New York. They moved soon afterwards to Ohio and from there under the
leadership of Joseph Smith [see below] the community moved to Jackson County Missouri.
Because of opposition encountered there the group went to Illinois and after Smith was killed by
a mob most of the Mormon community followed Brigham Young [see 1850] the new leader and
settled in what is now Salt Lake City Utah where this church still has its headquarters. The
Mormon Church uses in addition to the King James Version of the Bible the following books as
its main sources of authority “The Book of Mormon; Doctrine and Covenants; and The Pearl of
Great Price. It also believes that the president of the church may receive revelation that guides
the church as a whole. By adding to the Bible their own additional sacred books, Mormons have
placed themselves outside historic Christianity, which recognises the Bible alone as the final
source authority. Though Christ is called divine in Mormon teaching his divinity is not unique,
since it is the same as that which any man can attain. Christ’s incarnation too is not unique for all
the gods after having first existed as spirits came to earth to receive bodies before they
advanced to godhood. Mormon’s reject the doctrine of salvation by faith alone.
SMITH, JOSEPH [1805-1844] – Mormon prophet and founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints. Born in poor family circumstances he moved in 1816 to New York and
experienced conversion during a religious revival in 1820. Subsequently he claimed to have
received a direct revelation from God engraved upon golden plates. The contents he translated
and published as the Book of Mormon in 1830 with the assistance of Sidney Rigdon former
Campbellite minister. The Book of Commandments [1833] provided the basis of Mormon
theology. He practised polygamy and his continued mismanagement of the community affairs led
to his downfall. Smith was arrested with his brother by non Mormon neighbours and confined
them to gaol in nearby Carthage where they were murdered by a mob in 1844.
WINEBRENNER, JOHN [1797-1860] – German Reformed pastor, born in Maryland and was a
pastor of the German Reformed Church [1820-1825] at Harrisburg Pennsylvania. He was
censored for his evangelistic preaching and withdrew from the German Reformed Church and in
1830 formed the General Eldership of the Church of God, stating his opposition to all creeds,
forms, and non-biblical names. The only creed was to be the Bible since man-made creeds had
led to sectarianism. The doctrines he used were Arminian in character, and the ordinances of
baptism, the Lord’s Table, and foot washing became obligatory.
1831-1840 AD
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1831
ABOLITIONISM was the movement which opposed slavery and the slave trade in North America
prior to the American Civil War. Although Christian groups opposed slavery it was supported by
the vast majority of churches up to the end of the first decade of the nineteenth century on the
basis of Scripture, tradition which was based on the theory of the racial inferiority of the Negro,
and economic necessity. The movement was spread by a host of people including William
Garrison, C G Finney [see 1821], T D Weld [see 1835], and Harriet Beecher Stowe [see 1851].
FROUDE, RICHARD HURRELL [1803-1836] – He was educated Oxford and served as a tutor
before being ordained priest in 1829. In 1831 first signs of tuberculosis appeared and he
travelled widely in search of healthier climates. On one of these journeys to Italy he was
accompanied by John Newman [see 1845] whom he influenced greatly, being responsible for
bringing Newman and John Keble [see 1833] together, hence he is sometimes known as the
third man in the Oxford movement. His friends published his memoirs after his death in 1836
which revealed that beneath the debonair and cavalier exterior was a melancholy, self torturing,
and a somewhat schizophrenic personality. He bitterly hated the Reformation and he was
devoted to clerical celibacy and the cult of the virgin.
GAUSSEN, FRANCOIS SAMUEL LOUIS [1790-1863] – Swiss Reformed pastor who while
studying theology in Geneva found personal faith through the student group who had be
influenced by the orthodox Scot Robert Haldane [see 1795]. Gaussen helped found the
Evangelical Society of Geneva in 1831. He is best remembered for his widely circulated
“Theopneustia”, a statement of verbal biblical inspiration which drew fierce attacks.
GREGORY XVI – Pope [1831-1846]. He became a monk in 1783 and rose to vicar general of
the Camaldolese Order in 1823 and to cardinal three years later. He devoted his reign to the
consolidation of the papacy as the focus of authority in the church and the definer of religious
principles for society. The Revolution of 1831 at Rome confronted him immediately with
revolutionary principles faced and he called in Austrian troops to put it down. He determined to
implement his previously published ideas that claimed that the church was divinely ordained with
an independent and unchanging mandate with the pope, the infallible head with the Papal States
giving spiritual independence from all states. In numerous publications he tried to pinpoint the
religious errors of groups which were against him or at least unsympathetic with his own religious
and cultural ideal. He condemned liberalism and separation of church and state. He stimulated
massive missionary activity especially in Asia and Latin America naming 200 missionary bishops
during his pontificate consolidating all missions under the papacy. He succeeded Pius VIII [see
1829] and was succeeded by Pius IX [see 1846].
LOEHE, JOHANNES KONRAD WILHELM [1808-1872] – Educated in Erlangen and Berlin, he
was ordained a Lutheran pastor in 1831. He spent his life in pastoral situations finally becoming
the pastor at Neuendettelsau in 1837. Loehe sponsored foreign missions. He was responsible
for sending missionaries to North America. Some of them were instrumental in founding the
Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod. He also supported mission work in New Guinea. He was a
strong supporter of the Innere Mission [see 1848] movement and founded a deaconess home in
Neuendettelsau.
PLYMOUTH BRETHREN – Originating in Dublin they were so named because the first
congregation was formed in Plymouth in 1831. The beginnings were essentially informal with
many showing a desire to return to the simplicity of apostolic days in worship and to break down
the walls that divided Christians. The movement was a protest against the prevailing conditions
of spiritual deadness, formalism, and sectarianism marking the earlier years of the 19th century
church. A group which included medical student Edward Cronin, Anthony Groves [see 1833],
John Vesey Parnell, John Gifford Bellett, and John Darby [see 1845], formed an association.
Their studies confirmed them in their belief that they could observe the Lord's Supper without an
ordained clergyman. They broke bread simply and recognised the Lord, who was present, would
guide by His Spirit as to audible participation in the gathering. Darby was the outstanding teacher
of the group. The gatherings were marked by deep devotion to Christ, zeal for evangelism, and a
strong leaning toward prophetic studies. Among the men who came under Darby's influence was
Francis Newman [see 1822] and Benjamin Newton [see 1847]. Newton began a ministry in
Plymouth with others and the group grew to be large and influential. Disagreeing on prophetical
interpretations John Darby, who had been away on the Continent, initiated a breakaway on his
return. There was also a more serious division affecting all the churches regarding Newman’s
teaching on Christ’s humanity. Two members of the Plymouth church applied for fellowship at
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Bethesda Chapel Bristol where George Muller [see 1834] and Henry Craik were joint pastors. A
few demanded that they should be refused as unsound because they had sat under Newton's
teaching. Again there was a schism and from that time the Brethren became two distinct groups,
the mainstream of the movement or Open Brethren maintaining its original principles, whilst the
Darby group or Exclusive Brethren became increasingly centralised in government and
separatist in relation to other Christians. Missionary concerns marked the Brethren from the first.
Groves, his wife, and some friends journeyed to Baghdad, and later to India in the cause of the
Gospel. From that small beginning has grown a missionary outreach with a missionary body of
about 1200. The Brethren have exercised influence among evangelical Christians out of all
proportion to their numbers and they can be found in most parts of the world today.
The TRINITARIAN BIBLE SOCIETY was founded in 1831 "to promote the Glory of God and the
salvation of men by circulating, both at home and abroad, in dependence on the Divine blessing,
the Holy Scriptures, which are given by inspiration of God and are able to make men wise unto
salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus." The Trinitarian Bible Society members
separated from the British and Foreign Bible Society [see 1804] due to two controversies: [i]
Inclusion of the Biblical Apocrypha in some Bibles published in Europe and [ii] Inclusion of
adherents of Unitarianism as officers in the Society, and refusal of the Society to open meetings
with prayer. The arguments came into the open during the Annual Meeting in May 1831 of the
Society. The membership voted six to one to retain the ecumenical status quo. On December 7,
1831, over two thousand people gathered in Exeter Hall in London to form the Trinitarian Bible
Society, explicitly endorsing the Trinitarian position, and rejecting the apocryphal books. E. W.
Bullinger, the noted dispensationalist, was clerical secretary of the Society from 1867 until his
death in 1913. Accomplishments of TBS during his secretariat include: [i] Completion of a
Hebrew version of the New Testament under a TBS contract with Christian David Ginsburg after
the demise of Isaac Salkinson with the first edition publication was in 1885.[ii] Publication of
Ginsburg's first edition of the Old Testament along with his Introduction to the MassoreticoCritical Edition of the Hebrew Bible in 1897 [iii] Formation of the Brittany Evangelical Mission
Society under Pasteur Le Coat and translation of the Bible into the Breton language.[iv] Firstever Protestant Portuguese Reference Bible and distribution of Spanish language Bibles in
Spain after the Spanish Revolution of 1868. Their primary function is to translate and
disseminate worldwide Bibles in languages other than English. The translation of Bibles into nonEnglish languages is based on the Hebrew Masoretic Text and Greek Textus Receptus which
underlie the Authorised (King James) Version of the Bible and other Reformation-era Bibles.
Some, owing to the Trinitarian Bible Society’s support of the King James Version of the Bible,
have assumed that the Society is a part of the King-James-Only Movement. However, as the
Society has publicly stated, ‘The Trinitarian Bible Society does not believe the Authorised
Version to be a perfect translation, only that it is the best available translation in the English
language’.
WHATELEY, RICHARD [1786-1863] – Archbishop of Dublin who was educated at Oxford
graduating in 1808 and subsequently appointed a fellow in 1811. Fellow students of Whateley
included Robert Peel, John Keble, and John Henry Newman. He ministered in Norfolk and in
1831 amid controversy was appointed archbishop of Dublin. He was a poor preacher but a
leader in education at a time when four university colleges were established in Ireland. Whateley
was a stern disciplinarian who made many enemies but he did much to raise the standard of
theological education and was a prolific author.
1832
BEECHER, LYMAN [1775-1863] – American Presbyterian educator who graduated from Yale in
1797 and was ordained two years later. In 1832 he became professor and president of the Lane
Theological Seminary. He was liberal in theology, and a founder of the American Bible Society.
Beecher was an eloquent preacher whose emphasis on revival brought conversions. He had a
large family and among his thirteen children were Henry W Beecher [see1847] and Harriet
Beecher Stowe [see 1851].
CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER [1788-1866] – Son of Thomas Campbell [see 1807]. Scottish born
American minister who with his brother Thomas [1763-1854] founded the Disciples of Christ and
the Churches of Christ [see below] for groups which split from the Baptists. They founded
Bethany College, West Virginia in 1840 to educate the clergy, with Alexander being its director
[1840-1866].
CHURCHES OF CHRIST was made a denomination in the United States in 1832, and was
organised into a denomination in Great Britain with fifty congregations and 1300 members ten
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years later, although the first known church was at Dungannon Ireland in 1804.
GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART [1809-1898] – British prime minister, educated at Oxford where
he distinguished himself in classics and mathematics. His father was a member of Parliament
and planned a political career for his son. He entered Parliament in 1832 and continued a
member with one brief interruption until 1895. He supported Catholic Emancipation, not because
of religious indifference, but from principle. He knew his Bible and called one of his books “The
Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture”. He was also known to visit hospitals on Sundays to give
the gospel to patients.
LOVEJOY, ELIJAH PARISH [1802-1837] – American Presbyterian editor and abolitionist born in
Maine. He was educated at Waterville College and converted in 1832 through the ministry of
Presbyterian abolitionist preacher David Nelson. He attended Princeton Seminary, edited the
Presbyterian weekly “St Louis Observer”, and gradually adopted abolitionist views. He staunchly
defended the freedom of speech, the press, and petition. He became the focus of controversy in
St Louis which was proslavery, where his establishment was assaulted because he had
denounced the lynching of a black man. Moving to Illinois and protesting the 1836 Presbyterian
General Assembly's failure to endorse abolition he continued to distribute abolitionist papers and
he was eventually shot to death at the printing press that he was protecting after already having
two destroyed.
LOW COUNTRIES [see also 1609] – The era of religious apathy was not to last as after the
French Revolution, revolutionary troops set up revolutionary regimes in the Low Countries and
took away the privileges of Catholic priests in Belgium and the Reformed ministers in Holland.
After the defeat of Napoleon the revolutionary allies planned to set up a strong state on the North
borders of France. The Low Countries were briefly united as a kingdom under the Dutch leader
William I. This however was an unstable situation and in 1832 Belgium was declared a separate
country. In the Netherlands the Reformed Church was the major recognised religious body but
there were splits there as well. The main emphasis of the Reformed Church as stressed by the
“Groningen School” [see 1835] was on way of life rather than on dogma. A split also occurred
under A Kuyper [see 1886].
MAITLAND, SAMUEL ROFFEY [1792-1866] – Anglican historian and writer educated at
Cambridge but left without a degree. He first intended to pursue a legal career but in 1821 his
religious views having changed Maitland was ordained deacon in the Church of England. He
made significant contributions to the study of contemporary Judaism and in 1832 produced a
masterly account of the Albigenses and Waldenses. Associated with the Clapton sect of High
Churchmen he contributed notable historical essays to the “British Magazine” which he later
edited.
MARTINEAU, JAMES [1805-1900] – English Unitarian minister and teacher who in 1832
became minister of a church in Liverpool and simultaneously professor of philosophy in
Manchester New College. He became principal there in 1869. He began his career as a follower
of Joseph Priestley [see 1767] holding the characteristic doctrines of Unitarianism because of
their alleged biblical character. He became a popular figure in his attempts to harmonise religion
and the modern thought of the Victorian era. He was also active in the temperance movement.
MONOD, FREDERIC [1794-1863] – French Protestant pastor and brother of Adolphe [see
1847]. He contributed heavily to the success of the French Protestant publication “Reveil” [see
1825] as editor, pastor and leader. His own faith was kindled under the teaching of Robert
Haldane [see 1795] while a theological student at Geneva. He became pastor of the Oratoire
Church in 1832. He was editor for 43 years of a Christian periodical. He fought against church
subservience to the state and demanded a conservative Reformed creed. In 1849 Monod led
dissident Reformed congregations into a union of free churches, based on strict orthodoxy,
which still exist.
WINER, JOHANN GEORG BENEDIKT [1789-1858] – Protestant New Testament scholar who
was born and educated in Leipzig where he became professor of theology from 1832 to 1858.
Winer fixed the rules of grammatical interpretation of the New Testament.
1833
AMERICAN ANTI SLAVERY SOCIETY was established in Philadelphia in 1833 after the
abolitionist movement began to organise and spread quickly as a religious and humanitarian
crusade under William Lloyd Garrison. The abolition of slavery by the British Government in this
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year gave it further impetus. Influential evangelical supporters of the society were philanthropists
Arthur and Lewis Tappan and Theodore Weld [see 1835]. Weld from Lane Seminary was
successful in training effective anti slave agitators who converted whole communities to an
awareness of the sinfulness of slavery and the need to abolish it. However splits between
Garrison and others brought its effectiveness to an end by 1840.
FLEIDNER, THEODOR [1800-1864] – Founder of the deaconess’ organisation of the German
Lutheran Church. As a young pastor he became acquainted with the Mennonite practice of
appointing deaconesses, and in 1833 he established a home for ex-convicts which he placed in
the charge of a woman. In 1835 he set up a school for children which also trained women
teachers, and a hospital in 1836 which gave nursing instruction. By reviving the office of
deaconess, Fleidner provided opportunities to unmarried women to be active in public life. He
later introduced the idea also to the United States and Palestine.
GIOBERTI, VINCENZO [1801-1852] – Italian philosopher and statesman. He was ordained as a
priest at the age of 24 and was soon known for his great scholarship, leading to his appointment
as professor at the theological school of Turin University. Suspected and hated for his liberal
ideas he was imprisoned and exiled to Paris in 1833. In exile he published works which praised
Italy and its civilisation, and at the same time exhorted Italians to strive for unity and join in a
confederation under papal leadership. The impact and success of his writings was great, and
Pius IX’s liberal policies seemed to confirm Gioberti’s expectations. He returned to Italy and
became a member of Parliament and prime minister of Piedmont during the first war of
independence.
GROVES, ANTHONY NORRIS [1795-1853] – Plymouth Brethren leader who after studying
chemistry, dentistry, and surgery in London, settled in dental practice first in Plymouth and then
in Exeter. In 1826 he entered Trinity College Dublin to prepare for ordination but came to see
that “ordination of any kind to preach the gospel is no requirement of Scripture”. In Dublin he
associated with a group that included J.G. Bellett and J.N. Darby [see 1845], influencing the
former to the view that the principle of union among Christians was “the love of Jesus instead of
oneness of judgement in minor things”. Groves sailed with his party to Baghdad in 1829 and
remained there for three years during which time his first wife died of the plague. After this for 19
years from 1833 he laboured in India, during which time he remarried. Watching with concern
Darby's tendency for domination he wrote a letter to Darby in 1836 regarding setting more store
on correctness than love. Unwell in 1852 he returned to England and died in George Mueller's
house in Bristol. Groves strongly influenced early Brethren and was a pioneer of simpler,
apostolic missionary principles.
HEFELE, KARL JOSEF [1809-1893] – Roman Catholic bishop and historian. He was ordained a
priest in 1833 and after serving in minor academic posts was called in 1840 to succeed his own
teacher J. Mohler [see 1828] as professor of church history at Tubingen. He was one of the most
important Roman Catholic scholars of his day. He was appointed a consultant to the preparatory
commission for Vatican Council I in 1868 and was consecrated bishop of Rottenburg the
following year. He was a leader of the minority who opposed to the doctrine of papal infallibility,
though he submitted eventually to that decision of the council.
KEBLE, JOHN [1792-1866] – Hymn writer and Tractarian. Educated at Oxford he became vicar
of Hursley in Hampshire for life. Here he wrote a number of hymns including “Blessed are the
pure in heart” In 1833 Keble preached his Oxford Assize sermon in which he denounced the
contemporary way in which the state could interfere in church matters as “national apostasy”.
Newman regarded this as the start of the Oxford Movement [Tractarianism] [see below]. Keble is
remembered less for his many books than for his hymns and his life as a devoted Anglican vicar.
In 1870 Keble College Oxford was founded in his memory.
KEIL, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH [1807-1888] – Lutheran scholar and exegete who was
professor of Old and New Testament exegesis and oriental languages at Dorpat from 1833 to
1858. Keil helped to shape Lutheran ministerial thought in the Baltic provinces for 25 years.
Vigorous advocate of conservative theology, he rejected the rationalistic, critical views of
Scripture. He wrote a number of books including a biblical commentary on the Old Testament,
and some New Testament books.
MILLER, WILLIAM [1782-1849] – Founder of the Adventist movement. Born in Massachusetts
he educated himself and was a former deputy sheriff and justice of the peace. He gained the
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rank of captain in the War of 1812 and was converted from Deism in 1816 and after 14 years of
Bible study decided that Christ would return in 1843. In 1833 he was licensed as a Baptist
preacher. Disenchanted after the Lord not returning he dropped out of the Adventist movement
in 1845.
OXFORD MOVEMENT – The title given to the movement within the Church of England which
opposed the growth of liberalism in the mid-19th century. It had its roots in the High Church party
of the 17th century. It was influenced by the Romantic Revival in its veneration of the mediaeval.
Its leaders such as J.H. Newman [see 1845], J. Keble [see 1833], and E.B. Pusey [see 1828],
some of whom came from evangelical families, were all members of Oriel College Oxford in the
1820s. The movement began with an attack on the English government's bill to reduce the
number of bishoprics of the Church of Ireland. In their efforts to revive the church, the leaders of
the movement published the first of the “Tracts for the Times” in 1833. The name Tractarianism
was soon attached to the movement. The movement created wide hostility as it became clear
that its teaching ran counter to the spirit of the Reformation. From 1840 onwards part of the
movement led by Newman moved in a Roman Catholic direction. In 1841 Newman published
tract 90 in which he argued for a Roman Catholic interpretation of the 39 Articles. While the other
leaders of the movement approved the Tract they were startled by the instant storm of
opposition. The defection of Newman to Roman Catholicism marked the end of the dominance of
Oxford in the movement. While Pusey, an Oxford professor remained prominent, the titles
“Anglo-Catholic” and “Ritualist” marked a new phase of the movement.
OZANAM, ANTOINE FREDERIC [1813-1853] – French Catholic literary historian founder of the
Society of St Vincent de Paul in 1833 to work among the poor. The society formed at first by
students of the Sorbonne in Paris and composed exclusively of non-clergy, was more than mere
charity as it was an instrument to implement genuine social regeneration according to the
Catholic faith. Ozanam became professor of law at Lyons and by the time of his death the
society had nearly 3000 chapters in Europe, Africa, the Near East, and North America. As a
literary historian he won a professorship in foreign literature at the Sorbonne in 1844. He also
received doctorates in law and literature.
ROSE, HUGH JAMES [1795-1838] – Anglican high churchman who was educated at Cambridge
and ordained a priest in 1819. Rose served in several parishes, was made professor of divinity at
Durham in 1833, and principal of King’s College in 1836. He was a member of the Clapham Sect
or Hackney Phalanx and in 1824 travelled to Germany and wrote a book exposing the
dangerous trends of German radical criticism for which he was unexpectedly criticised by Pusey
[see 1828]. A meeting at Rose’s Hadleigh Rectory in 1833 marked the beginning of the
Tractarian Movement. Though critical of some of this group’s tendencies he managed to hold the
Oxford and Clapham schools together until his death.
TRACTARIANISM – The name given to that stage of the Oxford Movement [see above] when
the “Tracts for the Times” were being issued. The first three tracts were four-page leaflets
published anonymously in 1833. In the first, J.H. Newman [see 1845] sounded a clarion call to
the clergy of the Church of England to exalt their office because of its “Apostolical Descent”. The
Tracts were distributed widely up and down the country vicarages by disciples of the Tract
writers. The Tracts began to change in character when E.B. Pusey [see 1828] began to write in
1834 as he produced longer theological documents. The Tracts came to a sudden end in 1841
with Tract 90 by J.H. Newman when he attempted to interpret the 39 Articles in a Catholic
direction and brought a storm of protest, forcing the closure of the series. A wide range of
notable writers contributed to the Tracts.
WHITTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF [1807-1892] – American Quaker poet and abolitionist who had
little formal education but read extensively. His first book of poems was published in 1831 and in
1833 he entered politics as an abolitionist and was an important writer in the antislavery
movement. He supported Lincoln for the US presidency. After the Civil War his main interest was
poetry and late in life he turned to religious verse which included writing the hymn "Dear Lord
and Father of mankind."
WILLIAMS, SAMUEL WELLS [1812-1884] – Early American missionary, diplomat and authority
in China who having trained as a printer was sent by the American Board to Canton in 1833
where he co-operated with Elijah Bridgman [see 1830] in editing and printing “The Chinese
Repository” and other literary works. Unsettled conditions caused him to move the press to
Macau in 1835. He learned Japanese from some shipwrecked sailors and in 1837 was part of
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the expedition that tried to return to Japan. After 1853 he became involved with diplomatic
affairs, as interpreter on Commodore Perry's visit to Japan, and then acted for 20 years as
secretary and interpreter to the American legation in China. Williams was professor of Chinese
language and literature at Yale from 1877 to 1884 as well as president of the American Bible
Society, and president of the American Oriental Society.
WILSON, DANIEL [1778-1858] – Anglican bishop of Calcutta who was the son of a rich London
silk manufacturer. He had intended a business career but experienced evangelical conversion
and decided to enter the ministry. Wilson studied at Oxford and exercised several highly
successful ministries one of which was at St Mary's Islington from 1824 to 1830. Through the
influence of Charles Grant he was made bishop of Calcutta where he vigorously reorganised the
diocese establishing his influence over chaplains and missionaries alike. He waged war on the
caste system, built Calcutta Cathedral and many new churches, and secured in 1833 freedom of
missionary activity from the control of the East India Company and created two new bishoprics at
Madras and Bombay which gave him metropolitan status over the whole of India. He was in
Serampore during the Mutiny and died in Calcutta.
1834
ALEXANDER, JOSEPH [1809-1860] – American linguist, who entered the junior class of
Princeton College at the age of 15 and graduated with highest honour at 17. In 1834 he became
professor at Princeton Seminary in biblical literature and history, and after 1851, in biblical and
ecclesiastical history producing a number of biblical commentaries which established his
reputation in Europe as well as in America.
BULL, GEORGE STRINGER [1799-1865] – Evangelical churchman who resigned from
missionary school teaching due to ill health and became a clergyman in Yorkshire. He worked for
temperance, emancipation of slaves and factory children and opposed the 1834 Poor Law
legislation as injurious to workers.
CONSTANTIUS II – Patriarch of Constantinople [1834-1835] who succeeded Constantius I [see
1830]. There is no additional information readily available.
GRANT, SIR ROBERT [1779-1838] – Hymn Writer. He was the second son of Charles Grant,
sometime Member of Parliament for Inverness, and a Director of the East India Company. He
was educated at Cambridge, where he graduated in 1806. Called to the English Bar in 1807, he
became Member of Parliament for Inverness in 1826; a Privy Councillor in 1831; and Governor
of Bombay, 1834. He died at Dapoorie, in Western India, July 9, 1838. As a hymn writer of great
merit he was well and favourably known. His hymn "O worship the King" is widely used in all
English-speaking countries.
HEBICH, SAMUEL [1803-1868] – A founder of the Basel mission work in India. He went to
Mangalore in 1834 and later moved south to Malabar. He had a remarkable ministry to British
soldiers, making converts despite his poor English and eccentric manners. One regiment was
termed “Hebich’s Own”. At the same time he was truly a missionary to the people of India. He left
India in poor health in 1859 and died at Stuttgart.
HEDBERG, FREDRIK GABRIEL [1811-1893] – Finish pastor and founder of the Evangelical
Movement. As a schoolboy he experienced spiritual revival through influence from Herrnhut
groups. In 1834 he was ordained as pastor of the Church of Finland, at which time he was a
convinced theologian of the Enlightenment and mainly tried to improve people's ability to read.
He soon found this foundation inadequate for it had nothing to offer souls in need. He came into
contact with Pietism [see 1674] and this influenced him decisively. He eventually founded and
became leader of the Evangelical Movement, based on the writings of Luther. In the centre are
the grace and forgiveness of God, the redemption of Christ, and the appropriation of it through
the means of grace.
MOTE, EDWARD [1797-1874] - Edward Mote was a pastor and hymn writer. His parents
managed a public house and often left Edward to his own devices playing in the street. He was
trained as a cabinet maker and worked in London for many years. Later he entered the ministry
and was pastor at Rehoboth Baptist Church in Horsham, West Sussex for 26 years. He was well
liked by the congregation in Horsham and they offered him the church building as a gift. Mote
replied "I do not want the chapel, I only want the pulpit; and when I cease to preach Christ, then
turn me out of that." He is remembered for his hymn “My hope is built on nothing less”
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MULLER, GEORGE [1805-1898] – Pastor, philanthropist, and leader of the Christian Brethren
movement. Born in Prussia, he trained for the Lutheran ministry. After a dissolute early life he
was converted in 1825 at a prayer meeting in a private house. He came to London in 1829 to
train for missionary service among the Jews. During a period of convalescence in Tynemouth he
met Henry Craik who had been tutor to the children of A.N. Groves [see 1833] and through him
heard many points of Groves’ teachings. As a result he amicably severed his connection with the
Jews Society and accepted a call to minister at Ebenezer Chapel Tynemouth. Here he married
Grove’s sister Mary. In 1832 Muller and Craik began a united ministry first at Gideon Chapel and
then at Bethesda Chapel Bristol where he was to remain until his death. In 1834 he formed “The
Scriptural Knowledge Institution for Home and Abroad” to stimulate education upon scriptural
principles, to circulate Bibles, and help missionary work. Early in his life he had observed the
orphan work of Auguste Francke [see 1687] in Halle and in 1835 he began in Bristol the
orphanage for which he is chiefly remembered. This grew from a rented house to a great
complex of buildings on Ashley Down Bristol. In later years he travelled widely with others. He
was a leading representative of the more moderate tendencies of the Brethren movement which
grew into what is now known as the Open Brethren. This was in contrast with the views of J.N.
Darby [see 1845] which developed into the Exclusive Brethren. In his early ministry Muller
adopted believer’s baptism, the weekly celebration of the Lord's Supper, and the principle of
freedom to speak at meetings of the church. He renounced a regular salary and refused
throughout the rest of his life to make any request for financial support either for himself or his
philanthropic projects even though sometimes he was penniless. He can justly be claimed as the
architect of the growth of independent Brethren.
MYNSTER, JAKOB PIER [1775-1854] – Danish bishop from a Pietistic background who turned
his back on them in his youth adopting the theological and political radicalism of the so-called
Enlightenment. Afterwards the influence of Kant [see 1770] and German Romanticism made him
sceptical of rationalism. In 1803 he had a spiritual experience that led to personal conversion
and his acceptance of the Christian faith. He developed into an eminent preacher and after
holding certain positions became bishop of Zealand from 1834 to his death. By most of his
contemporaries Mynster was regarded as the great central figure in Danish church life standing
between rationalists on one side and revivalist on the other. He with H.L. Martensen [see 1854]
and the national church as a whole was later attacked fiercely by S. Kierkegaard [see 1848].
NEW HAVEN THEOLOGY – An American theological position associated with N.W. Taylor [see
1812], his students, and Yale Divinity School in New Haven Connecticut. The New Haven
Theology was developed at the time when the Unitarian controversy was dividing many New
England churches. Taylor and his followers attempted to use a system that defended
Trinitarianism and supported experiential religious conversion. There was reaction against New
Haven Theology in 1834 and it led to the formation of Hartford Theological Seminary.
NOYES, JOHN HUMPHREY [1811-1886] – American religious and social reformer who was
born in the Vermont, graduated from Dartmouth College, and after conversion studied at
Andover and Yale. He developed perfectionist and Adventist views and was ousted from Yale
and the ministry when he pronounced himself sinless in 1834. Noyes established two communes
in which to practice and propagate his ideas of perfectionism, biblical communism, complex
marriage, population control, mutual criticism, and education. Under public pressure he migrated
to Canada where he died.
REUSS, EDWARD [1804-1891] – Biblical scholar who spent most of his life in Strasbourg and
taught at the Protestant seminary there from 1834. When the seminary was incorporated in the
theological faculty of the new German university in 1872 Reuss was the first dean.
TEN YEARS CONFLICT [1834-1843] – The Ten Year Conflict was the confrontation between
the Evangelicals and Moderates [see 1733] in the Church of Scotland. Both parties believed in
ecclesiastical establishment, but patronage was divisive, as it involved the presentation of a
minister to a congregation upon the nomination of a patron in spite of the opposition of the
congregation. The Moderates promoted this procedure and it was often enforced by a civil
magistrate if the congregation showed any unwillingness to accept the minister. During the
heyday of Moderatism the Church of Scotland lost almost 20% of their membership to secession
groups. In 1834 the Evangelical party wanted to make the congregation’s consent essential to
the issuing of a call, and by passing the Veto Act gave the congregations the right to refuse the
patron's nominee. In 1843 the Disruption took place and the Ten Year Conflict ended with the
birth of the Free Church of Scotland.
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1835
AMERICAN PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL MISSION was founded in 1835 to increase work in the
western frontier. Jackson Kemper was consecrated at convention as the first missionary bishop,
and through his constant travels he laid the foundations of the Church in Missouri, Indiana, Iowa,
Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska and Kansas. The first missionary bishop with a non-US
jurisdiction was William Boone, elected in 1844 to be bishop of “Amoy and Other Parts of China”,
where Episcopal missionaries had first arrived in 1835. Liberia received a missionary bishop in
1851 and its first African American missionary bishop, Samuel Ferguson, in 1884. In Japan, the
third major area of 19th-century Episcopal mission, the three Episcopal missionaries who arrived
in 1859 were the first non-Roman Christian missionaries in that country’s history, and Channing
Moore Williams became missionary bishop in 1866. An extraordinary missionary bishop was
Joseph Shereschewsky [see 1877] whose efforts in China were outstanding. In China boarding
and day schools were established, a medical hospital opened, and Samuel Schereschewsky
was set apart to prepare a new version of the Bible, in the Mandarin dialect, which he completed
in 1875. There was also in Shanghai a medical school for the training of native physicians,
surgeons and nurses, and a college for the training of native missionaries.
DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENT AUGUST VON [1773-1845] – Archbishop of Cologne who
was ordained into the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1798 and was elected archbishop of
Cologne in 1835 at the suggestion of the Prussian government. Soon he came into conflict with
the government by refusing to sanction the teachings of the Bonn professor, George Hermes,
which had been condemned by Gregory XVI in 1835. When he further refused to approve the
Prussian policy on mixed marriages between Protestants and Catholics he was imprisoned by
Frederick William III in the Fortress of Minden in 1837, then restored to his former honour in
1838 but the administration of the diocese was given to a co-bishop who was more favourable to
the crown.
GREGORY VI – Patriarch of Constantinople [1835-1840 1867-1871] succeeded Constantius II
[see 1834]. There is no additional information readily available.
GRONINGEN SCHOOL – A theological movement which flourished in the Dutch Reformed
Church in the middle third of the 19th century. After 1835, when the synod refused to censure
them for their rejection of traditional Calvinism, their influence steadily widened. In its heyday
around the mid century, the Groningen School was perhaps the dominant influence in the
church. Its teachings emphasise living the Christian life rather than dogma and that God has
revealed himself in Christ, who has taught us that our spiritual nature is fulfilled in love. The
Trinity for example, is interpreted as a valuable symbolic insight rather than a statement of fact.
LINDLEY, DANIEL [1801-1880] – American missionary to South Africa who was ordained as a
Presbyterian minister in 1832 and reached South Africa as an American Board Missionary in
1835. A mission to the Matabele was abandoned after a Boer attack in 1837 and he joined
colleagues among the Zulu in Natal. From 1840 to 1846 he served as a minister to the Boers
believing that this would ultimately benefit the Zulu mission. In 1847 he returned to mission work
in the Inanda Location northwest of Durban where he remained until his retirement in 1873. His
attitude towards tribal custom mellowed with the years and he welcomed the ordination of native
pastors from 1869, in which respect he proved more liberal than his younger colleagues.
PERKINS, JUSTIN [1805-1869] – American Congregational missionary to Persia who was
educated at Andover Theological Seminary and was ordained in 1833. He went to Persia under
the American Board and laboured among the Nestorian Christians. In 1835 he established his
mission in Urumiah and founded several schools and a mission press from which he issued
many of his works, notably “Missionary Life in Persia” in 1861. A noted scholar Perkins
translated the Bible into Syriac and was the first to reduce the Nestorian vernacular into writing.
STRAUSS, DAVID FRIEDRICH [1808-1874] – German theologian who studied under F.C. Baur
[see 1845] at Tubingen. He achieved instant notoriety with his "Life of Jesus Critically Examined”
[1835-36]. This publication destroyed any prospect of a career in theological teaching. The study
consisted largely of the detailed examination of the events the Gospels making extensive use of
the concept of myth already known to German theology. He said that the miracles of Jesus were
virtually predetermined by popular expectation of how the Messiah should act. Strauss followed
this by another book arguing that biblical teaching cannot be harmonised with modern
knowledge and proposing a mixture of Platonic and Hegelian philosophy in its place. In his day
Strauss had more influence on some freethinkers like George Eliot than on the mainstream of
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theology.
WELD, THEODORE DWIGHT [1803-1895] – American abolitionist who grew up in New York
where he was profoundly influenced by Capt Charles Stewart principal of Utica Academy.
Converted under C.G. Finney’s [see 1821] preaching he spent 2 years preaching then became
deeply concerned about the abolition of slavery. He enlisted New York philanthropists Arthur and
Lewis Tappan in the financing of Lane Seminary Cincinnati where Weld and some of Finney’s
converts studied under the presidency of Lyman Beecher [see 1832]. When abolitionist activities
were banned, Weld and his followers transferred to Oberlin College. After 1835 Weld was
employed by the American Anti-slavery Society [see 1833] that he helped to found. After 1836
he focused his energies on the society’s publicity and lobbying in Washington DC. He wrote “The
Bible Against Slavery” in 1837 and “American Slavery As It Is” in 1839 which provided a stimulus
for H.B. Stowe’s “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” in 1852.
1836
AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION was a missionary society operated by the Presbyterian
Church in the United States of America, that was involved in sending workers to countries such
as China during the late Qing Dynasty and to India in nineteenth century. The American
Presbyterian Mission was opened at Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, in 1836. The Presbyterian Board
of America transferred two of their missionaries from Singapore to China in 1843. It had four
great centres. Guangzhou was entered in 1845, but it was sixteen years before they were able to
baptise the first convert to Christianity. A medical hospital was a very important factor in the work
of the Mission. Missions in Macau and Hainan were sustained from this centre. Hospital work
had been a prominent feature in this Mission. Dr. Peter Parker commenced a hospital in 1835,
which was transferred to this society in 1854, and placed under the care of Dr John G. Kerr. The
Central Mission had five main centres which branched out in many directions. These included
Ningbo, Shanghai, Hangzhou, Fuzhou, and Anqing. At Shanghai the extensive printing
operations of the Society were carried on. These comprised not only several presses which were
constantly at work, but a foundry where seven sizes of Chinese type, besides English, Korean,
Manchu, Japanese, Hebrew, Greek and others, were cast. Much translation work had been done
by this Society, and handbooks of Christian history and doctrine prepared by it were in use on
most of the Protestant missions in China. The Shantung Mission extends from the capital city,
Chi-nan-foo, northwards to Yantai, and had many stations which reported about three thousand
members in 1890. Also the Allahabad Christian College in India, managed by the American
Presbyterian Mission, was opened in 1902 and had 70 pupils in 1904.
BECK, JOHANN [1804-1878] – German theologian who was ordained in 1827 and taught
systematic theology at Basle [1836-1843] then at Tubingen. He was a great Christian personality
developing the work of Johann Bengel [see 1734]. He saw the Bible as the history of the work of
the Spirit working towards the salvation of man and the revelation of the kingdom of God as a
supernatural reality in history.
BROUGHTON, WILLIAM [1788-1853] who was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1818.
Ten years later he was appointed second archdeacon of New South Wales and became the first
Australian bishop appointed in 1836. Although he was a high churchman he was accepted by the
evangelicals as non hostile. In 1850 he initiated discussions about self government for the
Church of England in Australia.
The COLONIAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY was formed in May 1836 as a “distinct society for the
Colonies” following the report of a deputation to Canada by representatives of Congregational
churches from Britain. Its principal mission effort was directed towards promoting
Congregationalist forms of Christianity among “British or other European settlers” rather than
indigenous peoples. At first it functioned as part of the Congregational Union, which Andrew
Reed, an early honorary secretary, described as ‘a crippled and dependent existence’. In time it
became an independent body. Radical changes in the way Great Britain related to its former
colonies after World War II, coupled with the growth of the ecumenical movement led to changes
in the society’s identity during the mid 20th century.
KAISERSWERTH – A Rhineland town where Theodor Fliedner [see 1833] was pastor of a small
Protestant community, and founded an institution in 1836 to train deaconesses for nursing,
educational, and social work. Fliedner’s work was helped by Frederick William IV of Prussia and
was linked with the Innere Mission [see 1848]. Florence Nightingale trained there. By the middle
of the last century Kaiserswerth had become the mother house of an association of about 28,000
sisters in 72 houses.
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LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH [1807-1882] – American poet who became the most
popular American poet of his day. On his return, after study and travel abroad, he was appointed
Smith professor of literature at Harvard University in 1836. The tragic death of his second wife
Fanny in a fire in 1861 encouraged him to undertake as a source of solace one of his greatest
works, a translation of the “Divine Comedy”. Longfellow's poetry reflects the optimistic sentiment
and humanitarianism of the day.
M’CHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY [1813-1843] – Church of Scotland minister educated at
Edinburgh University and was moved by the death of an elder brother to seek “a brother who
cannot die”. In 1836 he was ordained to the charge of St Peter’s Dundee where the fruitfulness
of his ministry and his own spiritual growth were the outcome of a strict daily programme of Bible
study, prayer, meditation, visiting his people, and preparation of sermons despite his frequent
illnesses. His missionary interest involved a visit to Europe and Palestine in 1839 to study the
possibility of a mission to the Jews, the beginning of a notable Church of Scotland work. Dying at
only 30 years of age he nevertheless had a great influence on Christianity in Scotland.
REES, THOMAS [1815-1885] – Welsh religious historian who only had three months of
elementary school as his education. He became a coal miner in 1835 but soon gave it up and
opened a school. He was ordained in 1836 as minister of the Congregational church in Merthyr
Tydfil and supplemented his stipend of ten shillings a month which he received from the 12
members of his church by opening a shop. This proved to be a failure and he suffered
imprisonment as a debtor. His fortunes revived however and his subsequent career as a minister
was a distinguished one. He was a prolific writer with his best-known to English readers being
his History of Protestant Nonconformity in Wales in 1861 and one he also co-authored on the
history of the Welsh Congregational churches which considering his lack of formal education his
work as a historian was outstanding. Rees possessed a winsome personality and was in great
demand as a preacher.
TRANSCENDENTALISTS – The American Unitarian Association was formed in 1825 but by
1836 the Boston churches were torn gain as rebellious young preachers, members of the
Transcendental Club abandoned Unitarianism feeling it to be complacent and sterile in its
rationalism. They tried to introduce a strong note of mysticism and contemporary Romanticism’s
view of individual intuition and flashes of insight into truth as the highest form of knowledge. They
saw every creative thing as possessing deep religious meanings.
1837
AUBURN DECLARATION which gave the Presbyterian New School case for its Calvinism in the
U.S.A. which relied on a combination of free will and Divine will. The Old School believed that the
New School had departed from the Calvinistic theology of the Westminster Confession and were
too tolerant of the New Haven Theology [see 1834] which placed a greater stress on human
initiative in the process of salvation than did orthodox Calvinism. The Auburn Declaration
eventually brought the New and Old Schools back into unity in 1869.
BALA TRAINING COLLEGE founded for the Calvinistic Methodists.
EDWARDS, LEWIS [1809-1887] – Welsh Calvinistic Methodist minister. He had a patchy
education in local schools, engaged in teaching himself, and went to Edinburgh University in
1833. In 1837 he and his brother-in-law David Charles [1812-1878] opened a school at Bala
which was eventually adopted by the Calvinistic Methodists as the institution for training
ministers. He spent the remaining 50 years of his life as principal there. He had a powerful
personality and became the undisputed leader of his denomination, particularly in intellectual
matters. He wrote books on the person of Christ and the doctrine of the atonement as well as a
brief history of theology. As a theologian he sought to evade controversy while maintaining a
somewhat moderate Calvinism. His son Thomas Charles Edwards was the first principal of
University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.
FELLER, HENRIETTA [1800-1868] – Swiss missionary and educator. A Protestant, she arrived
at St John's Quebec in 1835 and began spreading the gospel from house to house. In Grand
Ligne she and her colleague Louis Roussy found a home to receive them, and she began a
school in the attic for local children. During the rebellion of 1837 the two missionaries and their
63 converts were persecuted for being Protestants and forced to flee to New York. When peace
was restored they returned and in 1840 they erected the first buildings of what was to be Feller
College. Henrietta Feller also founded the first Canadian French Baptist Church in 1836.
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FREEMAN, THOMAS BURCH [1809-1890] – First Wesleyan Methodist missionary to Ghana to
survive for more than a short period. He worked as a gardener and botanist before offering for
overseas service in 1837. He arrived at Cape Coast at the beginning of the following year and
started work single-handed after the death of all his predecessors. His interests extended to
architecture, botany, agriculture, and education, but his dominant concern was the geographical
expansion of Christianity. He visited Kumasi, the capital of Ashanti in 1839 and Badagry and
Abeokuta now sited in Nigeria in 1841-42, calling at the capital of Dahomey during his return
journey. By 1856 he had built up a strong church and an educational system which included 35
schools, four of which were in Nigeria and Dahomey.
GUTHRIE, THOMAS [1803-1873] – Scottish minister and social reformer who was educated at
Edinburgh, then refusing to renounce Evangelical principles in order to obtain a parish, studied
medicine and social conditions in Paris. In 1837 he became the collegiate minister of Old
Greyfriars, Edinburgh. He felt that the 1843 disruption was an inevitable response to the law that
enslaved the church of Christ, and became a minister of Free St John’s until 1864. His social
reform proposals were numerous and he championed especially the cause of Ragged Schools.
He was one of the earliest supporters of the Evangelical Alliance [see 1846]. Guthrie's funeral in
Edinburgh brought out some 30,000 mourners.
HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR [1798-1875] – Dean of Chichester who was educated at Oxford.
He served in Birmingham and Coventry and was from 1837 to 1859 a remarkably successful
vicar of Leeds, frustrating Dissenters, increasing the number of parish churches in his see from
15 to 36, befriending the poor, and adapting Anglicanism to the challenge of the new urban
areas. A High Churchmen, Hook helped attract the Tractarian [see 1833] party to consecrate St
Saviour’s in Leeds in 1845 but later quarrelled with them over the ritualism practised there. He
was so energetic that he was compared to Dr Samuel Johnson.
JASPER, JOHN [1812-1901] – American Negro Baptist preacher. Born into slavery on a
plantation in Virginia he was employed as a slave in the Richmond tobacco factory of a
prominent Baptist layman where he experienced a dramatic conversion in 1837. At his master’s
urging he began preaching and after learning to read immersed himself in the Bible. After
emancipation he took over regular congregations. Not a sensationalist he was known for his
simple biblical faith, remarkable eloquence, and ability to relate tenderly to his parishioners.
PARKER, THEODORE [1810-1860] – American Congregational minister who was ordained in
1837 and three years later in a sermon denied biblical authority and the deity of Christ. He
moved from Unitarianism to transcendental ideas that Christianity rested on universal truths
gained by intuition transcending revelation or Christ. Religion was essentially morality growing
out of moral oneness with God.
ROWNTREE, JOSEPH [1801-1859] – Quaker social reformer. Born in Yorkshire he left school at
age thirteen and later became a grocer and a member of the Merchants Company, and had a
lifelong interest in education. He was founder of the York Quarterly Meeting Boys and Girls
Schools in 1828 – 1830. A founding trustee of the Flounders Institute in Ackworth for training
teachers, he with Samuel Tuke helped to establish the Friends Educational Society in 1837 and
served on the committee of the Friends Retreat for the insane at York. He wrote pamphlets on
colonial slavery and on education, and helped to reform the marriage regulations of the Society
of Friends so that marriage to a non-Quaker would no longer mean disownment.
WALTHER, CARL FERDINAND [1811-1878] – American Lutheran theologian was born in
Germany and educated at Leipzig and ordained into the Lutheran ministry in 1837. He was
profoundly influenced by Martin Stephan, a pastor in Dresden, and came into the newly
awakened Lutheran confessional movement. He joined the migrants under Stephan, arriving in
Missouri early in 1839 and was made a pastor there. Walther was the first president of the
Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and Other States, founded in 1847, and first
president of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America founded in 1872.
His chief theological writings were on the question of church and ministry. Walther is regarded as
the outstanding Lutheran theologian in America in the 19th century.
ZILLERTHAL EVANGELICALS – Protestant residents of Zillerthal, one of the Tyrol valleys, who
seceded from the Roman Catholic Church and migrated to Prussia in 1830. They had been
subject to the archbishop of Salzburg for centuries. A Baptist movement had been totally
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suppressed early in the 17th century but a strong Lutheran group would not yield to the Catholic
pressures. Two brothers named Stainer preached evangelical doctrine in the Ziller valley with
such effect that the Catholic hierarchy were alarmed. Over a period of several generations they
attempted by various means including both teaching and harassment to regain the people's
loyalty but their efforts never fully succeeded. When a Prussian court preacher named Strauss
visited there he was so favourably impressed that he arranged for them to migrate to Prussia. In
1837 they set out in six wagons arriving in Prussia in October of that year, establishing a colony
at Erdmannsdorf.
1838
ATTWOOD, THOMAS [1765-1838] – English composer who trained with Mozart and produced a
number of anthems. Organist of Chapel Royal and St Paul's Cathedral he was influential in
introducing the music of J.S. Bach to England.
DORNER, ISAAC AUGUST [1809-1884] – German Lutheran theologian who was the son of a
pastor and educated at Tubingen and became professor of theology there in 1838. He became
successively professors at a number of institutions in Germany between 1829 and 1862. Heavily
influenced by Schleiermacher, Hegel, and Kant, he brought these philosophic insights to the
study of doctrine, which he interpreted in an evangelical and historical sense. He is among the
most distinguished of German Christological scholars whose work is still significant.
EMERSON, RALPH WALDO [1803-1882] – American “Transcendentalists” minister. Descended
from nine successive generations of ministers, he graduated from Harvard College and attended
the Divinity School there before accepting a pastorate in 1829 in Boston. He struggled with fears
over his faith and his vocation. In 1832 he resigned from the pastorate but it was his address
before the Harvard Divinity School in 1838 which clearly drew the lines of the Unitarian
controversy. Emerson's Christ was strictly human; he advocated a faith in man not in Christ, but
like Christ's. The battle over Christology and miracles was in the open. Emerson’s religious
thought was essentially pantheistic and advocated a religion of self. Despite his reformist
philosophy he kept aloof from the slavery controversy until the 1850s.
GOODRICH, CHAUNCEY ALLEN [1790 – 1860]. American Congregational clergyman educator
and lexicographer. Graduated from Yale where he was a student of Timothy Dwight [see 1795].
He published “The Elements of Greek Grammar” in 1814, the year he was ordained. Three years
later became professor of Rhetoric at the Yale helping to establish the theological department in
1822. He was professor of preaching and pastoral work from 1838 until his death.
HUPFELD, HERMANN CHRISTIAN KARL FRIEDRICH [1796-1866] – German Old Testament
scholar educated at Halle under H.F.W. Gesenius [see 1811], staying on as instructor before
going back to Marburg as professor of theology in 1825. In 1838 he returned to Halle and
remained there until his death. His four volume work on the Psalms was the first modern
commentary on that book. In contrast with the rationalist of his day he preserved more of the
sense of revelation in the Old Testament.
MCCULLOCH, THOMAS [1777-1843] – Presbyterian minister in Nova Scotia. Educated at
Glasgow University he was ordained and migrated to Pictou, Nova Scotia where he founded a
church and Pictou Academy in 1808 which was incorporated in 1816 with McCulloch as
principal. In 1838 he became president of Dalhousie College in Halifax a post he held to his
death. He laboured in Nova Scotia to break the Anglican monopoly of higher education and thus
access to the professions.
MAURICE, FREDERICK DENISON [1805-1872] – Christian socialist who was the son of a
Unitarian minister. He entered Trinity College Cambridge in 1823 but as a Nonconformist was
unable to take a degree. Influenced by Coleridge’s writings he accepted Anglicanism and
decided to be ordained and went to Exeter College Oxford where he was attracted to
Tractarianism [see 1833]. He was ordained in 1834 and in 1838 published his most important
work “The Kingdom of Christ” in which most of his fundamental beliefs were expressed. He
believed that Christ was the head of every man and universal fellowship and unity being possible
in Christ alone. In 1840 was appointed professor of English literature and history at King's
College London. He was later appointed to the chair of theology but his orthodoxy was being
questioned and as a result of a publication in which he attacked the popular view of eternal
punishment he was expelled from the college. In 1854 he started the first Working Men's College
in London. Throughout his ordained life he was unwilling to attach himself to any church party.
He is considered to be one of the greatest thinkers of the 19th century.
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PARKER, PETER [1804-1888] – First medical missionary to China who was born in
Massachusetts where he studied both medicine and theology. The American Board sent him out
in 1834 and in the following year he opened an eye hospital in Canton, the first Christian hospital
in the Far East. In 1838 he helped organise the Medical Missionary Society in China and opened
a hospital and in Macao. Parker helped negotiate the first treaty between China and the USA in
1844. After spending the next decade in China ill health forced him to return to Washington and
he was elected regent of the Smithsonian Institution and interested himself in Christian
enterprises such as the American Evangelical Alliance.
PECULIAR PEOPLE – The term first appeared in Tyndale’s translation of the New Testament in
1526 and was so applied to themselves by the Quakers in the 17th century. The Tractarians
applied this term in a derogatory manner to the evangelicals in the following century. Peculiar
People or Plumstead Peculiars were a small sect of evangelical faith-healers founded by William
Bridges in London in 1838 and they were largely confined to south-east England. The Society of
Dependents of West Sussex is an offshoot of the Peculiars, founded by John Sirgood.
1839
BINGHAM, HIRAM SR. [1789- 1869] – American pioneer missionary who was a native of
Vermont and sent to Hawaii, known then as the Sandwich Islands, by the American Board in
1820. He helped to create a written language for the natives and with others completed a
translation of the Bible in 1839. He built the first church in Honolulu in 1821. He had to return to
the United States in 1841 due to health problems of his wife.
LEGGE, JAMES [1815-1897] – Missionary and Chinese scholar who was born in Scotland and
educated at Aberdeen. In 1839 he went to Malacca under the London Missionary Society to
become principal of the Anglo-Chinese College, and three years later he founded a theological
college in Hong Kong where he also revised part of the New Testament. He returned to England
in 1873 and two years later became the first professor of Chinese at Oxford University translating
a large amount of classical Chinese literature.
PRATT, GEORGE [1817 -1894] was a Missionary to Samoa who was sent by the London
Missionary Society and lived in Samoa for forty years from 1839 - 1879, mostly on the island of
Savai'i. He also served in Niue, the Loyalty Islands and New Guinea. In Samoa, Pratt lived at a
mission station in Matautu on the north coast of Savai'i island. Pratt is particularly notable for
being the first person to document the Samoan language. He authored the first grammar and
dictionary of the language “A Grammar and Dictionary of the Samoan Language with English
and Samoan Vocabulary” which was first printed in 1862 at the Samoa Mission Press. He also
collected Samoan songs and myths and translated them into a publication “Some Folk-songs
and Myths from Samoa”, published in 1891. In this work is a section “Samoan Custom:
Analogous to those of the Israelites”, where he wrote about cultural similarities including the
importance of the number 7, embalming, natural eloquence, rod or staff of office, heads cut off in
war, the use of slings and stones in war, possessions by evil spirits, the 'near sacred'
relationships between brothers and sisters, calling the name of the chief who is to drink during
ceremony, the giving of names and circumcision. Pratt's valuable Samoan work records many
old words of special interest, specialist terminology, archaic words and names in Samoan
tradition.
SECRETAN, CHARLES [1815-1895] – Swiss Protestant philosopher and theologian who studied
in Munich which led him into a speculative mystic view of religion. From 1839 he held
professorships at Lausanne, Neuchatel, and Lausanne again. With A.R. Vinet [see 1819] he was
the leader of the liberal Swiss Protestant thought.
SIMPSON, SIR JAMES YOUNG [1811-1870] – Discoverer of the anaesthetic effect of
chloroform. He was the son of a village baker in Scotland and qualified in medicine at Edinburgh
University becoming professor of medicine and midwifery there in 1840. Ether was used in an
operation in 1846 and Simpson experimented on himself and looked for more suitable
compounds for use and discovered in 1847 the effect of chloroform. Violent controversy died out
after 1853 when Queen Victoria was given chloroform at the birth of Prince Leopold. In his latter
days Simpson was famous worldwide. As a student Simpson shown little interest in the church
but he was converted soon after his marriage in 1839 and made good use of his detailed
knowledge of the Bible which he had received from his home. In one of his books he argues that
God himself used anaesthetic to prevent pain in Genesis 2:21.
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STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN [1815-1881] – Dean of Westminster who was educated at
Rugby and Oxford where he came into touch with Pusey and the Tractarians. Stanley was
ordained in 1839 and became professor of ecclesiastical history at Oxford. After he became
dean of Westminster in 1863 he invited Keble, Liddon, and Pusey to preach; all refused, feeling
that to do so would compromise them in view of Stanley's sympathy with German liberalism. He
was a member of the New Testament revision committee in 1870, was widely travelled, and a
prolific author.
VEUILLOT, LOUIS [1813-1883] – French Roman Catholic writer who was a self taught son of a
cooper. Veuillot experienced a return to a living Catholic faith during a visit to Rome in 1839.
Thereafter he devoted his exceptional journalistic skills to the defence of the Ultramontane [see
1814] cause in France. He became editor of the most powerful Catholic journal of the time and
his influence was especially great among the conservative lower rural clergy. Residing in Rome
during Vatican I he gave energetic support to the cause of the definition of papal infallibility
1840
ANTHIMUS IV [1840-41, 1848-52] Patriarch of Constantinople who succeeded Gregory VI [see
1835] There is no additional material readily available on this Patriarch.
CALVERT, JAMES [1813-1892] – English Wesleyan missionary to Fiji where he spent 25 years
[1840-1865] arriving with John Hunt [see 1845] and Thomas Jaggar. He later went to the South
African diamond mines as a missionary and in 1886 was able to return to Fiji to see what 50
years of work had accomplished in the Cannibal [Fiji] islands.
EVANS, JAMES [1801-1846] – Missionary and linguist who entered Canada as a Methodist
missionary from England in 1823 and five years later began teaching at the Rice Lake Indian
Mission School in Upper Canada. Ordained as a Methodist minister in 1833 he went to the
Ojibwa Indians and four years later published a grammar and translated Biblical extracts and
some hymns into their language. In 1840 he became general secretary of all the Wesleyan
Missionary Society’s Indian Missions in the Northwest. Extensive travel made him realise the
need for a written Cree language. He invented a Cree syllabic alphabet in 1840, organised a
group of translators and by 1861 they had translated the Bible into Cree. Opposition from the
Hudson’s Bay Company and false charges led to his recall to England and death in 1846.
HAMLIN, CYRUS [1811-1900] – American Congregational missionary who went to Turkey under
the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. In 1840 he founded a seminary at
Bebek. Hamlin resigned from the American board and in 1863 opened Robert College, later
moving it to Constantinople. Roberts, the school benefactor, was persuaded because of a
misunderstanding to dismiss Hamlin as college president in 1877. He returned to America and
lectured until his retirement in 1885.
HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM [1802-1869] – Lutheran scholar who studied at Bonn and
taught at Berlin. During his early years at Berlin he was associated with an evangelicals such as
August Neander and Frederick Strauss but after 1840 developed into an outstanding spokesman
on Lutheran orthodoxy.
HOLINESS MOVEMENT, AMERICAN – A religious movement dating from the mid-19th century
that tried to preserve the original thrust of the Methodist teaching on entire sanctification and
Christian perfection as taught by John Wesley. This teaching expects that entire sanctification
normally takes place instantaneously in an emotional experience similar to conversion. At this
point one is cleansed from inbred sin and then one is able to live without conscious or deliberate
sin. The 20th century has produced other holiness groups. Many of these denominations
developed in the wake of the revival movement associated with Charles Finney [see 1821] with
whose Oberlin Theology [a moderate form of Christian perfectionism] holiness theology has
many affinities. Another parallel movement in the mid-19th century was the British Keswick
movement [see 1875] whose teachings on the victorious life are distinguished from holiness
thought primarily by their context in Reformed theology. Many interpreters fail to distinguish
between the holiness movement and Pentecostalism. In the late 19th century holiness writers
began to speak of entire sanctification as a “baptism of the Holy Spirit” on the model of
Pentecost. It was from this that the Pentecostalism was born in America.
The IRISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION was a missionary society that was founded in 1840 and
involved in sending workers to countries such as China during the late Qing Dynasty.
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MERCERSBURG THEOLOGY – This was the creation of Philip Schaff the historian [see 1870]
and J.W. Nevin the theologian [see below] while professors at the small Mercersburg Theological
Seminary in Pennsylvannia, a German Reformed Church seminary. Both men praised the
sacramentalism of tradition, and found satisfaction in the centrality of the Eucharist, for only it,
not the Bible or individual experience, gave the believer true spiritual knowledge. In the
celebration of the Lord’s Supper the believer received the “spiritual real presence”, and this
united the believer with a historical and organic church, and kept the church from being a mere
aggregate of individuals. The Mercersburg Theology had little influence in its day and was
strongest from 1840 until the departure of Nevin and Schaff.
NEVIN, JOHN WILLIAMSON [1803-1886] – German Reformed theologian, descendant of
wealthy Scottish Irish farmers, Nevin prepared for Presbyterian ministry under Charles Hodge
[see 1841]. While teaching at Western Theological Seminary he developed an interest in church
history, particularly through the writings of J. Neander [see 1813]. In 1840 he was called to teach
at the German Reformed Seminary at Mercersburg Pennsylvania. With Philip Schaff [see 1870],
another convert to the German Reformed Church, he created the Mercersburg Theology [see
above]. Plagued with illness he retired in 1853 and later taught at his church college where he
was president [1866-1876].
SWAN WILLIAM [1791-1866] – Missionary to Siberia was born in Scotland and ministered with
Edward Stallybrass [see 1817] under the London Missionary Society [see 1795] to the Buryat
people. Translating scripture into the local languages was an important task for the LMS
missionaries. From 1836 to 1840, they worked on translating scripture and publishing it at a
mission press. In 1838, William Swan reported that the work on these translations was
progressing. In 1840, the Mongolian translation of the Old Testament was published, and in
1846, Stallybrass republished his and Swan's Mongolian translation of the New Testament, a
revision of an 1824 translation, in London.
1841-1850 AD
1841
ALEXANDER, MICHAEL [1799-1845] – The first Anglican archbishop of Jerusalem. A German
Jew who became a rabbi but lost that status when he was converted to Christianity in 1825. He
was ordained in the Anglican Church in 1827 and for three years served as a missionary to the
Jews in Danzig. He became Professor of Hebrew at Cambridge. He became Archbishop in
Jerusalem in 1841 amid some controversy and died in Egypt in 1845 while on his way back to
England.
ANTHIMUS V – Patriarch of Constantinople [1841-1842] who succeeded Anthimus IV [see
1840]. There is no additional material readily available.
BODE, JOHN ERNEST [1816-1874].- Anglican minister and Hymn Writer. He attended Eton, the
Charter House, and Christ Church, Oxford University, where he won the Hertford Scholarship in
1835, and graduated with his B.A. in 1837 (followed by his M.A.). He was ordained in 1841; and
became rector of Westwell, Oxfordshire in 1847; then of Castle Camps, Cambridgeshire, in
1860. He delivered his Bampton Lectures in 1855, and was for a time tutor and Classical
Examiner at his college. He is remembered for his hymn “O Jesus I have promised”
BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN KARL JOSIAS VON [1791-1860] – Prussian theologian and diplomat
who was appointed as Prussian minister in London [1841-1854]. Here Bunsen enthusiastically
worked with the Anglican church to establish the Anglo Prussian Jerusalem bishopric in 1841.
None of his theological or historical work has had permanent value.
DE LA CRUZ, APOLINARIO [1815-1841] – Filipino religious leader who went to Manila to join a
monastic order but was rejected because he was a Filipino native. In 1840 he returned to
Quezon and found a religious brotherhood for Filipinos. The movement grew widely among the
masses, but was refused recognition by both ecclesiastical and colonial authorities. In 1841 he
proclaimed war in the name of religious freedom. During skirmishes, a provincial government
official was killed. De la Cruz was later captured, executed, and quartered, and the brotherhood
was disbanded. He's now honoured as the first martyr to the cause of religious liberty and
Filipino priestly equality.
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HODGE, CHARLES [1797-1878] – A leading American theologian of the 19th century and father
of A. A. Hodge [see 1877]. Educated at Princeton, he graduated there in 1815. His theological
studies under Archibald Alexander [see 1812] determined his life work. He was professor of
Oriental and Biblical literature [1822-1840] then professor of theology. His own theology was
mainly that of the Westminster Confession with obvious traces of scholastic Calvinism. His
thought was governed by a high view of verbal inspiration and infallibility. Hodge unswervingly
defended the supernaturally inspired Bible and thereby placed his stamp upon what came to be
called Princeton theology. His writings carried his influence beyond the 3000 students whom he
taught during a half-century. He held a commanding position in the Presbyterian Church. He was
a prominent member of the missionary and educational boards of the Presbyterians.
KELLY, WILLIAM [1821-1906] – Plymouth Brethren and biblical Critic. Educated in Dublin he
was converted in 1841 to the principles of the Brethren and began to write extensively on behalf
of the Darby section of that body. He edited two periodicals “The Prospect” [1848 to 1850] and
the “Bible Treasury” from 1856 until his death. He wrote a long series of devotional works and
commentaries as well as editing the collected works of J. Darby [see 1845]. In 1879 the
excommunication of Dr Edward Cronin led to the “Kelly schism” in the Exclusive Brethren, Kelly
heading the more moderate and understanding faction of that group until his death.
LIVINGSTONE, DAVID [1813-1873] – Scottish missionary and explorer who left school at ten
years old and worked incredibly long hours in the mill but kept a book beside him while he
worked. He was converted at about 17 years of age and dedicated his life to spread the gospel
in other lands. He saved in order to study medicine and theology in Glasgow and heard the call
to go to Africa through Robert Moffat [see 1816] who had laboured there for 23 years under the
London Missionary Society and whose daughter Mary he was later to marry. Arriving in 1841 he
soon moved north from Kuruman into unexplored and un-evangelised territory, thus beginning
the travels which were to take him some 48,000 kilometres over the African continent. His first
great discovery was Lake Ngami in 1849. Four years later he began the great journey of
exploration from Cape Town to the Zambezi River, then west to the Atlantic Ocean and right
across the continent to the Indian Ocean. In the course of this journey he found and named
Victoria Falls. He returned home to find himself famous in 1856 and the following year published
“Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa”. During his subsequent journeyings after
returning to Africa he dropped out of sight and the New York Herald sent H.M. Stanley to find
him which he did in 1871. Livingstone refused to return home and he died about the beginning of
May 1873 and was subsequently buried in Westminster Abbey. Largely due to his reports, it was
not long before slavery was made illegal throughout the civilised world.
PHILIPPINES [see also 1521] – In 1841 Apolinario de la Cruz [see above] became the first
martyr being executed as a subversive. The revolution of 1868 and subsequent short lived
republic in Spain resulted in a brief spell of liberalism in the colony but with the restoration of the
monarchy in 1870, censorship was revived, the Filipinisation of the church was reversed and
demand for political reform was declared treasonable and punishable by death. In 1872 three
priests were executed for demanding Filipino leadership in the church. However with the
increasing communications with the opening of the Suez Canal and the advent of the telegraph,
the control was freed up. In 1898 the revolutionary government expelled the friars, confiscated
their lands, and appointed Gregorio Aglipay [see 1902] as head of the Philippine Church. In 1902
the US Congress paid the friars $7 million compensation for loss of their lands. Until the middle
of the 20th century the religious orders with the exception of the Jesuits were still dominated by
foreigners. The first Protestant missionary to settle in the Philippines was James Rodgers an
American Presbyterian who arrived in 1899. The Protestants agreed on a policy of dividing the
missions in the country, the Episcopalians were unwilling to evangelise Roman Catholics and
went only to the Muslims in the south, the Chinese, the Caucasians, and the animistic tribes. The
only non American arrival was the British and Foreign Bible Society who had started translation
into local languages commencing in the 1880s.
SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUS [1809-1878] – First Church of England bishop of New Zealand
who was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1833. He gained parish experience in Windsor
and Eton and was consecrated bishop of New Zealand in 1841 reaching Auckland the following
year. Through an error of latitude in his letters patents he claimed his diocese took in much of
the Pacific. He made frequent trips to Melanesia and founded a college in New Zealand to train
young men from the islands for the proposed mission. In 1861 he was instrumental in making
Melanesia a separate diocese under J.C. Patteson [see 1856]. By 1859 when the first general
synod met, there were four other bishoprics. Selwyn was a pioneering in the concept of the
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independence of the Church of England in the colonies. He also supported evangelisation of the
Maoris even in the difficult days of the Maori wars. Selwyn was appointed bishop of Lichfield and
did much to pioneer industrial chaplaincy work there until his death
VAUGHAN, CHARLES JOHN [1816-1897] – Dean of Llandaff Wales who studied at Cambridge
where he was elected a fellow in 1839. Vaughan was ordained in 1841 and became headmaster
of Harrow which flourished as it was well organised under his control. When vicar of Doncaster
[1860-1869] he began training young men for the ministry who were known as “Vaughan’s
doves” continuing this work after he became master of the Temple [1869-1894]. Among his 450
pupils was the future archbishop of Canterbury Randall Davidson [see 1903]. Vaughan was
hostile to High Church practices and to the contemporary German critical views of the Bible. He
left strict instructions that no biography of him should be written. His Nonconformist sympathies
brought him close links with the founding in 1883 of University College, Cardiff.
VENN, HENRY [1796-1873] – Missionary secretary. He was eldest child of John Venn [see
1783] he became a fellow at Queens College Cambridge and was presented by Wilberforce with
the living of Drypool in 1827 before becoming vicar at St John's Holloway from 1834 to 1846. His
greatest work was as secretary of the Church Missionary Society from 1841 until shortly before
his death. Venn saw in Matthew 28:19 the emergence of national churches, with marked national
characteristics, throughout the world. He believed that missionary policy should thus aim at the
“quiet death of a mission” through the stimulation of “self-governing, self-supporting and self
propagating churches”. His time as secretary of the Church Missionary Society witnessed a vast
increase in the number of “native clergy” and sometimes against missionary opposition in the
responsibilities they carried and the beginning of the indigenisation of the episcopate. After his
death these policies were drastically modified but never formally abandoned.
1842
BAEUR, BRUNO [1809-1882] – German radical scholar who became one of the greatest critics
of Christianity arguing that the gospels were the inventions of their authors and that Christianity
was the invention of the 2nd century Graeco-Roman civilisation. His work received more
attention after comments by Albert Schweitzer.
GERHART, EMANUEL VOGEL [1817-1904] – American Reformed theologian. Ordained in 1842
he served in Pennsylvania and Ohio. He was elected president of Heidelberg College and
professor of systematic theology at the Reformed Seminary in Tiffin Ohio from 1851 to 1855. He
held other progressive posts and wrote extensively including a systematic theology and the
Heidelberg Catechism of 1863.
GERMANUS IV – Patriarch of Constantinople [1842-1845, 1852-1853] succeeded Anthimus V
[see 1841]. In 1826-1830 he was bishop of Vidin, then bishop of Drama until 1835, when he was
appointed bishop of Derkoi. He was elected to the patriarchal throne for the first time in 1842,
and held the post until 1845, when he was succeeded by Meletius III. Restored to the throne in
1852, he occupied it until his death the next year. During his patriarchy he especially took care of
the poor. He founded many churches, schools, libraries and orphanages. His name was
particularly associated with the education of the Orthodox clergy, as he was the founder of
the Theological School of Halki in the monastery of the Holy Trinity which produced many
theologians, priests, bishops and patriarchs of note. The school operated regularly until 1971
when it was closed by the government.
JEWS, MISSIONS TO THE – Except under Hadrian, the Jews in the Roman empire down to the
reign of Constantine retained their position as a tolerated cult and were therefore more
favourably placed than the Christians. In much the same way this happened in the East under
the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties. Hence the church tended to be on the defensive against
the synagogue and, except for efforts by Hebrew Christians of which we know little, there was
little mission to the Jews. During the Reformation and Counter-Reformation some little interest
was shown by the Church in the conversion of the Jews but it was not until the Moravians in
1738 and Pietists that this became important. The work of Ezra Edzard [1629-1708], J.H.
Callenberg [1694-1760], and A.H. Franke [1663-1723] led to the foundation of the Institution of
the Jews at Halle in 1728 and showed a change in interest.
A new era began when J. Frey [1771-1851] a Hebrew Christian from Germany came to London.
His work led to the founding in 1809 of the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the
Jews, which is now called the Church’s Ministry among the Jews, as an interdenominational
society. In 1842 Free Church supporters of Jewish missions founded the British Society for
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Promoting Christianity among the Jews, now the International Jews’ Society. The first
acceptance of responsibility by a church as such was in 1840 by the Church of Scotland. The
second generation of missionary societies came into existence in the second half of the 19th
century largely as an answer to the westward surge of Eastern European Jews. England gave
the lead with most societies being nondenominational. Most important were the Mildmay Mission
to the Jews in 1876, the Barbican Mission to the Jews in 1889, and the Hebrew Christian
Testimony to Israel in 1893. In America most missionary work was purely local in nature, but in
1894 Leopold Cohn founded the interdenominational American Board of Missions to the Jews
which has grown to be the largest Jewish mission in the world. In 1938 The Friends of Israel was
established. By the 1970’s the Southern Baptists were the only ones active outside of America.
The effect of a Holocaust on both Jews and Christians and the coming into being of Israel led to
an increasing stress on dialogue, which Vatican II declared to be the policy of the Roman
Catholic Church.
KINGSLEY, CHARLES [1819-1875] – English novelist and Christian Socialist. Educated at
King's College London and Cambridge, Kingsley was ordained in 1842. Although ill-qualified he
was professor of modern history at Cambridge from 1862 to 1869 and later held the position of
canon at Chester and Westminster. His concerns were educational and sanitary reform, and the
extension of the co-operative principle. He was a critic of Tractarianism. Kingsley’s novels also
generally have some bearing on social issues.
KRAUTH, CHARLES PORTERFIELD [1823–1883]. Lutheran theologian and editor, ordained
into the Lutheran ministry in 1842. He served congregations in Maryland, Virginia, and
Pennsylvania as a member of the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod. In 1861 he became the
editor of the “Lutheran and Missionary” and three years later was elected professor at Mount Airy
Lutheran Seminary. He advocated the Akron and Galesburg rules, stating “Lutheran altars for
Lutherans only, Lutheran pulpits for Lutherans only”.
ORIGINAL SECESSION CHURCH – More properly “The Synod of United Original Seceders”
this was constituted in Scotland in 1842. It was the union of various groups who were heirs of the
secession of 1733 from the Church of Scotland. They rejoined the Church of Scotland in 1956.
The original secession had taken place because Ebenezer Erskine [see1740] and others felt
inhibited from protesting effectively against abuses in the Church of Scotland, particularly
patronage. Later the seceders divided into Burghers and anti-Burghers over the right of taking
the Burgher’s Oath professing the “true religion”, and the “Auld Lichts” and the “New Lichts” over
the interpretation of the clauses in the Westminster Confession regarding the civil magistrate.
POPE, WILLIAM BURT [1822-1903] – Canadian Wesleyan minister born in Nova Scotia and
educated in England he was ordained in 1842. Pope travelled in several circuits and established
a reputation as a linguist. From 1867 to 1886 he was tutor at Didsbury Wesleyan College,
Manchester. In 1875-76 he produced his greatest work “A Compendium of Christian Theology” in
3 volumes. Impeccably orthodox and the most powerful of all Wesleyan essays in dogmatic
theology it undoubtedly held back the impact of critical ideas on English Methodism several
decades. Pope died after a long and painful illness.
TOWNSEND, HENRY (1815 - 1886) was an Anglican missionary in Nigeria. Ordained in
England in 1842, Townsend set off for Sierra Leone, landing there that same year. After working
there only a few months, he was transferred to the Yoruba mission. From 1846 to 1867, he
based his mission in Abeokuta. He was the first European person to enter Abeokuta and was
'given a grand reception'. Working with Samuel Crowther, a Yoruba Anglican priest, Townsend
wrote several hymns in Yoruba and aided in the compilation of Crowther's Yoruba primer. He
retired in 1876.
WHITMAN, MARCUS [1802-1847] – Presbyterian medical missionary who was born in New
York and for eight years practiced medicine in Canada and New York. In 1835 the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions sent him to study the possibility of Indian missions
in the American North-west. In 1836 his new bride Narcissa and a small missionary band
accompanied him across the Rockies, founding a chain of mission stations in the Walla Walla
River Valley. In the autumn of 1842 he began a famous 3000 mile horseback journey to Boston
convincing the board to rescind its decision to close part of the work. Whitman returned in 1843
with immigrants to the Oregon Territory. Due to a tragic misunderstanding Cayuse Indians
murdered him, his wife, and twelve others in 1847.
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1843
AGAPEMONISM was a religious movement founded by Henry James Prince [1811-1899] an
evangelical perfectionist. He began to make extravagant claims in 1843 which gave the
impression that he was claiming to be in some sense an incarnation of God. A community was
formed at Spaxton where a huge residence called Agapemone [Abode of Love] was erected.
After declining it was revived under J H Smyth-Pigott but when in 1902 he called himself Jesus
Christ the movement became unfashionable.
ASSUMPTIONISTS – Founded by a group of priests with simple vows in Nimes in 1843. The
purpose was to restore higher education, to fight the churches enemies, and to fight for unity in
the church. They were expelled from France in 1900 by an anticlerical government but spread to
many parts of the world. Their work includes care of asylums and schools, the dissemination of
literature, and missionary endeavour.
CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM [1805-1861] – Scottish theologian who was one of the 1843 leaders of
the Disruption [see 1843]. He was a learned theologian and controversialist both in theology and
matters of the church and a close friend of Charles Hodge [see1841].
DISRUPTION, THE – This was the withdrawal of 474 ministers from the Church of Scotland
which brought the Free Church of Scotland into existence. The Church of Scotland had been
debilitated spiritually for about a century by various secessions. The secessionists were usually
people who were deeply concerned about what they felt to be the wrongs of patronage, but the
national church could ill afford to lose them. People flocked to the secessionist churches but at
the same time the tide of evangelical life and power began to flow more strongly in the state
church itself. The Evangelical party found an outstanding leader in Thomas Chalmers and it grew
rapidly both in numbers and influence. There was a breath of genuine revival in the air. The
General Assembly of 1842 by a large majority, declared that the Church of Scotland must be free
to govern itself, and it protested against any attempt by Parliament or the courts to interfere in
matters spiritual and ecclesiastical. The movement which led to the Disruption was undoubtedly
spiritual at its heart, but it was also an expression of the 19th century swing towards greater
democracy.
FISKE, FIDELIA [1816-1864] – First single woman missionary to Persia. Born in Massachusetts
she was the niece of Pliny Fisk, one of the first two missionaries of the American Board to the
Near East. She was converted at 15 and joined a Congregational church. The American Board
appointed her to Persia in 1843. For 15 years she served in that land, principally among the
Nestorian women and girls near Lake Urmia. She directed the first boarding school for girls in
Persia. Ill health forced her to return to the USA in 1858 and she hoped to return to Persia but
never did.
MEDHURST, WALTER HENRY [1796-1857] – Missionary to China educated at Hackney
College and trained as a printer. He went first to Penang then to Batavia with the London
Missionary Society. In 1843 he went to the newly opened Treaty Port of Shanghai which was to
be his base until his death. In addition to evangelistic work he had already earned a reputation
as a Chinese scholar and became a member of the Bible Society committee commissioned to
produce the first union version of the Bible. Medhurst was a prominent figure among early
Protestant missionaries to China.
METHODIUS Patriarch of Antioch [1843-1859] see also 1813 and 1860
MORISON, JAMES [1816-1893] – Founder of the Evangelical Union. He was the son of a
Secession minister educated at Edinburgh and licensed to preach in 1839. His views on the
universal nature of the Atonement soon led to suspension from the ministry of his denomination
and joined by three others including his own father he founded the Evangelical Union in 1843.
His remarkable gifts as a preacher drew huge congregations and this continued after he moved
to Glasgow to become the first minister of Dundas Street Church with which post he combined
the post of principal of the theological hall he established. Initially regarded as a heretic he
became one of their most trusted and outstanding theologians of his time, a fact acknowledged
by Glasgow University which made him a doctor of divinity in 1883. He was appreciated in
America when he visited by the Cumberland Presbyterians [see 1810] who shared his dislike for
strict Calvinism. The Evangelical Union joined the Scottish Congregationalists in 1898.
SCOTLAND [see also 1559] – The question of patronage by the landowners was a constant
irritant that caused a number of schisms with the most important and largest being that of the
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Disruption of 1843 which led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland. After the
disappearance of the Scottish Parliament in the Union of 1707, the Church of Scotland became
the only popular representative of the Scottish people. Christianity has had a stronger influence
upon Scotland than upon most nations.
1844
CRAMP, JOHN MOCKETT [1791-1881] – Baptist pastor and scholar who in 1844 went to
Canada to become president of Montreal Baptist College. In 1851 he became president of
Acadia College Nova Scotia. In 1869 he resigned to devote himself to literary work which
included writing theological and historical books.
EAST AFRICA KENYA – Effective preparation for the evangelisation of Kenya began in 1844
with the arrival of J.L. Krapf [see below], a German Lutheran sent out by the Anglican Church
Missionary Society (CMS). He began to work in Mombassa and then moved inland to Rabai
some 50 kilometres from the sea where he was joined by a colleague John Rebmann in 1846
[see 1846]. Krapf was forced by ill health to return to Europe in 1853 but he continued his
linguistic work. Meanwhile the CMS reinforced its staff at Rabai though several died from
malaria. In 1861 the United Methodist Church from Britain opened a mission station at Ribe, a
few kilometres north of Mombassa and later extended its work up to the Tana River. In 1873
slavery was legally abolished within the Sultanate of Zanzibar, and the CMS established a
colony of freed slaves at Freretown on the mainland just north of Mombassa. Work in the
hinterland began in 1891. The Imperial British East Africa Company invited the churches of
Scotland to send out missionaries to Kenya. The original site which was chosen proved to be a
bad one with the Rev Thomas Watson being the sole survivor of this party. He moved to a
location near present day Nairobi.
In 1895 the Africa Inland Mission was formed by Peters Scott entered Kenya, and began to work
among the Kamba people at Machakos in 1902. Other missions such as the Friends Africa
Mission and the Seventh-Day Adventist Church moved up to stations in western Kenya, and
Anglican missionaries entered West Kenya from Uganda and began church, educational, and
medical work in that area. The modern history of Roman Catholic missionary work in Kenya
began with the arrival of Holy Ghost Fathers, who were French in origin, in Mombassa in 1892.
In 1924 the Kenya Missionary Council was established and finally the Christian Council of Kenya
in 1943 to which almost all non-Roman Catholic churches and missions belong. Most of the
missions have now been handed over to indigenous African churches, which have arisen out of
their work and have now assumed control of the work formerly carried out by these missions.
FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND – A reformed and Protestant church established in 1844 in
reaction to the doctrines and development of the Oxford movement [see 1833] in the Church of
England. Its constitution was formally registered in 1863. It is pledged to the Thirty Nine Articles,
and its Prayer Book is, for all practical purposes, the 1689 revision of the 1662 Book of Common
Prayer, a revision acceptable at the time to Puritans, but not adopted by the Anglican Church.
The existence of a vigorous evangelical wing in the Church of England has militated against the
development of the Free Church of England, but it has persisted in the face of many difficulties.
GOVETT, ROBERT [1813-1901] – English theological writer who was educated Oxford and
ordained as an Anglican in 1836. His preaching attracted great crowds until in 1844 he
confessed that he had forced his conscience on the matter of infant baptism and resigned his
curacy and fellowship. Most the congregation left the Church of England and made Govett their
pastor and by 1848 he had baptised some 400 former Anglicans. The Surrey Chapel, in Norwich,
was opened in 1854, and Govett ministered to the end of the century. Govett's writing was
extensive and complete in its faithfulness to biblical revelation. Much concerned with
eschatology, he held that the book of Revelation is to be understood literally.
HUC, ABBE [1813-1860] – Missionary to China. During the period after the Opium Wars there
was significant persecution of the Roman Catholics. However, starting in 1844 and continuing for
three years Huc and Father Gabet, French Lazarists, undertook a remarkable journey from
Peking through Mongolia and Tibet to Lhasa and back to Canton. They were protected by
wearing Mandarin dress and the crimson sash that signified kingship to the emperor.
Everywhere they found terror-stricken little groups of Christians and nearly succeeded in
establishing a mission in Lhasa itself. The famous account of his journeying stimulated fresh
interest in many abroad in Christian missions to China.
KRAPF, JOHANN LUDWIG [1810-1881] – Pioneer missionary to Kenya, educated at Tubingen,
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he was a pastor for a short time before offering to the Anglican Church Missionary Society in
1838. Initially sent to Abyssinia he was transferred to Mombasa in 1844 where he laid his wife
and newborn child in a lonely missionary grave. He took a house in Mombasa and studied
Swahili into which he translated the New Testament and produced a standard dictionary and
grammar. In 1846 he was joined by fellow German Lutheran, Johannes Rebmann [see 1846],
and they moved to Rabai about 10 miles inland from Mombasa to work among the Wanyika.
They made several important journeys of exploration inland. In 1853 Krapf had to return to
Europe due to ill health but he maintained his interest in East Africa and continued important
linguistic work. He did return on a couple of occasions to Africa before he died.
LATIN AMERICA [see also 1735 and 1916] – Protestant missionary activity. A milestone of the
Protestant missions was the founding of the Patagonian Missionary Society, later renamed The
South American Missionary Society, by an Anglican sea captain Allen Gardner in 1844. This was
the first missionary of the aggressive evangelistic type. The British and Foreign Bible Society and
the American Bible Society representatives such as James Thompson [1798-1854] and many
more were active. Presbyterian churches were planted by missionaries David Trumbull [18191889] in Chile in 1868 and H.B. Pratt in Colombia in 1865. William Taylor [1821-1902] stressed
the need for self-supporting missions and was an outstanding pioneer of Methodist work in Chile,
Peru, and Central America. In 1882 J.H.L. Ewen of Great Britain, travelling through Argentina in
a horse-drawn Bible Coach planted Plymouth Brethren assemblies there. Interdenominational
work began when the American Board of Commissioners of the Foreign Missions sent workers
to Mexico between 1860 and 1880, and when C.I. Scofield [see 1909] founded the Central
American Mission in 1890, pioneering the work in almost every one of the Central American
republics. Lack of religious liberty and harsh persecution from Roman Catholics severely
hindered Protestant missions during this period.
OIKONOMOS, CONSTANTINE [1780-1857] – Greek scholar and theologian who was a keen
patriot who was strongly opposed to Western influences in Greek life which had assumed
increased importance in the 18th and 19th centuries. His most notable achievement was a
massive four volume study of the Septuagint in over 3700 pages published in Athens [18441849].
The SOUTH AMERICAN MISSION SOCIETY was founded at Brighton in 1844 as the
Patagonian Mission. Captain Allen Gardiner, R.N., was the first secretary. The name
"Patagonian Mission" was retained for twenty years, when the new title was adopted. The name
of the organization was changed after the death of Captain Gardiner, who died of starvation in
1851 on Picton Island in South America, waiting for a supply ship from England. Gardiner
thought that the original mission should be expanded from southern South America (Patagonia)
to all of South America. The Society's purpose is to recruit, send, and support Christian
missionaries in South America. In 1860 Allen Gardiner, Jr. established a second mission station
at Lota, Chile, and later won important official concessions against the incumbent Catholic
clergy. This was the first of many successful missions that the South American Missionary
Society founded on mainland South America. There are nationally based organizations in Great
Britain, Ireland, Canada, and the United States.
STERN, HENRY AARON [1820-1885] – Missionary to the Jews. Stern was born to Jewish
parents in Germany and educated at Frankfurt. At seventeen he began a commercial career in
Hamburg but became interested in Christianity and was baptised in London in 1840. He trained
as a missionary at the College of the London Jews Society and in 1844 he sailed for Baghdad
and worked amongst the Jews and Muslims in Asia Minor and Persia until 1853 when he was
transferred to Constantinople. In 1858-59 he went on missionary journeys to the Crimea and
Arabia and then joined J.M. Flad [see 1868] in his work and among the Falasha Jews in
Ethiopia. Later he incurred the hostility of the eccentric King Theodore. He was imprisoned and
tortured [1863-1867] together with Flad and other Europeans. Flad was eventually released and
an expeditionary force under Sir Robert Napier defeated Theodore who committed suicide. Stern
and others were liberated and returned to England where the remaining years of his active
ministry was spent in London where he wrote and distributed literature among the Jews and
became famous for his missionary sermons.
THOMAS, OWEN [1812-1891] – Welsh Calvinistic Methodist minister and author who was the
son of a stonemason and followed his father's craft. When the family moved to Bangor in 1827
he entered Bala College in 1838, and completed his studies at the University of Edinburgh. He
was ordained in 1844 and after serving several pastorates he moved to Liverpool in 1865 and
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spent the remainder of his ministry there. He was an outstanding figure in the life of Welsh
evangelical local churches in the Victorian Age. He was a firm defender of Calvinism in the
moderate form that derived from the thinking of Dr Edward Williams. He was an extensive writer
and his greatest achievement was the huge biography of John Jones [1796-1857] published in
1874 which is also a biography of Welsh evangelicalism in the first half of the 19th century.
WILLIAMS, SIR GEORGE [1821-1905] – Founder of the Young Men's Christian's Association
[see below]. This son of a farmer and apprentice to a draper was converted through reading the
works of C.G. Finney [see 1821] and joined the local Congregational church. In 1841 he went to
work in London in a drapers shop and later rose to be a partner in the firm. In 1844 a meeting of
twelve young men in Williams’ room is generally recognised as marking the foundation of the
London YMCA. He was the major power behind the expansion of this international movement.
Williams was an evangelist, temperance advocate, and social reformer as well as a
businessman, and was knighted in 1894.
YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION – The YMCA appears to have had independent
beginnings in several European countries but its origin is traditionally ascribed to George
Williams [see above] and his meetings in London in 1844. The early decades were not
untroubled and Williamson's primacy and single-minded purposefulness were often resented by
British and foreign colleagues alike. It was criticised at various times for being either too broad or
too narrow, particularly in its prohibition of games and smoking, the YMCA gradually overcome
prejudice and added recreational relief work to its original evangelistic concerns. In the world
wars with its symbol of the red triangle it provided especially for the needs of soldiers, the
wounded, and prisoners of war.
1845
AMERICAN SOUTHERN METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION was an American Methodist
missionary society operated by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South that was involved in
sending workers to countries such as China during the late Qing Dynasty.
ANTHIMUS VI – Patriarch of Constantinople [1845-48, 1853-55, 1871-73] who succeeded
Meletius III [see below]. He was the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople for three periods
from 1845 to 1848, from 1853 to 1855 and from 1871 to 1873. He was born in Kutali Island in the
Aegean Sea and died in Kandilli. Before becoming a patriarch, Anthimus was a monk at the
Esphigmenou monastery in Mount Athos. In 1845 he expanded the monastery, adding two
chapels, a vestibule and a porch to it.
ARTEMIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1845-1847] see 1825 and 1847
BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN [1762-1860] – German leader of the Tubingen School which
criticised Christianity and the Bible. He had an anti-supernatural and anti-theistic interpretation of
history and Christian origins. He was much influenced by Hegel. He believed that the only
genuine letters of Paul were Romans, Galatians and the two books of Corinthians because of
their anti Judaizing sentiments including the rejection of the law, circumcision and their wider
conception of God.
BUCHANAN, JAMES [1804-1870] – Scottish evangelical theologian who studied at Glasgow and
in 1828 was inducted into the large and influential parish of North Leith where his evangelical
preaching attracted great crowds. At the 1843 disruption, in common with most fellow
evangelicals, he left the established church and became minister of St Stephen’s Free Church
Edinburgh. In 1845 he was appointed professor of apologetics at New College and two years
later succeeded Thomas Chalmers [see 1815] in the chair of systematic theology.
CAIRNS, JOHN [1818-1892] – The most outstanding United Presbyterian leader of his time. He
was brought up among Seceders the son of a border shepherd and ordained in 1845 where he
ministered at Berwick on Tweed for thirty years. He became professor of theology at Edinburgh
in 1876. It is said that because of his personality and character “his death called forth a
manifestation of public feeling such as does not occur twice in one generation.”
CANDLISH, ROBERT [1806-1873] – Scottish minister who was one of the founders of the
Evangelical Alliance in 1845 and its moderator in 1861. He left the Church of Scotland at the
Disruption [see 1843] to form the Free Church of Scotland. In his Cunningham lectures of 1861
he disagreed with F D Maurice’s [see 1838] view of the universal fatherhood of God. He was not
universally accepted for his theology particularly within his denomination.
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CARLYLE, THOMAS [1795-1881] – Scottish writer who was the son of a peasant farmer who
was concerned about social conditions which in his concept required strong just men to emerge
and sort out the problems. He produced two massive works on Oliver Cromwell [1845] and
Frederick the Great [1858-65]. He admired the Puritans and Covenanters but it is sad that he
became disillusioned in his Latter-Day Pamphlets.
CYRIL II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1845-1872] see 1827 and 1872
DARBY, JOHN NELSON [1800-1882] – Plymouth Brethren leader who was born into a
distinguished Anglo Irish family. Darby had a distinguished career at Trinity College Dublin and
after graduation in 1819 was called to the Irish Chancery Bar in 1822. Ordained three years later
and serving in a parish in County Wicklow he became uneasy about church establishment and
startled the country in 1827 with his tract "On the Nature and Unity of the Church of Christ".
Resigning his curacy the same year he associated with a group meeting in Dublin for
communion and prayer and quickly assumed leadership because of his teaching gift and his
powerful and attractive personality. From 1830 he often made preaching trips to the Continent.
In 1845 Darby broke with B. W. Newton [see 1847] in Plymouth through disagreements on
prophecy and ecclesiology and later led the attack on Newton on heresy charges that forced the
1848 division of the brethren into Open and Exclusive groups. Darby later travelled to North
America, the West Indies, and New Zealand. Though not the founder of the so-called Plymouth
Brethren he was undoubtedly the most gifted teacher at the beginning.
GOBAT, SAMUEL [1799-1879] – Bishop of Jerusalem. French-speaking Protestant who entered
Basle Mission Society's school in 1821 where he showed considerable linguistic skills. He
studied Arabic in Paris and transferred to the English Church Missionary Society for service in
Ethiopia. He spent two terms there in the 1830s then went to Malta to do translation work. In
1845 the Lutheran Gobat was ordained into the Anglican church and a year later King Frederick
William IV appointed him to the joint English-Prussian bishopric of Jerusalem. In Palestine he
founded hospitals, schools, and orphanages, and brought in German workers to assist in his
ministry. He came under pressure through his work with the Orthodox Church. After his death
Prussia withdrew its support from the bishopric, leaving it purely an Anglican post.-HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON [1810-1877] – German Lutheran theologian
who is widely regarded as the most significant theologian representing the Erlangen School
which is a modified form of Lutheran orthodoxy. He taught there from 1845 laying great
emphasis on biblical exegesis which he coupled with stress on Christian experience. The latter is
expressed historically in salvation history, of which Scripture is the record prior and subsequent
to the coming of Christ.
HUNT, JOHN [1812-1848] – English missionary to Fiji who was born into a farming family in
Lincolnshire and had little formal schooling. Converted in a Methodist meeting at 17 he educated
himself and preached in various chapels. After being ordained in 1838 he sailed to Fiji as a
missionary where he stressed Bible translation and the training of indigenous pastors. As he was
a strong enthusiast for the doctrine of entire sanctification his preaching sparked a revival in
1845. The rigours of extensive travelling in visiting the scattered Fijian congregations led to his
early death. His translation of the Scriptures were published posthumously, the New Testament
in 1853 and the whole Bible finally being published in 1864.
MELETIUS III – Patriarch of Constantinople [1845] succeeded Germanus IV [see 1842]. There is
no additional information readily available.
NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY [1801-1890] – Tractarian and cardinal. Born into a family of
Evangelicals, this was the strongest influence upon him until entering Oxford in 1817. He
gradually relinquished evangelicalism under the influence of R. Whatley [see 1831] who
impressed upon him the divine appointment of the church, and Hawkins who taught him to value
tradition. E.B. Pusey [see 1828], J. Keble [see 1833], and above all R.H. Froud [see 1831] took
him further into High Church beliefs. He became vicar at St Mary's University Church at Oxford
and issued a number of tracts attempting a reconciliation between the 39 Articles and
Romanism. He came under widespread criticism, and his researches into the early church
resulted in his book “The Arians of the Fourth Century”, and also led to doubts about the Church
of England which were raised again in 1839 when he was studying the Monophysite controversy.
He resigned from St Mary’s in 1843 and joined the Roman Catholic church in 1845. In 1864 in
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response to a personal attack upon him by Charles Kingsley [see 1842] Newman replied in a
paper which again brought him into prominence. In 1879 he was made a cardinal. His influence
within both the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church has been immense. His
hymn “Praise to the Holiest in the height” is still frequently sung.
OOSTERZEE, JAN JAKOB VAN [1817-1882] – Dutch Reformed minister who was educated at
Utrecht and by 1862 had served several churches in Alkmaar. Well known as a pulpit orator and
evangelical leader he taught practical theology at Utrecht. His writing career began in 1845 as
editor of a theological journal. Oosterzee published a number of works which covered the full
range of pastoral and teaching expertise.
PORTUGAL [see also 1614] – Protestantism did not effectively reach Portugal until 1845 when
meetings were commenced simultaneously in Lisbon and Oporto. Since then a large variety of
missionary agencies have been active and the progress of the reformed faith has been similar to
that in Spain, with English Methodism playing a more active role. Since 1917 popular devotion in
the country has been enormously strengthened by the cult of our Lady of Fatima. This, which is
now the hallmark of Portuguese Catholicism, began in a small town in the middle of the country
in May 1917 when three poor children are alleged to have seen a vision of the virgin on six
occasions. The cult which had the accompanying miraculous cures were first frowned on by the
church but from 1930 have been officially favoured and Our Lady of Fatima is now identified,
unofficially at least, as the queen of Portugal.
SAKER, ALFRED [1814-1880] – Missionary to the Cameroon. Saker was an engineer and joined
the Baptist Mission which left Jamaica to work among the liberated slaves in Fernando Po in
1843. In Cameroon in 1845 he founded Bethel Station, giving himself to preaching, teaching, and
translation. When the Spanish authorities stopped Protestant worship on Fernando Po in 1858,
Saker with ninety families founded a settlement in Victoria on Cameroon's mainland. He
introduced crafts and building work and completed the Douala Bible in 1872. He also made the
first ascent of Cameroons Mountain [13,352 ft] with Sir Richard Burton. Retiring to England in
failing health in 1876 Saker encouraged the founding of the Baptist Missionary Society Congo
Mission in his closing years.
SALMON, GEORGE [1819-1904] – Anglican minister who was the son of a Protestant linen
merchant of Cork. Salmon had a brilliant career at Trinity College Dublin where he spent much of
his life as professor and provost. He was ordained into the Church of Ireland in 1845. Salmon
pursued two separate academic disciplines, he was internationally recognised as a
mathematician, he was also widely known for his theological writings. Strongly Protestant he cooperated with Archbishop Whately [see 1831] in “Cautions for the Times” an answer to the
Tractarians [see 1833]. He later questioned successfully many of the questionable parts of
Hort’s Greek New Testament text.
SOUTHERN BAPTIST CONVENTION is an American Southern Baptist missionary society
founded in 1845 which was involved in sending workers to countries such as China during the
late Qing Dynasty. Its most famous missionary was Lottie Moon. [see 1873]
TACHE, ALEXANDER ANTONIN [1823-1894] – Canadian Roman Catholic bishop who was born
in Quebec and educated at Montréal and in 1844 became a member of the Oblate Order being
ordained in 1845. Tache was sent as a missionary to the Red River area of Manitoba. He
became the second bishop of St Boniface in 1853 and was created archbishop there in 1871. He
helped restore order during the Riel Rebellion in 1869- 70. He was also a leader in the Manitoba
separate-school struggle.
WILBUR, JOHN [1774-1856] – Quaker preacher who became minister of the Society of Friends
in 1812. Wilber was known as a rugged and effective speaker. On a preaching tour of the British
Isles [1831-1833] he zealously opposed the evangelical movement’s entering Quakerism under
the leadership of Joseph Gurney, Elizabeth Fry's brother. When Gurney preached in America
[1837-1838], Wilber opposed him and was expelled, becoming leader in 1845 of some 500
separatists.
1846
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION was a Protestant-based abolitionist group founded on
in 1846 in Albany, New York. The main purpose of this organization was to eliminate slavery, to
educate African Americans, to promote racial equality, and to promote Christian values. Its
members and leaders were of both races and chiefly affiliated with Congregationalist, Methodist
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and Presbyterian churches. From the beginning the leadership was integrated: the first board
was made up of 12 men, four of them black. Members of the AMA started their support of
education for blacks before the Civil War, but their pace of founding schools and colleges
increased during and afterward. Freedmen and sympathizers alike believed that education was a
priority. Altogether, "the AMA founded more than five hundred schools and colleges for the
freedmen of the South during and after the Civil War, spending more money for that purpose
than the Freedmen's Bureau of the federal government. While the AMA became notable in the
United States with its work in opposition to slavery and in support of education for freedmen, it
also worked in missions in numerous nations overseas.
BUCHAN, ELSPETH [1783-1846] – The founder of the most bizarre Scottish sect, the
Buchanites [see 1820] died in 1846. She claimed to be the Holy Spirit and the woman clothed in
the sun of the Revelation.
BURNS, WILLIAM [1815-1888] – Scottish Presbyterian missionary to China who studied at
Aberdeen and was licensed to preach in 1839. After a successful evangelistic ministry in
Scotland, Ireland, and Canada he went to China in 1846. He studied Chinese, adopted native
dress and laboured for many years and whilst not visibly successful inspired Hudson Taylor [see
1865] for a ministry in China. He translated Pilgrims Progress and some hymns into Chinese and
died in a remote spot he had chosen to visit because of its destitution.
DABNEY, ROBERT [1820-1898] – He was a young contemporary of J. H. Thornwell and is
generally regarded as the second great theologian of the Southern Presbyterian Church. He
graduated from the University of Virginia in 1842, and in 1844 entered the Union Seminary, was
licensed to preach in 1846 before becoming Minister of the Tinkling Springs Presbyterian Church
in 1881. He took a prominent part in the formation of the Southern Presbyterian Church. From
1861 he served as chaplain, then as chief of staff to Stonewall Jackson. He played a prominent
role in the foundation of Austin Theological Seminary. In 1870 he published his “Syllabus and
Notes of the Course of Systematic and Polemic Theology Taught in the Union Seminary in
Virginia”, which revised and re-issued in 1878 went through six editions until 1927.
EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE [see 1951] which was formed in 1846 after Christian leaders had felt
the need to present a more united front in the face of political upheaval in Europe. It was
stressed at the inaugural conference in London that those present had not met to create a
Christian union, but to confess the unity which the Church of Christ possessed as his body. One
of the first difficulties encountered was a difference of opinion within the ranks regarding the
rights and wrongs of slavery. In the course of the first century of its existence the Alliance
concentrated its attention on a number of different projects, including the relief of persecuted
Protestant minorities, the promotion of a united week of prayer throughout the world during the
first full week of January, the defence of biblical Christianity, and the promotion of missionary
work.
FERRETTI, SALVATORE [1817-1874] – Organiser of the Evangelical Italian church in London. A
man of great faith and deep humanity, in 1846 he founded a school in London to save poor
Italian children from the exploitation of other Italians who used them to beg in the city and cruelly
ill treated them. The school, which he supported, gave private lessons in Italian and was put
under the auspices of the “Society for the religious care and instruction of foreigners” which had
been founded by Lord Shaftesbury. Returning to Italy in 1861 he founded an orphanage for girls
in Florence, which is still in existence.
GAIRDNER, JAMES [1828-1912] – Scottish historian and records scholar. He worked as a clerk
and an editor in the Public Record Office, London from 1846 to 1893. Always strongly Protestant
in his outlook, he also sought to be objective in his editing and writing. He wrote a number of
books closing his career with the four volume work on Lollardy and the Reformation in England.
MENDELSSOHN BARTHOLDY, FELIX [1809-1847] – Musical composer who was born into a
cultured Jewish family that turned to the Lutheran Church. He was talented not only in music but
also art. He presented Bach’s St Matthew Passion in 1829, the first time since the composer's
death and this marked the beginning of the revival of Bach's great legacy of choral music.
Mendelssohn’s oratorio “Elijah” was written for the Birmingham Festival in 1846 and is one of the
greatest 19th-century oratorios. Extracts of his music are often used as service music and his
setting of Psalm 43 for unaccompanied chorus is a fine piece of its kind.
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NEALE, JOHN MASON [1818-1866] – Anglican scholar and hymn writer who was educated at
Cambridge and although his parents were Evangelicals he adopted High Church ideals. Lifelong
ill-health prevented him in 1843 from accepting a living at Crawley in Sussex but in 1846 he
assumed the wardenship of Sackville College East Grinstead, a refuge for needy old men. There
he remained the rest of his life. His ritualism caused the bishop of Chichester to inhibit him for
many years. Despite bitter Protestant opposition, Neale founded for the education of girls and
the care of the sick the Sisterhood of St Margaret at Rotherfield in 1854. Among his many hymns
are translations including “All glory, laud, and honour”, Good King Wenceslas” and “O come, O
come, Immanuel”.
PIUS IX – Pope [1846-1878]. He was archbishop of Spoleto in 1827 and bishop of Imola five
years later before his election as pope. He enjoyed the longest reign as pontiff and oversaw the
revival of the Roman Catholic Church in the 19th century. Two major events dominated his reign,
the end of papal temporal power and the first Vatican Council in 1869-1870. Pius experienced
revolution personally in the Revolution of 1848-49 when he was forced to flee Rome. French
troops restored him in April 1850 and occupied Rome for most of the next twenty years. However
uprisings and the Sardinian Italian invasions in 1859-60 and 1870 terminated the papal temporal
power over the Papal States. He constructively promoted Ultramontane renewal of his spiritual
power by defining in 1854 the Immaculate Conception of Mary which encouraged wide popular
Catholic revival among the faithful as did the promulgation of Papal Infallibility in 1870 and the
convening of the Vatican Council in the same year. He re-established hierarchies in a number of
countries and in the process Pius IX achieved a church remarkably independent from state
domination. He succeeded Gregory XVI [see 1831] and was succeeded by Leo XIII [see 1878].
REBMANN, JOHANNES [1819-1876] – German missionary to East Africa. Born in Wittenberg
and trained at Basle, Rebmann was sent to East Africa by the Church Missionary Society in
1846. With J.L. Krapf [see 1844] he established the Rabia Mpia mission among the Nykia.
Rebmann took several exploratory journeys and was the first European to see Kilimanjaro in
1848. He prepared a map which helped inspire the Burton and Speke expedition of 1857. His
linguistic studies in three vernaculars laid firm foundations for future workers. After 1855 he was
alone at Rabia Mpia except for a brief period. In 1875 Rebmann returned to Europe blind and
broken in health. His death coincided with the effective entry of the Church Missionary Society
into East Africa.
ROSMINI, ANTONIO [1797-1855] – Italian philosopher and founder of the order of the Sisters of
Providence. He was ordained a priest in 1821 and despite his early conservative views became
the author of many significant progressive works dealing with various aspects of philosophy,
politics, law, economics, and natural science. In 1846 Rosmini denounced the insufficient
education of the clergy, the divisions among bishops, and the riches of the church. With Gioberti
[see 1833] he hoped for a confederation of the states of Italy under the leadership of the pope.
SCRIVENER, FREDERICK HENRY AMBROSE [1813-1891] – New Testament scholar who was
educated at Cambridge and taught for 10 years at King's School Sherborne and was
headmaster of Falmouth School from 1846 to 1856 and later prebendary of Exeter 1874 to 1891.
Throughout his entire working life he studied New Testament texts and published the texts of 20
manuscripts and listed all known manuscripts. He was an ardent supporter of the Textus
Receptus in opposition to Wescott and Hort text used in the Revised Version. He failed to
convince other scholars of his view.
SPITTLER, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH [1782-1867] – Swiss German mission founder. He helped
to establish the Basel Mission Society in 1815 and during the 1820s sought to organise a work in
Greece. His principle achievement was the St. Chrischoma Pilgrim Mission which was founded
in 1840. He founded a missionary training school for skilled craftsmen in a church near Basle
and its graduates first ministered among German immigrants in America. After 1846 the primary
field became Palestine. Inspired by Samuel Gobat [see 1845] in Jerusalem, Spittler tried to
extend his work to the Ethiopia but this was unsuccessful. After his death the mission opened a
China field in cooperation with Hudson Taylor [see 1865].
THOMPSON, WILLIAM (Lord Kelvin) [1824-1907] – Physicist who was educated at Cambridge
and in 1846 was appointed professor of natural philosophy at Glasgow holding the chair there for
53 years and becoming the leader of science in his generation. He made numerous discoveries;
he was co-founder with J.P. Joule and others of the science of thermodynamics; he was the
originator of the absolute [Kelvin] scale of temperature; founder of geophysics; inventor of
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numerous electrical instruments; pioneer of the first Atlantic cable in 1858 and of electrical power
transmission. In early life he was inspired by Faraday; his early research originated in the desire
to discover when God had created the world. Kelvin's character was exemplary, he was modest,
never claimed priority in discovery, took special delight in the praising the work of others, even
the most junior, and treated assistants and students with the same deference as fellow
professors. He was deeply interested in and knowledgeable about the Bible and from 1860 was
often involved in courteous controversy with geologists and materialistic evolutionists on topics
relevant to the Christian faith.
TRENCH, RICHARD CHEVENIX [1807-1886] – Archbishop of Dublin who was educated at
Cambridge, ordained in 1832, and was professor of divinity at King's College London from 1846
to 1858, and dean of Westminster from 1856 to 1863. Trench went to Dublin in 1863 as the
archbishop and there he opposed unsuccessfully the disestablishment of the Irish Church but did
much to settle the church after the legislation had been passed before he retired in 1884.
WHITE, ELLEN GOULD [1827-1915] – She was the most prominent leader of the Seventh-day
Adventists Church. Born in Maine she received almost no formal education because of poor
health. Her parents were devout Methodists but in the 1840’s embraced William Miller's [see
1833] Advent preaching and were disbarred from the church. Miller's preaching and Mrs White's
testimony of her own revelations formed the beginning of the Seventh-day Adventists Church,
which stresses a strong prophetic and eschatological note as well as health reform. She married
Elder James White in 1846. In 1855 they moved to Battle Creek Michigan where the church
headquarters came to be located after her husband's death in 1881. She spent some time in
Europe and Australia and was a prolific writer.
1847
BEECHER, HENRY WARD [1813-1887] – Congregational pastor was the son of Lyman Beecher
[see 1832]. He was ordained by the New School Presbytery of Cincinnati in 1838 and eventually
became pastor of the Plymouth Church of Brooklyn [1847-1887]. He was a witty and dramatic
preacher and was politically active. He did not believe in a literal hell and accepted evolution
which caused criticism but none so great as an unproved adultery charge which overshadowed
his later years.
BRADBURY, WILLIAM [1816-1868] – American hymn tune writer who edited over 50 Sunday
School and choir music books. By age fourteen he had mastered every musical instrument
available, but never saw an organ or a piano until 1830, when his parents moved to Boston. He
studied in Boston under Summer Hill and Lowell Mason [see below], and became a music
instructor and organist in New York where he gained popularity by his free singing-schools, and
by his concerts, at which the performers, all children, sometimes numbered 1,000. He studied in
Leipzig for two years from 1847 and was criticised for treating music as a business rather than
being a performer. He wrote the tunes to "Just as I am" and “He leadeth me”.
DESANCTIS, LUIGI [1808-1869] – Parish priest in Rome who was a Protestant pastor and
theologian. Perturbed by the moral and doctrinal corruption of the church, he went through a long
spiritual crisis and finally leaving the Roman Catholic Church took refuge in Malta in 1847. After
a stay in Geneva from 1850-1852 as evangelist to the Italian exiles he was ordained pastor in
their Waldensian church and sent to Turin where his presence gave a great impulse to the
community. He joined A. Gavazzi [see 1863], attracted by his dream of founding a national
Italian church, but finally returned to the Waldensians moving to France and lecturing in their
faculty of theology.
ENGLISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION. The Presbyterian Church of England resolved to
establish a mission in China in 1847. The Rev. William Chalmers Burns was sent out to China
residing first at Hong Kong and then at Amoy. Ten years later he was joined by the Rev.George
Smith. Burns laid the foundation of what became one of the most extensive and prosperous
Christian missions in the Chinese Empire. Its principal centres were Shantou, Amoy, and
Taiwan. It had several establishments, combining churches, mission houses, hospitals, and
schools and was well funded. The senior missionaries in the field were Rev. H. L. Mackenzie of
Shantou, and Rev. W. McGregor of Amoy. This Society was greatly aided by a women’s
association, by which female agents were sent out from England. Several of these had
certificates for midwifery, and possessed a general practical knowledge of medicine, being thus
able to alleviate the sufferings of the native women to a very considerable degree. In 1890 it had
one hundred and six stations in China and Singapore, and employed fifteen ordained
missionaries and medical workers.
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GEDDIE, JOHN [1815-1872] – Pioneer Presbyterian missionary to the New Hebrides. Born in
Scotland his family migrated to Nova Scotia in 1816. He became interested in missions at a very
early age. After ordination he was instrumental in getting his small denomination to undertake a
mission on its own. He became its first missionary, sailing from the USA in January 1847. As
founder of the New Hebrides Mission, he laboured amid great difficulty on the island of
Aneityum. After his death in 1872, a memorial was placed in the mission church with these
words “When he landed in 1848 there were no Christians here, and when he left in 1872 there
were no heathen.”
GRAY, ROBERT [1809-1872] – First Anglican bishop of Cape Town who was consecrated in
1847. He found South African Anglicanism weak and disorganised. Under his leadership it
developed into the Church of the Province of South Africa, an independent, disestablished
province of the Anglican Communion with five dioceses by 1870. However this was not achieved
without difficulty and involved conflict and the case of J.W. Colenso [see 1853] leading to
litigation. Despite poor health Gray travelled widely in his diocese and overseas enlisting recruits
and raising money. He favoured the appointment of missionary bishops to un-evangelised areas
and inspired the formation of the Universities' Mission to Central Africa.
HIEROTHEUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1847-1858] see 1845 and 1858
MASON, LOWELL [1792-1872] – American composer who as an amateur church musician
became perhaps the greatest single influence in Protestant church music in the United States
during the 19th century. He edited and published a great number of collections of hymn tunes
and simple anthems and devoted much of his energy to music education and the betterment of
church music.
MONOD, ADOLPHE [1802-1856] – The greatest French Protestant preacher of the 19th century
who was the leader of a powerful orthodox movement within the Reformed Church and other
churches. At first Monod shunned the Geneva revival promoted by his brother Frederick [see
1832]. Contacts with the Scot, Thomas Erskine [see 1870], led him to conversion and
acceptance of orthodox theology. His greatest influence was reached while pastor of the
prestigious Oratoire Church in Paris [1847-1856]. His published sermons were very popular in
France and abroad.
NEWTON, BENJAMIN WILLS [1807-1899] – Early Plymouth Brethren leader. Born into a
Quaker family he trained at Oxford where he was also influenced by John Darby [see 1845] who
came on a visit. Newton began his ministry in Plymouth and travelled throughout the county
preaching. In 1835 he was used in the conversion of his cousin S.P. Tregelles [see 1857] the
textual critic to whose researches he gave generous financial aid. Newton and Darby differed
over prophetical interpretation and church order and in 1847 Newton was charged with heresy
through some teaching on Christ's humanity. Newton withdrew the doctrine. He ministered for
many years in a chapel at Bayswater. An austere man of Calvinistic views and high personal
honour, Newton influenced many leading ministers of his time.
NITZSCH, KARL IMMANUEL [1787-1868] – German Lutheran theologian who was educated at
Wittenberg and became assistant preacher at the Castle Church there in 1811. In 1822 he was
called to a chair of theology at the University of Bonn and in 1847 succeeded P.K. Marheineke
as professor of theology at Berlin. As a theologian he represented a position that sought to
mediate between the culture of the early 19th century and the tradition of historical Christianity.
He stressed the immediacy of religious feeling as the basis of religious knowledge, uniting
elements of Schleiermacher’s [see 1804] theology with classical Protestant dogmatics.
PARK, EDWARDS AMASA [1808-1900] – American Congregational theologian and professor of
Christian theology at Andover Theological Seminary from 1847 to 1881 where he helped to
found and edit “Bibliotheca Sacra”. Unlike Charles Hodge who fused Edwards to Scottish
philosophy, Park allied divine sovereignty to the “theology of the heart”.
PERRY, CHARLES [1807-1891] – First Church of England bishop of Melbourne, Australia, who
was educated at Cambridge where he was influenced by Charles Simeon [see 1782]. He gained
pastoral experience by creating the new parish of St Paul's in Cambridge where he was vicar for
five years from 1842. In 1847 he was chosen as first bishop of the new colony of Victoria. On his
arrival in Melbourne there were only three colonial chaplains. During the gold rushes of the
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1850’s he found great difficulty in supplying clergy or churches to a vastly increased population.
Perry's evangelical convictions assisted him to involve the laity and his conference of 1851 was
the first its kind in Australia. He resigned from his diocese in 1876 and became a canon of
Llandaff Cathedral. He played an important part in many evangelical societies and in the
foundation of Evangelical theological colleges in Oxford and Cambridge.
QUIMBY, PHINEAS PARKHURST [1802-1866] – Founder of Christian Science and mental
healing movement in America. He abandoned clock making to become a mesmerist after
hearing the lectures of Charles Poyen in 1838. By 1847 he forsook mesmerism for mental
healing, and established a settled practice in Portland Maine in 1849. He felt all disease arose in
the mind and that it came mostly from erroneously attributing illness to physical causes.
Quimby's philosophy became the foundation of Christian Science [see 1866] which was his term
for properly understanding the relation between the divine and the human. Based on his
treatment and manuscripts, his patient and disciple M.B. Eddy [see 1877] practiced his methods
after his death and in 1875 established Christian Science as a distinct religion.
ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM [1816-1853] – Anglican preacher educated at Edinburgh
and Oxford who became vicar of Trinity Chapel Brighton where in the six years before his death
he established a reputation as a preacher equal to that of any man in the 19th century.
Robertson began as an evangelical but the practice of some of those professing this view of
Christianity during his first year as curate did much to drive him from any sympathy with them.
He nonetheless brought evangelical passion to his beliefs and preaching. His views were closely
aligned to the Christian Socialism under F.D. Maurice [see 1838].
SHORT, AUGUSTUS [1802-1883] – He was the first Church of England bishop of Adelaide.
Short was educated at Oxford where he became a tutor in 1829 and was influenced by the
Tractarians. In 1835 he accepted a living in Ravensthorpe and in 1847 became bishop of
Adelaide, Australia. On his arrival he found five clergy and by 1851 all state aid was discontinued
so he reorganised his diocese as a voluntary body in 1855. In 1856 the creation of the diocese of
Perth relieved him of oversight of Western Australia. He retired in 1881 and died in Eastbourne,
England.
1848
BOWEN, GEORGE [1816-1888] – American missionary who was called the “White Saint of
India”. After an irreligious youth he was converted after the death of his sweetheart in 1844.
Appointed to the Marathi Mission by the American Board in 1848 he served in the Bombay area
for 40 years as a self supporting missionary, unmarried and without furlough. In 1872 influenced
by William Taylor [see 1884] he joined the Methodist Church in India. He was editor of the
“Bombay Guardian” and was a great influence on both missionaries and Indians alike.
BRIDGES, MATTHEW [1800-1894] – Hymn Writer. Matthew Bridges was born at Malden,
Essex, on July 14, 1800. He began his literary career with the publication of a poem, Jerusalem
Regained, in 1825; followed by a book entitled The Roman Empire under Constantine the Great,
in 1828, its purpose being to examine "the real origin of certain papal superstitions." As a result
of the influence of John Henry Newman and the Oxford Movement, Bridges became a Roman
Catholic in 1848, and spent the latter part of his life in Canada. He is known for his hymn “Crown
Him with many crowns” He died in Quebec.
DILLMAN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH [1823-1894] – Lutheran biblical scholar and orientalist who
studied at Tubingen. He became interested in the neglected field of language studies of the
Ethiopian Church, and worked on Ethiopic manuscripts in Paris, London, and Oxford, producing
catalogues of the collections at the British Museum and the Bodleian library. He produced the
grammar and lexicon of Ethiopic and editions of Ethiopic texts of the Old Testament. In later life
he wrote commentaries on some Old Testament books.
EDKINS, JOSEPH [1823-1905] – Missionary to China. Edkins was sent by the London
Missionary Society to China in 1848. In 1868 at the invitation of Hung-ren, a convert, he twice
visited the Taiping rebels in Suchow and Nanking to instruct them in the Christian faith. He
visited Peking in 1862 and baptised the first three Protestant converts in that city which then
became a new London Missionary Society base for evangelism. An eminent philologist, Edkins
also wrote extensively about China's religions.
FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE [1817-1875] – Bishop of Brechin who was educated at
Glasgow University before going for three years to work with the East India Company in Madras.
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Returning to Britain in 1844 he graduated from Oxford and was ordained in the Church of
England becoming the bishop of Brechin in 1848. He was a close friend of Edward Pusey [see
1828]. Forbes advocated the doctrine of the Real Presence, a stand which brought censure from
his episcopal colleagues. He was a prolific author.
KIERKEGAARD, SOREN AABY [1813-1855] – Danish philosopher, son of a wealthy Lutheran.
He retired early to devote his life to piety. He had a melancholy disposition inherited from his
father and his writings are individual and introspective. In holy week 1848 Kierkegaard
underwent a second conversion experience and he attacked formal conformist Christianity into
which Protestantism had now fallen.
MURRAY, ANDREW [1828-1917] – South African Dutch Reformed leader educated in Scotland
and Holland and ordained in 1848. Murray served in a number of parishes and was six times
moderator of the Dutch Reformed Church (DRC) in Cape Colony. Theologically conservative he
led opposition to liberalism in the DRC during the 1860s. Mystically inclined Murray was greatly
influence by William Law [see 1714] and led a profound devotional life. He undertook frequent
evangelistic tours in South Africa and addressed the Keswick and Northfield conventions in
1895. Murray was the moving spirit in the missionary awakening which led to DRC missions in
the Transvaal and Malawi and he also supported the South Africa General Mission. He was the
most influential leader of his own church in the 19th century and an evangelical Christian of
international stature.
SUMNER, JOHN BIRD – Archbishop of Canterbury [1848-1862]. He was born at Kenilworth,
Warwickshire and educated at Eton College and Cambridge University. In 1802 he became a
master at Eton and was ordained the following year. After being a minister of the Durham
diocese for some years, he was consecrated bishop of Chester in 1828. During his episcopate
many churches and schools were built in the diocese. He was a prolific author whose writings
were much appreciated by the Evangelical party to which he belonged. His best known writings
are his Treatise on the Records of Creation and the Moral Attributes of the Creator [1816],
and The Evidence of Christianity derived from its Nature and Reception [1821]. In 1848 he was
appointed archbishop of Canterbury and in this capacity he dealt impartially with the different
church parties. In the well-known Gorham Case he came into conflict with Bishop Henry
Phillpotts of Exeter (1778-1869), who accused him of supporting heresy and refused to
communicate with him. He was president of the Canterbury Association that founded
Christchurch, New Zealand. He succeeded William Howley [see 1828] and was succeeded by
Charles Thomas Longley [see 1862].
TYRRELL, WILLIAM [1807-1879] – First bishop of Newcastle, Australia. Tyrrell was educated at
Cambridge and ordained in 1833 becoming the vicar of Beauleiu in Hampshire in 1839. In 1847
when W.G. Broughton [see 1836] divided the diocese of Australia, Tyrrell became bishop of the
northern part of eastern Australia based at Newcastle. He arrived in 1848 and found only eleven
clergy to cover his vast diocese of over 20,000 sq miles. In 1859 the diocese of Brisbane was
separated from Newcastle and eight years later after a long delay the diocese of Grafton and
Armidale took the northern part of New South Wales from Tyrrell's diocese. He was very
supportive of his clergy and active in building churches.
1849
ALFORD, HENRY [1810-1871] – Dean of Canterbury who showed early precociousness by
writing Latin odes and a History of the Jews before the age of ten. In 1829 he went to Cambridge
and became a vicar in 1835. He was chiefly known for his edition of the Greek New Testament
[1849-1861]. He also wrote a number of hymns including “Come ye thankful people come” and
was the first editor of "Contemporary Review".
FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM [1814-1863] – English hymn writer. Although his upbringing was
Calvinistic he was influenced at Oxford by J.H. Newman and although he was ordained in the
Church of England in 1830 he became a Roman Catholic in 1845. In 1849 he started a branch of
the Oratory of St Philip Neri in London which developed into the Brompton Oratory. He wrote
many devotional books and several collections of verse and was an ardent propagandist for the
Roman Catholic Church. He also wrote a number of hymns which were published in the Roman
Catholic Westminster hymnal.
FRANZELIN, JOHANNES BAPTIST [1816-1886] – Roman Catholic scholar trained by the
Franciscans who entered a Jesuit order in 1834. He taught for six years in Austrian Poland, then
studied theology at Rome and Louvain and was ordained in 1849. He worked in the German
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College at Rome and lectured in Oriental languages. He was papal theologian at Vatican I and
was made cardinal in 1876.
HARMS, LUDWIG [1808-1865] – Mission organiser in Germany who was converted to a strongly
biblical Christianity in 1830. Due to his interest in foreign nations he assisted in forming the North
German Mission in 1836. Although his parishioners were simple peasants they founded
missionary training school in 1849 and sent a group of missionary colonists to Ethiopia in 1853.
Forbidden to land there, they relocated to Natal and established a settlement named
Hermannsburg. Harms never left Germany but continually fostered the work at home and
dispatched more agricultural missionaries to open up new stations elsewhere in South Africa
where they followed a Lutheran rule.
HAWKS, ANNIE SHERWOOD [1835-1918]. – Poet and Hymn Writer. Hawks’ poems first began
appearing in newspapers when she was 14 years old. She married Charles H. Hawks in 1857.
They lived in Brooklyn, New York, and attended the Hanson Place Baptist Church, where Robert
Lowry was pastor. When her husband died in 1888, she moved to Bennington, Vermont to live
with her daughter and son-in-law (W. E. Putnam). She wrote 400 hymns in her life, mostly for
use in Sunday schools, her most well known one being “I need Thee every hour”
LINCOLN, WILLIAM [1825-1888] – English preacher who was converted at 17 partly through the
reading of Doddridge’s “Rise and Progress of Religion”. He studied with missionary service in
mind but abandoned that plan because of poor health. He was ordained in 1849 and after a
period as a curate was appointed minister of Beresford Chapel in Walworth where his preaching
was very popular. He became disillusioned with the established church and continued to minister
in the form of a Brethren assembly.
PALMER, WILLIAM [1803-1885] – Educated in Dublin and Oxford he was brought into contact
with J. Keble, Froude and J.H. Newman and other Tractarian leaders. He was a rigid High
Churchman and strongly opposed both Roman Catholic and Dissenters. Palmer was prebendary
of Salisbury from 1849 to 1858 and assumed the title of baronet on his father's death in 1865.
PUNSHON, WILLIAM MORLEY [1824-1881] – Methodist minister who was born, educated, and
ordained in 1849 in England, and served there for 18 years before going to the Metropolitan
Church in Toronto in 1868. A man of moving eloquence he had a vision of Canadian Methodism
united from Atlantic to Pacific and was a prime mover behind the negotiations of the unification
which led in 1874 to the emergence of the Methodist Church of Canada.
REUSCH, FRANZ HEINRICH [1825-1900] – Old Catholic theologian who was educated at a
number of German universities. He was ordained as a priest in 1849 and taught Old Testament
exegesis at Bonn from 1854 and as professor from 1861. Reusch was a close friend of J.J.I. von
Dollinger [see 1830] and strongly opposed the Vatican Council decision on papal infallibility
being present at the Nuremberg Declaration [see 1870]. He was excommunicated in 1872 and
ministered at an Old Catholic church in Bonn. In 1873 he became rector of Bonn University and
retired in 1878 and wrote many books on Old Testament subjects and modern church history.
WARNER SUSAN [1819-1885], WARNER ANNA BARTLETT [1820-1915] – The Warner sisters
wrote famous children's Christian songs. Susan wrote “Jesus Bids us Shine” while Anna was
author of the first verse of the well-known children's song “Jesus Loves Me, This I Know”, which
she wrote at Susan's request. Both sisters became devout Christians in the late 1830s. After
their conversion, they became confirmed members of the Mercer Street Presbyterian church,
although in later life, Susan became drawn into Methodist circles. The sisters also held Bible
studies for the West Point cadets. When they were on military duty, the cadets would sing "Jesus
loves me." The popularity of the song was so great that upon Warner's death, she was buried in
Arlington National Cemetery. She was the first civilian to be given this honour. Her sister Anna
also was buried there on her death. The Warners could trace her lineage back to the Puritan
Pilgrims on both sides. Their father was Henry Warner, a New York City lawyer originally from
New England, and their mother was Anna Bartlett, from a wealthy, fashionable family in New
York's Hudson Square. When they were young children their mother died, and her father's sister
Fanny came to live with the Warners. Although Henry Warner had been a successful lawyer, he
lost most of his fortune in the Panic of 1837 and in subsequent lawsuits and poor investments.
The family had to leave their mansion at St. Mark's Place in New York and move to an old
Revolutionary War-era farmhouse on Constitution Island, near West Point, NY. In 1849, seeing
little change in their family's financial situation, Susan and Anna started writing to earn money.
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They were also prolific writers.
1850
ARNOT, WILLIAM [1808-1875] – Scottish preacher and author who studied in Glasgow gaining
distinction particularly in Greek. He opened a new church in Main Street Glasgow having been
ejected from the Free Church in 1850. He was called to the Free High Church in Edinburgh
where he ministered until his death. "Illustrations of the book of Proverbs" [1857 - 1858] were
among the many books he wrote.
BLACKWELL, ANTOINETTE LOUISA BROWN [1825-1921] – Reformer and one of the first
ordained women in America who graduated from Oberlin in 1847 completing the course in 1850.
Refused a preaching license she finally became pastor of the Congregational Church of South
Butler New York but resigned four years later because of theological problems. She became a
Unitarian and circuit speaker on temperance and women’s rights.
DUPANLOUP, FELIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT [1802-1878] – Bishop of Orleans. He was educated
in Paris and ordained in 1825. In 1850 as bishop of Orleans he entered the major quarrels
besetting the Church of France and initiated many diocesan charities and inspired his
subordinates. With the Italian war he moved to the forefront of the European politico-religious
scene, writing brochures and defending papal temporal power, but he won disfavour at Vatican I
Council. He was elected to the French Academy and was accepted even among unbelievers in
French society, vigorously promoting education for women.
ELLERTON, JOHN [1826-1893] – English hymn writer. Educated at Cambridge where he was
influenced by F.D. Maurice [see 1838] but did not identify itself with any party in the Church of
England. He held several appointments from 1850 with his last living being at White Roding
Essex. He composed 86 hymns which he refused to copyright including “The day Thou gavest
Lord is ended”.
GEYMONAT, PAOLO [1827-1907] – Waldensian evangelist and scholar who graduated from
theological school in Geneva and ordained pastor in 1850. His earnest desire to spread the
gospel in Italy led him to work as an evangelist in Rome, Florence, Turin, and Genoa. In 1855 he
was invited with G.P. Revel to start a Waldensian school of theology at Torre Pellice which he
carried out with success amid many difficulties. After the unification of most of Italy in 1860 he
moved the school to Florence where he lectured until 1902. He attempted during his lifetime to
solve the conflict between the Waldensian Church with its rigid organisation and the other Italian
denominations.
HUGHES, JOHN JOSEPH [1797-1864] – Roman Catholic archbishop of New York who was
born in Ireland and went to the USA in 1870. He was ordained in 1826 and became assistant
bishop in New York in 1837. He founded St John's College in 1841 and became the bishop in
New York in 1842 and archbishop in 1850. He organised the parochial church system of New
York and freed it from public and lay control. Early the Civil War he was successful as the envoy
of the United States government in winning sympathy for the Union cause in France, Ireland, and
Italy.
MACDONALD, GEORGE [1824-1905] – Scottish novelist and poet who became minister of the
Congregational Church at Arundel Sussex in 1850. For expressing views on final judgement that
left some hope for the heathen he was opposed by his deacons and had his salary reduced. By
1853 the situation had become intolerable and thereafter he supported himself and his wife by
lecturing, tutoring, writing, and occasional preaching. Though his health was poor and his
poverty great he had a deep faith in God and reacted against the Calvinism of his day but not
violently. He never became liberal in his theology. He had great influence on C.S. Lewis [see
1941].
STRANG JAMES JESSE [1813-1856] – Mormon leader who was born of Baptist parents in New
York. Strang studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1836 He became interested in
Mormonism through his wife's brother-in-law Moses Smith and was converted to the movement
through Joseph and Hyrum Smith in 1844. When the former was killed Strang claimed to be the
successor, eventually forming the Mormon sect known by his name in St James Big Beaver
Island Lake Michigan where he was crowned king in 1850. He announced a revelation
proclaiming plural marriage as a divine institution in 1850 taking four wives himself. He made
many enemies and was finally assassinated in 1856.
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STROSSMAYER, JOSEPH GEORGE [1815-1905] – Roman Catholic bishop who was ordained
for the priesthood in 1838 and nine years later became professor of canon law in Vienna. In
1850 he was elevated to the bishopric of Bosnien. At Vatican Council I he opposed papal
infallibility and was the last bishop to publish the decrees of the Council in December 1872. In
spite of his German heritage, Strossmayer was an enthusiastic pan-Slavist which brought him
into conflict with Vienna. The pan-Slavic movement he advocated resulted in the formation of
Yugoslavia after World War I.
WISEMAN, NICHOLAS PATRICK STEPHEN [1802-1865] – English cardinal and first archbishop
of Westminster [1850-1865] who was chiefly responsible for the re-establishment of the Roman
Catholic hierarchy in England. Wiseman was Anglo-Irish by birth and rector of the English
College in Rome [1828-1840] and began promoting the restoration based on hopes of Catholic
revival and conversion of England, prompted by the Oxford Movement. He returned to England
as the assistant bishop in the Midlands and undertook a special mission to Pius IX to urge
church restoration which occurred in 1850. Pius IX named him cardinal and first English Catholic
primate. He promoted Ultramontane principles and practices, the establishment of English
branches of religious orders, and organised basic Catholic ministries among the newly immigrant
Irish. Wiseman's enthusiastic announcement in October 1850 caused popular anti-Catholicism
including a statement by Prime Minister Lord John Russell that it was “papal aggression”.
YOUNG, BRIGHAM [1801-1877] – Founder of the Mormon’s settlements in Utah. Young had
little schooling but great leadership ability. He joined Joseph Smith's Mormons in 1832 and led
the group to Kirtland, Ohio becoming an apostle in 1835 and chief of the Twelve Apostles in
1838. He led the Mormons from Missouri to Utah in 1847 and organised the state of Deseret. In
1850 he became governor of the Territory of Utah and did most of the planning for the Mormon
Temple in Salt Lake City and founded the University of Utah.
1851-1860 AD
1851
DA COSTA, ISAAK [1798-1860] – Dutch poet and theologian who was born into a wealthy
Jewish family in Amsterdam. He was, through the persistence of Willem Bilderdijk [see 1795]
converted from an admiration of Voltaire to fervent Christianity. He had a profound influence on
the subsequent religious history of the Netherlands. He edited the poems of Bilderjidk in 16
volumes. One of his own collected works, The Four Witnesses in 1851, compiled over many
years, was first published after Strauss's Life of Jesus had begun to make an impact in Holland.
GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS [1812-1900] – Swiss reformed theologian and exegete. He became
chaplain to the king of Prussia, and professor of biblical exegesis [1851-1873] in Neuchatel and
then professor of New Testament exegesis in the same city [1873-1887]. He was one of the
most influential Reformed scholars of his day, his work being translated into various languages.
He defended the orthodox Christian position against a growing theological liberalism in academic
Protestant circles.
HUNG, HSIU-CH’UAN [1813-1864] – Leader of the Taiping rebellion. He was given the outlines
of Christianity written by Liang A-fah [see 1814] but because he had no teaching in the faith he
began to teach a mixture of Chinese beliefs and the doctrines of the Christian faith and adopted
much Christian teaching and practice. Being also egocentric he assumed the imperial title in
1851 and led a peasants uprising against the Manchu rule declaring that he was to set up the
“Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace”. The group degenerated and was finally suppressed by
foreign troops led by Lt. Col. C. G. [Chinese] Gordon. Hung committed suicide.
STOWE, HARRIET ELIZABETH BEECHER [1811-1896] – Abolitionist and author born in
Connecticut she studied and taught at Hartford. When her father Lyman Beecher [see 1832]
became president of the Lane Theological Seminary in 1832 she went with him and married
Professor Calvin E. Stowe in 1836. They sheltered fugitive slaves in their home until they moved
in 1850 to Brunswick Maine. Uncle Tom's Cabin or Life Among the Lowly appeared in the
magazine National Era in 1851 and as the book in the following year. It promoted strong
antislavery sentiment. She produced many books subsequently.
THORNWELL, JAMES HENLEY [1812-1862] – Presbyterian minister and scholar, educated at
South Carolina College who engaged in pastoral work for a few years before becoming professor
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at that college which was later the University of South Carolina. He became president in 1851
before taking up a position as professor of systematic theology at Columbia Theological
Seminary. He helped to establish the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States during the
Civil War.
WESTCOTT, BROOKE FOSS [1825-1901] – Bishop of Durham who attended King Edward’s
School Birmingham where he was much influenced by the headmaster James Prince Lee. In
1844 he went to Trinity College Cambridge and became a fellow there in 1849. His pupils
included J.B. Lightfoot [see 1879], E.W. Benson [see 1882], and F.J.A. Hort [see 1881]. He was
ordained in 1851 and then went to teach at Harrow School. Westcott became canon of
Peterborough in 1869 and the following year he became professor of divinity in Cambridge. Here
he personally taught early church history and Christian doctrine and was also prominent in the
formation of the Cambridge Mission to Delhi and the founding of the Cambridge Clergy Training
School later known as Westcott House. In 1890 the age of 66 he was appointed to succeed
Lightfoot as bishop of Durham. He showed a deep concern for the social and industrial problems
of the dioceses and often spoke to the miners. In 1892 he helped to settle a coal strike. He is
best remembered for his work with Hort in establishing a text of the New Testament [1881] by
making a scientific evaluation of the vast mass of manuscripts. It was intended that Lightfoot,
Westcott, and Hort, should between them write a complete commentary on the New Testament,
and he completed his share apart from the Book of Revelation. Westcott’s knowledge of the
early Fathers’ commentaries was unrivalled and his exegesis and exposition were always
marked by great theological and spiritual depth.
WESTERN TEXT – The name given by Westcott [see above] and Hort [see 1881] to a type of
text of the Greek New Testament which had special affinities with the West. Its chief
representatives are Codex Bezae [D] for Acts and the Gospels and Codex Claromontanus [Dp]
for the Epistles, both of which the text is written in Greek and Latin, the Old Latin version, and
the Curetonian Syriac. Most of the Latin Fathers made use of the Western form of the text in
their quotations. The characteristics which Westcott and Hort found in it included an apparent
freedom to change things in order to bring out the meaning better which might involve the
omission or insertion of words, clauses, or even whole sentences.
1852
BLUMHARDT, JOHANN CHRISTOPH [1805-1880] – German evangelical leader who studied at
Tubingen and became a tutor in 1830 at the missionary training centre in Basle which had been
founded by his uncle Christian Gottleib Blumhardt. He was involved with a revival in Mottlingen
where he was pastor in 1845. He resigned from pastoral work in 1852 and acquired a centre at
Bad Boll, for sufferers of all types of illness, as a Christian ministry.
CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN [1815-1857] – Biblical scholar and author who as vicar at
Axminster combined with J S Howson [see 1867] to write “The Life and Epistles of St Paul”
which was an important book for introducing English speaking people to the 1st century
environment in which Paul worked.
RUOTSALAINEN, PAAVO [1777-1852] – Finnish Pietist leader who was the son of a farmer. He
experienced a personal revival as a youth in a Pietistic sense but spiritual discernment came
later when a blacksmith told him, “Lacking one thing you lack everything, the inner knowledge of
Christ”. This sentence became a motto for the Pietistic Movement. He succeeded in uniting two
branches of the Pietistic revival in Finland and developing what is now the biggest and perhaps
the most significant movement in Finland which still influences large groups of people.
Ruotsalainen has influenced Christian life in Finland more than anyone else in that country's
modern church history.
1853
COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM [1814-1883] – First Anglican bishop of Natal whose theology was
liberal. He, unlike most missionaries, favoured baptising polygamists and respected African
beliefs and customs. He questioned the historicity and authorship of the Pentateuch and Joshua.
He was deposed but reinstated on appeal to the Privy Council. His positive contribution to
missionary work and bible scholarship was degraded by an inadequate theology, an unattractive
personality and the conservatism of his critics.
DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM [1829-1895] – Congregational preacher who graduated in London
and started his career as a schoolmaster but soon turned to the Ministry becoming in 1853
pastor of Carr’s Lane Chapel Birmingham where for several decades he exerted a powerful
influence upon the religious educational and social life of the city. He is remembered particularly
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for his works on the atonement 1875 in which he saw in the death of our Lord the sole ground of
man's reconciliation with God. He strenuously opposed extreme Calvinism and the High Church
movement. He co-operated in revival meetings with D. L. Moody.
FAIRBAIRN, PATRICK [1805-1874] – Scottish theologian who studied at Edinburgh University
and after ordination served in parishes in Orkney, Glasgow and East Lothian where he continued
as minister of the Free Church after the 1843 disruption. In 1853 he went to his church's
Aberdeen College as professor of divinity and three years later became principal of Glasgow
College, which post he held until his death. He was a member of the Old Testament Revision
Company. He wrote a definitive work “The Typology of Scripture’, which was reprinted in 1953,
as well as other publications.
GUICCIARDINI, PIERO (Count) [1806-1886] – Italian Protestant leader and a descendant of
Francisco Guicciardni [see 1516]. Contact with the Swiss Protestant Church in Florence and
study of the Bible led to his conversion in 1836, a date which he desired to be remembered on
his tomb. Actively involved in preparing religious reform, in the reaction and repression after
1848 he was imprisoned and exiled with many others, and took refuge in Britain. Here he came
into contact with the Open Brethren. At the invitation of the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge he collaborated in a revision of the Italian Bible which had been translated by Diodati.
The Guicciardini Bible of 1853 remained for a long time the best Italian translation. In 1854 he
returned to Italy with the purpose of preaching the gospel to his compatriots with PietrocolaRossetti [see 1857]. The communities formed were called Free Italian Churches and by 1870
there were more than 35 scattered throughout Italy.
HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB [1805-1882] – Swiss German Reformed theologian who studied in
Berlin where he was a pupil of F. Schleiermacher [see 1804] and J. Neander [see 1813]. While
professor of historical theology at Lausanne he authored several works on the Zwinglian and
Calvinist Reformation. In 1854 he was named professor of Reformed theology at Erlangen and in
1848 he was invited to undertake the editorship of a comprehensive religious encyclopaedia
from the Protestant perspective to counter a Catholic work then being published. The editing of
this 22 volume encyclopaedia commenced in 1853 was his most significant endeavour. Herzog
himself contributed 529 articles to it.
MONSELL, JOHN SAMUEL BEWLEY [1811-1875] – Anglican Minister and Hymn Writer. Son of
the Archdeacon of Derry, Monsell was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating in 1832.
He married Anne Waller in 1835. Their eldest son Thomas died on the way to the Crimean War
in 1855, aged 18, in a shipwreck off Italy; their eldest daughter Elizabeth Isabella died in Torquay
at the age of 28 in 1861. He held a number of appointments commencing with a curacy in Derry,
Vicar at Egham near Windsor [1853-1870], Rector of St. Nicholas’, Guildford and Chaplain to
Queen Victoria 1870-75. Monsell himself died after being struck by falling masonry from the roof
of St. Nicholas' church, Guildford, which was being renovated. He was a prolific hymnist
publishing eleven volumes of poems and about 300 hymns. His hymns which are currently sung
include “Fight the good fight with all thy might” and “Worship the Lord in the beauty of holiness”
PARKER, JOSEPH [1830-1902] – English Congregational preacher who was ordained in 1853
as minister of the Banbury Congregational Church though his formal education ceased when he
was 16. He eventually became pastor of City Temple London where he served from 1874 to his
death. Preaching twice Sunday and every Thursday morning he earned a reputation alongside
Spurgeon and Liddon. His theology was the whole system of evangelical truth enshrined in the
Apostles Creed. During 1885-1892 he preached through the Bible and these discourses were
published in the 25 volumes of “The People's Bible”.
REES, WILLIAM [1802-1883] – Welsh Congregational minister, author, and social leader, whose
only education was a few terms of the local school. He spent his early years as a farm labourer
and shepherd but this did not prevent him from obtaining a large amount of literary culture that
was available to him in the Welsh language. He became a Congregational minister, serving from
1831-1853 in a number of areas including the Tabernacle at Liverpool, and Salem Liverpool from
1853 until his retirement in 1875. Rees provided a most vivid example of the way in which
evangelical Christianity in its Calvinistic form inspired cultural and political activity of a radical
kind in 19th-century Wales.
1854
BARKER, FREDERIC [1808-1882] – Bishop of Sydney [1854-1882] who was an English
clergyman educated at Cambridge. His service under Archbishop Sumner led in 1854 to his
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being appointed as bishop of Sydney where he re-established evangelical tradition in the
diocese. He founded Moore College in 1856, the oldest theological college in Australia. During
his 28 year term of service he saw the division of his vast diocese and a considerable
strengthening of the parish system.
BORTHWICK, JANE [1813-1897] – Scottish publisher of hymns, mainly of German origin.
Staunch supporter with her sister Sarah of the Free Church of Scotland. The sister’s translations
represented relatively more hymns for the Christian life and fewer for the Christian year than
Catherine Winkworth [see1855].
DUFFIELD, GEORGE [1818-1888] – Pastor and Hymn Writer. He was the son of a Presbyterian
Minister and born at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He graduated at Yale College, and at the Union
Theological Seminary, New York. From 1840 to 1847 he was a Presbyterian Pastor at Brooklyn;
1847 to 1852, at Bloomfield, New Jersey; 1852 to 1861, at Philadelphia; 1861 to 1865, at Adrian,
Michigan; 1865 to 1869, at Galesburg, Illinois; 1869, at Saginaw City, Michigan; and from 1869
at Ann Arbor and Lansing, Michigan. His most famous hymn was “Stand up, stand up for Jesus”
.The origin of this hymn is as follows:— "I caught its inspiration from the dying words of that
noble young clergyman, Rev. Dudley Atkins Tyng, rector of the Epiphany Church, Philadelphia,
who died about 1854. His last words were, ‘Tell them to stand up for Jesus: now let us sing a
hymn.' He had been much persecuted in those pro-slavery days for his persistent course in
pleading the cause of the oppressed, it was thought that these words had a peculiar significance
in his mind; as if he had said, ‘Stand up for Jesus in the person of the downtrodden slave.'
FISHER, GEORGE PARK [1827-1909] – Church historian who graduated from Brown University
in 1847 and continued his studies at Yale Divinity School as well as in Germany. From 1854 to
1861 he was a pastor, and then joined the faculty at the Yale Divinity School, where he became
professor of ecclesiastical history. He was a major author.
HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN [1827 – 1910]. English painter who led the Pre-Raphaelite
brotherhood grouping of the young British artists. In search of a serious subject matter, Hunt
himself practised what he preached by going to Egypt and Palestine to paint biblical scenes with
authentic local settings and types of people. Holman Hunt helped break the conventional
iconographic pictures of Christ in paintings like his well known “The Light of the World” in 1854
which appealed to the new middle-class patrons of the arts.
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION – In 1854 Pius IX in a papal bull Ineffabilis Deus stated that “from
the first moment of the conception, the Blessed Virgin Mary was, by the singular grace and
privilege of Almighty God, and in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, Saviour of Mankind, kept
free from all stain of Original Sin”. This dogma is based on the belief that a person is truly
conceived when the soul is created and infused into the body. At the moment of her animation
Mary was given sanctifying grace which excluded her from the stain of original sin. Mary was
redeemed at conception by Christ in anticipation of His atoning death. At the same time the state
of original sanctity, innocence, and justice was conferred upon her. Mary was therefore sinless
from the moment of her conception, although this did not exempt her from sorrow, sickness, and
death, consequent upon Adam's sin. No direct or categorical proof of this dogma can be brought
forward from the Bible. Protestants have always rejected the doctrine.
INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN [1833-1899] – American politician and agnostic who was
admitted to the bar in 1854 and was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress in 1860. Ingersoll
received as much as $5000 for some of his famous antireligious speeches. His main attack was
directed against the authority of the Bible and its alleged inaccuracies. He gave titles to his
famous speeches such as “The Gods”, “Ghosts”, “Skulls” and “Some Mistakes of Moses”. Few
rivalled his eloquence.
KIRELLOS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1854-1861] see 1810 and 1862 Despite his
relatively short papacy, he is regarded as the "Father of Reform" of the Coptic Orthodox Church
in modern times. He is credited for establishing a great printing house and printing many Church
books. While abbot of the monastery of St. Antonios, he was sent to Ethiopia at the request of
the Pope to mediate between Abuna Salama and his opponents in the Ethiopian Church, as well
as "prevent the sympathies for the Catholic missionaries and their teaching from increasing
further." As Patriarch, Cyril returned to Ethiopia at the request of viceroy Sa'id of Egypt, the first
recorded visit by the head of the Coptic church to that country. Emperor Tewodros II, whom
Trimingham described as "unable to conceive how a Christian prelate could consent to act as
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the envoy of a Muslim prince", received Pope Cyril unfavourably in December 1856. Sven
Rubenson records that when the Patriarch expressed an interest in reviewing the Emperor's
army, Tewodros suspected him of being a spy, and confined him with Abuna Salama to their
house; only after the Ethiopian clergy intervened, were both men released. During a flare-up of
tempers between the Abuna and Emperor in November of the following year, which led to the
Abuna excommunicating Emperor Tewodros, Patriarch Cyril lifted the interdict against the
wishes of Abuna Salama and left Ethiopia soon after.
LOWRY, ROBERT [1826-1899] – Baptist Pastor and Hymn Writer. Lowry was an American
professor of literature, a Baptist minister and composer of gospel hymns. After graduating from
Lewisburg in 1854 he was ordained and had charge of churches in a number of places including
New York; Brooklyn; West Chester, Pennsylvania; and New Jersey. In 1869 he returned to
Lewisburg as a faculty member and later went on to become its chancellor. From 1880 until 1886
he was president of the New Jersey Baptist Sunday School Union. He is most remembered as a
composer of gospel music and a hymn writer including "Low in the Grave He Lay". Despite his
success as a hymn writer, it was as a preacher that Lowry would have preferred to be
recognised. He once stated: "Music, with me has been a side issue, I would rather preach a
gospel sermon to an appreciative audience than write a hymn.
LUDLOW, JOHN MALCOLM FORBES [1821-1911] – Christian social reformer who was
educated in France where he was influenced by socialists and social Catholics. He became a
lawyer in England and at Lincoln's Inn came into contact with F.D. Maurice [see 1838]. From
Paris, Ludlow wrote a letter to Maurice insisting that “the new socialism must become
Christianised”. The Chartist fiasco of 1848 united him with Maurice and Charles Kingsley [see
1842] into the Christian Socialist movement, but it was Ludlow who was the real leader and who
supplied the social ideas, co-operative associations being one of his main contributions. He had
wide contacts with the trade unions and workers leaders; and had a large role in the Industrial
and Provident Societies Act [1852]. Ludlow conceived the scheme of the Working Man's College
which he and Maurice opened in 1854 and at which he taught in many years. He believed in
industrial emancipation as well as education.
MARIOLATRY – The worship of Mary. The term is used critically by Protestants but strictly
speaking the Roman Catholic Church does not encourage worship which is due to God alone but
special veneration. References to Mary in the New Testament do nothing to encourage such a
cult but it seems to have come unofficially into the church in the fourth century. Pressure rising
from this popular devotion led to the definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of
Mary in 1854 and that of her Assumption in 1950. Therefore in the Roman Catholic Church she
was thus officially provided with a beginning and end of life parallel to that of Jesus and terms
like Our Lady and the idea of her as mediatrix of redemption have helped to increase her
importance as an object of devotion.
MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN [1808-1884] – Danish bishop and theologian. As a student he
was impressed by N.F.S.Grundtvig [see 1825] and later on a tour study tour of Germany he was
greatly influenced by Hegel and the Roman Catholic philosopher of religion Father Baarder. He
was appointed professor of systematic theology at Copenhagen University in 1840 and from
1854 till his death he was the bishop of Zealand. Martensen exerted extraordinary influence
upon his students. In his writings he made a strong attempt to bring about a harmonious
synthesis between faith and thought, theology and philosophy, Christianity and culture. Unlike
most other church people at this time he displayed some understanding of socialism and the
legitimacy of the claims of the workers.
NEVIUS, JOHN LIVINGSTON [1829-1893] – American missionary to China who was educated
at Princeton Seminary and went to China in 1854 under the Presbyterian Mission Board serving
mainly in the Shantung area. He is best known for the “Nevius method” of self support and
propagation. In principle there were four areas [1] Each Christian should support himself by his
own work and be a witness for Christ by life and work in his own neighbourhood [2] Church
methods and machinery should be developed only so far as the indigenous Christians could take
responsibility for these. [3] The church should select for full time work those who seem best
qualified and whom it was able to support [4] Churches were to be built in a native style and by
the Christians from their own resources. The Korean missionaries adopted this approach, and a
vigorous church rapidly developed which maintained an independent spirit virtually unmatched in
the non-Western world.
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PUSEY, PHILIP EDWARD [1830-1880] – English scholar, the only son of E.B. Pusey [see1828]
who was both deaf and crippled. He graduated from Oxford in 1854 but his physical defects
prevented his ordination and he resolved to devote his life in helping his father. This he did by
preparing a critical edition of the Peshitta and the works of Cyril of Alexandria. Despite his illhealth he pursued his studies with exemplary thoroughness visiting libraries throughout Europe
and the Near East.
SAPHIR, ADOLPH [1831-1891] – Presbyterian minister born in Hungary, the son of a Jewish
merchant who with the rest of his family were converted to Christianity by the Jewish Mission of
the Church of Scotland. He studied at the Free Church College in Edinburgh as well as at the
universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow and served as a missionary to the Jews in Hamburg in
1854. He also held ministries in English Presbyterian churches, and throughout his lifetime
maintained a great interest in the conversion of Jews and other non-Christians in Europe,
serving in many capacities in various missionary agencies. He authored a number of books.
ZELLER, EDUARD [1814-1908] – German Protestant theologian and philosopher. A student and
later son-in-law of F.C. Baur [see 1845]. Zeller first taught theology at Tubingen then moved to
Marburg via Bern after which he turned to philosophy. He published in 1854 “The Acts of the
Apostles according to its Contents and Origin Critically Investigated” where he combined the
concepts of Baur with the mystical approach of Strauss calling into question the historical
authenicity of Acts.
1855
BERSIER, EUGENE [1831-1889] – Swiss pastor and leader of the Free Reformed Church in
France from 1855-1877 who eventually persuaded the group to reunite with the Reformed
Church. His theological studies in Geneva, Gittingen and Halle was followed by a ministry in
French churches from 1855-77. He was also the author of a number of books regarding
Protestants.
BURNS, JAMES DRUMMOND [1823-1864] – He was a Scotch Presbyterian minister who was
born in Edinburgh and was a graduate of the University of Edinburgh. In 1845 he became a
pastor of the Free Church of Scotland at Dunblane. In 1848 he took charge of a Presbyterian
Church at Funchal, Madeira. In 1855 he became pastor of a Presbyterian Church in London. He
was the author of about one hundred hymns as well as a translator of German hymns however
only a few of which have come into common use. His most famous hymn was “Hushed was the
evening hymn”.
COX, FRANCES ELIZABETH [1812-1897] – Translator of German hymns who ranks next to
John Wesley [see 1738] and Catherine Winkworth [see below] in the quality of her translations of
German hymns and the extent to which they are still sung.
CYRIL VII – Patriarch of Constantinople [1855-1860] who succeeded Anthimus VI [see 1845].
There is no additional information readily available.
JOHN, GRIFFITHS [1831-1912] – Co-founder with Robert Wilson of the first Protestant mission
in Inland China. He was appointed to China by the London Missionary Society in 1855. The first
mission was established in Hankow six years later. John travelled widely from Hankow through
Hupeh and Hunan, up the Yangtze River into Szechwan, though no work could be started there
until 1888, when a Chinese evangelist took up residence in Chungking. John also prepared a
translation of the New Testament in Mandarin and started on the Old Testament for the Bible
societies. In 1901 the London Missionary Society under John’s leadership established several
stations in the long-resistant province of Hunan. He was undoubtedly one of the five most
prominent missionaries in China in the 19th century.
KUENEN, ABRAHAM [1828-1891] – Netherlands Protestant theologian who was professor of
New Testament, ethics, and Old Testament interpretation at Leyden from 1855. He was the
earliest expositor of the so-called “literary-historical school” of which Wellhausen is generally
claimed as the chief exponent.
WALKER, MARY JANE DECK [1816-1878]. Mary Walker wrote the lyrics for “Jesus, I Will Trust
Thee” and had it published in 1855 in her husband’s hymnal called “Psalms and Hymns for
Public and Social Worship.” Her brother, James George Deck, is a well-known hymnist who lived
in New Zealand. Several of Mary Jane Walker’s hymns appeared as leaflets. Ira David Sankey
set to music the leaflet hymn “Jesus I Will Trust Thee”.
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WHITFIELD, FREDERICK [1829-1904] – Anglican minister and hymn writer. Frederick Whitfield
was born and reared in England and graduated from Trinity College in Dublin, Ireland. He
studied for the ministry and was ordained in the Church of England. He was first appointed to
parishes in Yorkshire, and later served at Greenwich near London. He wrote the hymn “There is
a name I love to hear” in 1855 while still a student at Trinity College. In less than ten years after
its first printing, the hymn began to appear in hymnals in America. The refrain is not part of
Whitfield's original hymn, but was later added by some unknown person. Characterized by
simplicity and a lilting style, the tune used here is typical of camp meeting songs that emerged in
America in the early 19th century.
WINKWORTH, CATHERINE [1829-1878] – Translator of hymns. She was a pioneer in women's
higher education and prepared the ground for the University College of Bristol. In 1853 she first
met C.C.J. von Bunsen [see 1841] whose publication she drew upon for her translation of
German hymns over 300 of which were published.
YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION – This was originally two separate
organisations both founded in Britain in 1855 by Emma Roberts and Lady Kinnaird. They united
in 1877 and the first World Committee of YWCA met in London in 1894. Like the YMCA it has
spread with internationalism and an interdenominational character remaining a keynote of the
organisation. It has the blue triangle as its symbol.
1856
BONAR, ANDREW ALEXANDER [1810-1892] – Scottish Free Church preacher who was the
seventh son of a solicitor and with his brothers John and Horatius [see 1883] made a famous trio
of ministers. He was involved in the Disruption of 1843 and started a new Free Church in
Glasgow in 1856. He was also a member of a Mission of Enquiry to Palestine in 1839 as he was
concerned with evangelisation of the Jews.
BROWN, JOHN [1800-1859] – Controversial leader of part of the abolitionist movement who
engaged in many business ventures in several states and was the defendant in a number of
legal battles resulting from his failure to meet financial requirements. In 1854 he organised
guerrilla warfare activity in Kansas to get rid of slavery. Believing himself to be divinely appointed
to destroy the supporters of slavery he led a group of six to commit the Pottawatomie Massacre
of 1856 where five pro slavery men were seized in their homes at night and hacked to death. In
1859 he tried to set up a revolutionary government by force when he attacked the arsenal at
Harpers Ferry with twenty one followers but their efforts were easily crushed and he was
convicted of treason and hanged.
CLOSE, FRANCIS [1797-1882] – Dean of Carlisle who as incumbent at Cheltenham from 1826
for thirty years exercised a powerful evangelical ministry in this fashionable resort denouncing
many vices, promoting five new parish churches and the foundation of Cheltenham College. In
1856 he was appointed as dean of Carlisle where his ministry was especially directed to the poor
whose moral and physical condition he tried hard to improve.
CUSHING, WILLIAM ORCUTT [1823-1903] – W.O. Cushing as he liked to be known was an
American minister and hymn writer. After the death of his wife in 1870 and with declining health,
he retired from the ministry and began writing hymns. He wrote over 300 hymns. Most of his
songs were of death and heaven. The most familiar are, "Down in the valley with my Saviour I
would go" and the "jewel song," "When He cometh, when He cometh " He wrote the "jewel song"
when he was a young man, in 1856, and it was composed for use in his own Sunday school.
George F. Root, the famous composer, wrote for it a very effective tune. A minister once
returning from Europe on a British steamer visited the steerage and proposed a song service
there. He started it with this "jewel song." Mr. Root's melody was at once caught up by the
immigrants, and they soon learned the hymn, which was sung by these men and women of all
nations during the rest of the voyage. When at Quebec they took the train for their journeys to
their new homes the song burst from every car.
PALMER, BENJAMIN MORGAN [1818-1902] – American Presbyterian minister who received
degrees from university of Georgia and Columbia Theological Seminary and served as pastor
from 1841 to 1853 before becoming professor of ecclesiastical history at Columbia Seminary. In
1856 he accepted a call to the first Presbyterian Church of New Orleans where he remained until
his death. Regarded as one of the great ministers of the Southern Presbyterian Church he was
the first Presbyterian moderator under the Confederacy in 1861, and defended slavery.
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PATTERSON, JOHN COLERIDGE [1827-1871] – He was the first missionary bishop of the
Church of England in Melanesia. Patterson was educated at Oxford and was persuaded by G.A.
Selwyn [see 1841] bishop of New Zealand to go out to Melanesia as a missionary in 1855. In
1856 he made the first journey to Melanesia to encourage boys to return with him to study at the
college Selwyn had set up first in Auckland and later in Norfolk Island. The training given by
Patterson and his ability to acquire the many languages of the islands provided a strong basis for
the mission. In 1861 he was consecrated bishop of Melanesia and travelled constantly
supporting his English and native workers. On the main island of Mota he saw the conversion of
most of the population. His work was often made more dangerous by the activities of white
traders known as Black birders who forcibly took natives to labour in Australia. In September
1871 unaware of a recent outrage by these traders he landed on the island of Nukapu and was
speared to death.
SWEDEN [see also 1528] – After 1815 and the humiliations of the Napoleonic Wars there was a
reaction against 18th century rationalism aided by Pietism and the Moravians. Through the work
of George Scott an English Methodist, Bible and tract work were developed; Sunday School and
foreign missions were concentrated on, and the result was the Swedish Mission Covenant in
1878 bringing together most free churches with lay organisation and evangelism groups. In 1894
the World Student Christian Movement was inaugurated in Sweden. The Evangelical National
Institute formed in 1856 became a leading missionary movement. Sweden made a distinguished
contribution to the ecumenical movement through Nathan Soderblom [see 1914]. Among those
who reacted to 19th-century liberalism were the scholars Gustav Aulen [see 1933] and Anders
Nygren [see 1949].
WILLIS, LOVE MARIA [1824-1908] – Love Willis, who was born at Hancock, New Hampshire.
Her maiden name was Whitcomb, and she was a member of the Unitarian Church. After
marrying a Boston physician named Frederick L. H. Willis, she moved to Boston and served as
the editor of “The Banner of Light”, a Boston magazine and “Tiffany’s Monthly Magazine”. It was
in the latter publication that the hymn "Father, Hear The Prayer We Offer" was published in
1856. It was modified by Samuel Longfellow (1819-1892) in 1864.
1857
ARNOLD, MATTHEW [1822-1888] – English poet and eldest son of Thomas Arnold [see 1828]
who was educated at Rugby, Winchester, and Oxford being professor of poetry at Oxford for ten
years from 1857 and inspector of schools from 1851 to 1886. He saw culture as mans greatest
need stressing the personal and moral side of Christianity whilst denying miracles.
COILLARD, FRANCOIS [1834-1904] – French missionary to South Africa sent out by the Paris
Evangelical Mission in 1857 and stationed at Leribe. In 1877 he attempted to lead a group into
Matabeleland but was denied access by the overlord Lobengula. He then pressed on to
Barotseland where Chief Lewanika was friendly but refused to accept conversion. Many
colleagues died and critics suggested withdrawal but developments after his death proved he
had not laboured in vain.
CROWTHER, SAMUEL AJAYI [1806-1891] – Anglican bishop and missionary who was enslaved
in 1821 and taken to Sierra Leone after his liberation by the British Navy. Baptised in 1825 he
entered the African Institution two years later. In 1841 he was the Church Missionary Society
representative on the Niger expedition. His most significant work was with the Niger Mission
which he initiated in 1857 and led for thirty years. In 1864 he was made bishop of Western Africa
beyond colonial limits but the European missionaries would not accept his jurisdiction so he was
virtually bishop of the Niger. His achievements however led his former opponents to recommend
an African bishop of Yorubaland in 1875 but this confidence was not shared by younger
European missionaries who attacked the policy of African leadership and his position was
progressively undermined. The conflict led to the formation of the United Native African Church
in Lagos in 1892and the appointment of a white successor after Crowther’s death. This helped to
discredit Henry Venn’s [see 1841] “three self” policy under which concept Crowther had been
appointed.
EADIE, JOHN [1810-18720] – Scottish secessionist and United Presbyterian Church minister
and New Testament scholar. In 1843 he was appointed professor of biblical literature in the
United Presbyterian Church Divinity Hall, and in 1857 he was moderator of his church's general
assembly. His Analytical Concordance, Family Bible and Biblical Cyclopaedia proved very
popular, and his widely acclaimed commentaries on several of the Pauline epistles helped to
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secure for him a place as one of the New Testament Committee engaged in preparing the
Revised Version of the Bible in English in 1870.
GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY [1810-1888] – English son of an itinerant painter of miniatures, he
became a farmer in North America from 1827 to 1838. He returned to England and after a brief
spell with the Methodists he associated with the Brethren. He visited Jamaica in 1847 and soon
became a prolific writer and lecturer on natural history. He invented and popularised the
aquarium. After his first wife's death in 1857 he retired to St Mary's Church remarried and
shepherded a Brethren assembly. His attempt in 1857 to reconcile Genesis with Geology
satisfied no one.
GUNTHER, ANTON [1783-1863] – German religious philosopher who studied law and
philosophy at Prague where his faith was shaken by his study of Kant, Fichte and Schelling. He
was appointed as a tutor in the household of Prince Bretzenheim which brought him under the
influence of C.M. Hofbaur [see 1785] and his Christian convictions were restored. He began
studying theology and propagated his system of philosophy and speculative theology. He was
interested in apologetics and tried to combat the contemporary pantheistic idealism of Schelling
and Hegel. His writings were condemned by the Index in 1857 for their basic rationalism and its
application to Christian doctrine.
PELOUBET, FRANCIS NATHAN [1831-1920] – Writer of Sunday school literature. He was born
in New York and graduated from Bangor [Maine] Theological Seminary. Ordained in 1857 as a
Congregational minister, Peloubet was pastor at several churches in Massachusetts from 1857
to 1883. He produced between 1875 and 1920 the annual volumes of “Select Notes on the
International Sunday School Lesson”.
PIETROCOLA-ROSSETTI, TEODORICO [1825-1883] – Italian Protestant poet and patriot who
studied law at Naples and was involved in the 1848 uprising. As a result he had to flee and took
refuge first at Leghorn and then Lyons, Paris, and London where he was warmly received by the
many exiles including his cousin and poet Gabriel Rossetti whose surname he joined to his. He
earned a living by giving Italian lessons and was invited by one of his pupils to attend an Open
Brethren meeting which led to his conversion experience. Christ became the centre of his life
and he devoted himself to the preaching of the Gospel, which he considered the only remedy for
the sad plight of Italy. In 1857 after a most solemn commendation meeting he left London for
Piedmont to begin amid all kinds of difficulties and persecution a successful work of evangelism
and forming congregations. These were called the Free Italian Churches and in spite of a sad
division in 1863 by 1870 they had grown to more than 30 communities scattered throughout Italy
some of which were large. He spent the last years of his life in Florence, his death occurring on a
Sunday at the morning meeting after giving a message which in the words of the hearers “had
led the congregation up to heaven”. He wrote many valuable commentaries and hymns some of
which are still sung today.
SOUTH AFRICA – While there were Roman Catholic missionaries in Mozambique and adjacent
areas in the 16th century, the Dutch settlements at the Cape was more significant for the
development of Christianity in Southern Africa. For over a century only the Dutch Reformed
Church was permitted there and it has remained the spiritual home of most Afrikaners. The
evangelisation of the indigenous Hottentots and imported slaves received little attention until the
late 18th century when van Lier and Vos awakened missionary interest among the colonists.
This lead eventually to a strong Dutch Reformed Mission Church among the Cape coloured
people. After 1857 missions to the black Africans were also undertaken. The first missionary at
Cape was Moravian Georg Schmidt [see 1742] who returned to Europe in 1744. In 1799 the
London Missionary Society entered the field but the concern of its missionaries notably J.T.
Vandercemp [see 1799] and John Philip [see 1828] regarding the rights of indigenous people
made the London Missionary Society highly unpopular with the colonists. Methodism arrived with
British soldiers at Cape Town and British settlers on the Eastern frontier, and spread among
black and white throughout South Africa. The first Anglican bishop of Cape Town was Robert
Gray while the Roman Catholics became well established after the arrival of its first bishop in
1838.
TREGELLES, SAMUEL PRIDEAUX [1813-1875] – English New Testament textual critic who
was brought up as a Quaker which meant that he could not pursue a university career. As a
teenager he learned Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Welsh while working at the same time in an
ironworks. His abilities were recognised by G.V. Wigram who employed him to work on his
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famous Englishman's Greek and Hebrew Concordances. He travelled extensively across Europe
for the purpose of systematically examining and collating all the then known manuscripts and
was able to get his Greek New Testament published in six parts between 1857 and 1872. He
wrote a number of books including many books on Bible prophecy in which he defended what
lately came to be known as “post-tribulational premillennialism”. Tregelles was associated with
the Plymouth Brethren in the early days of the movement as a brother-in-law of B.W. Newton
[see 1847] but later worshipped with the Presbyterians and finally the Church of England.
WICHERN, JOHANN HINRICH [1808-1881] – German Protestant minister and founder of the
Innere Mission [see 1848]. He studied theology at Gottingen and Berlin. Returning to Hamburg
he was moved by the plight of underprivileged children in the poorest sections of the city. In 1833
he founded a school for neglected children in the village of Horn near Hamburg. Under his
leadership the group expanded and children in the school were divided into family groups of
around twelve under the guidance of an overseer, generally a candidate for the ministry, and two
assistants. In 1848 at the First Congress of Evangelical Churches at Wittenberg Wichern called
for all charitable activities in Germany to be administered through a single agency, the Innere
Mission. He also took part in the prison reform in Prussia in 1857.
1858
BERNADETTE [1844-1879] – French Roman Catholic visionary who was the eldest child of a
poor miller who founded the Lourdes pilgrimage after having seen a series of visions in 1858 in a
cave near the river Gave. She believed the young lady who had appeared to her was the Virgin
Mary. At first the church authorities disbelieved her but since then Lourdes has become one of
the greatest centres for pilgrimage in Western Christendom.
BEVAN, FRANCES EMMA [1827-1909] – Daughter of the bishop of Chichester who after
marriage in 1856 became associated with the Open Brethren. She was a hymn writer who
published her first collection of hymns in 1858 including many translated or paraphrased from the
German.
BURNS, FRANCIS [1809 – 1863] – Burns was an American missionary in Liberia. He was the
first Missionary Bishop and the first African American Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church
being elected in 1858. Born into a slave state he was placed in the service of a farmer who
allowed him to go to school during the winter months. He was converted at 15 and felt led to
preach but he was under indentures until the age of 21. He however pursued knowledge and
became "the first coloured teacher in a white school," and became licensed as a preacher. In
1834 he accompanied a missionary to Liberia as a Missionary Teacher. He was ordained in
1844. He opened an academy in Monrovia in 1851 and in 1858 the Liberian Conference elected
him as their first bishop. He worked for a further five years with failing health and he returned to
the USA dying a mere three months after Emancipation in the United States. Bishop Burns was
buried in Monrovia, Liberia.
CALLINICUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1858-1861] see 1847 and 1861
GREEK EVANGELICAL CHURCH – Its first leader, Michael Kalopothakes, a native of Areopolis
near Sparta came under the influence of Protestant missionaries, having attended a missionary
school run by two missionaries of the Southern Presbyterian Church of the United States. As a
student in Athens he attended the meetings of Jonas King [see 1830] but the missionaries had
no intention of establishing a Protestant church in Greece. Strong opposition compelled
Kalopothakes and other Greeks to organise an evangelical church. After graduating in medicine
he attended the Union Theological Seminary in New York, and in 1858 organised the first church
in Athens, opened the first Sunday school, and in 1871 erected the first evangelical building at
the foot of the Acropolis. He became the first agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society.
Parallel to this movement was a similar evangelical effort among the Greeks in Asia Minor,
Turkey, where a number of churches were organised. In 1922-23 as a result of war, the Greeks
had to evacuate Asia Minor, and the evangelicals in Turkey came to Greece as refugees, joined
the local church, and also formed new congregations in different areas. The church continues
today.
HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS [1819-1888] – Founder of the Paulist Order. Born in New York City
of German parentage he became a Roman Catholic in 1844 and entered the Redemptorist
Order. After studying in Belgium, Holland, and England he was ordained in 1845 and worked
with Roman Catholic German immigrants after returning to America in 1851. Because of an
unauthorised trip to Rome he was excluded from his order, but freed from his vows by Pius IX to
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found in 1858 the Missionary Priests of St Paul the Apostle to convert Protestants.
LOURDES – Famous town in south-west France which gained fame in 1858 when a 14-year-old
resident Bernadette Subirous [see above] reported 18 visions of the Virgin Mary. After the first
vision, crowds began to accompany her to the grotto on the riverside but only Bernadette saw
the visions. In one of the visions she was instructed to dig for a spring which gushed forth as she
dug and is still flowing. Spring water is used for sacramental baths by pilgrims. In other visions
the Virgin told her that she the Virgin was the Immaculate Conception [see 1854] and instructed
Bernadette to have a chapel built and to encourage pilgrims to attend. Thousands of cures have
been reported and by 1959 fifty eight of them had been officially designated as miracles.
MACKENZIE, JOHN [1835-1899] – Scottish missionary to South Africa under the London
Missionary Society in 1858. He settled among the Ngwato at Shoshong from 1864 to 1876 and
gained the confidence of Kgama III. He was convinced that the protection of the Africans
demanded the extension of British rule to the Zambezi and therefore became politically involved
as a government representative and as a promoter of imperial expansion in Britain. In this he
was repeatedly frustrated principally by his fellow imperialist Cecil Rhodes whose motives and
methods differed fundamentally from his. His final years were spent as a missionary at Hankey
Cape Colony.
MACLAREN, ALEXANDER [1826-1910] – Baptist minister who was pastor at Portland Chapel
Southampton from 1846-1858 and Union Chapel Manchester from 1858 to 1903. He was
classified as the prince of expository preachers. His sermons drew vast congregations and in the
pulpit he expounded evangelical certainties yet his writings show him prepared to accept a
critical position. MacLaren was twice president of the Baptist Union and first president of the
Baptist World Alliance in 1905. He strove unsuccessfully to unite the Baptist and
Congregationalist denominations.
PATON, JOHN GIBSON [1824-1907] – Pioneer Presbyterian missionary to the New Hebrides.
He was educated the University of Glasgow and for a decade from 1847 was a city missionary at
Glasgow. Paton and his wife left Glasgow in 1858 for the island of Aneityum in the New Hebrides
and subsequently became the pioneer missionaries on the island of Tanna. In 1859 his wife died
in childbirth, and by 1862 Patton was in almost daily danger of his life and was forced to leave
the island. He became a travelling ambassador for the New Hebrides mission. He was in
Scotland in 1864 where he secured recruits and remarried then moved to the island of Anwai
where he saw the conversion of the majority of the islanders. After many years of hard labour on
the islands in the 1880s he made Melbourne in Australia his headquarters for work to support the
mission. Until his death he travelled the world for the mission. At the Ecumenical Missionary
Conference in 1900 in New York he was recognised as a great missionary leader.
RAWSON, GEORGE [1807-1889] – Rawson was an English Congregational layman, born in
Leeds, where he practiced many years as a solicitor. He contributed to various books. His
knowledge of music and his gifts as a hymn writer led the Congregational ministers of Leeds to
call on him for assistance in compiling the Leeds Hymn Book, 1853. In 1858 he assisted Dr.
Green and other Baptist ministers in the preparation of Psalms and Hymns for the Use of the
Baptist Denomination. His Hymns, Verses, and Chants, published in London in 1876, contained
eighty original pieces. His Songs of Spiritual Thought appeared in 1885. His best known hymn is
"By Christ redeemed, in Christ restored;"
1859
ANTONELLI, GIACOMO [1806-1876] – Cardinal and secretary of state for Pius IX [see 1848].
His work and policy consisted of generally resisting, unsuccessfully, the final and revolutionary
overthrow of the pope’s political rule and its incorporation into the kingdom of Italy [1859-61,
1870].
BOSCO, JOHN [1815-1888] – Roman Catholic founder of the Silesian Order which has now
spread worldwide. He was born in poverty and ordained as a priest in 1841 and worked in Turin
for the betterment of poor boys, establishing night schools, workshops, and eventually a
technical school. In 1859 he established the Society of St Francis of Sales (Salesians) [see
below]. Reason, kindness, and the Christian faith were the basis of his educational philosophy
known as the preventive system. His motto was “as far as possible avoid punishing try to gain
love before inspiring fear.”
DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT [1809-1882] – English naturalist who graduated from Christ
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College Cambridge in 1831. His theory of evolution was formulated during a five-year voyage
around South America. In 1837 he "opened his first notebook on the Transmutation of Species"
but hesitated until 1849 before publishing his "Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”.
Lifelong vacillation between agnosticism and faith was accompanied by psychosomatic pain.
Originally intending to become a clergyman, by 1850 he declared himself agnostic. In 1857 at
the Oxford meeting of the British Association, T. H. Huxley as Darwin's bulldog attacked Bishop
Samuel Wilbeforce [see 1869] whose ridicule and lack of science was open target for Huxley.
Fears that the new theory would brutalise humanity were well founded. Herbert Spencer
opposed the betterment of the unfortunate because it might hinder selection by survival of the
fittest. Marx, Nietzsche and Hitler justified war on the same grounds. Darwin's inner conflict
continued into old age, according to the duke of Argyle unrelieved by his wife's prayers and Bible
reading. Some credence is given to his nurse's record however that the epistle of Hebrews
brought him final consolation.
FAUSSET, ANDREW ROBERT [1821-1910] – Anglican scholar who graduated from Trinity
College Dublin in 1843. He was rector of St Cuthbert's York from 1859 until his death.
Evangelical and pre-millennialist he was a prolific writer and editor.
HATCH, EDWIN [1835-1889] – Anglican minister who graduated from Oxford and in 1859 was
appointed professor of classics at Trinity College, Toronto. His most important work was his
Bampton Lectures on “The Organisation of the Early Christian Churches” which aroused
considerable controversy, especially in High Church circles. They argued that the Christian
episcopate had derived from the financial administrators of Greek religious associations. His
hymn “Breathe on me Breath of God” is still in common use.
HEPBURN, JAMES CURTIS [1815-1911] – Missionary to Japan who was born in Pennsylvania
and decided to become a medical missionary. In 1840 he and his wife joined the Presbyterian
Board, but were invalided home after five years in Java, Singapore, and Amoy. From 1859 they
were among the Protestant pioneers to Japan. Though preaching was forbidden Hepburn
diligently applied himself to learning Japanese while living in a Buddhist temple. His lifetime of
devoted service included the opening of the first dispensary, initiating classes for medical
students, inventing a system for Romanising Japanese sounds, compiling the first JapaneseEnglish dictionary, helping found an university, and playing a major part in the Japanese
translation of the Bible which was completed in 1888.
IRELAND [see also 1642] – Two vital factors affected Christianity in this period. First was the
vigorous impact of the ministry of John Wesley who preached in many parts of Ireland and while
his influence was greatest where English settlers were most numerous, the cause he fostered
has been permanently established throughout Ireland. The second and very important factor was
the revival in 1859 which was wider in scope and deeper in its effect. Most branches of the
Protestant Church receive benefit from the movement. The onward progress of Christianity in
Ireland has been closely identified with its political life. As a general rule Roman Catholics have
been nationalists and republican in their outlook while the Protestant population has sought to
maintain their link with Great Britain.
MIDLANE, ALBERT [1825-1909] – British poet who wrote several hundred hymns, most notably
"There's a Friend for Little Children" and “Revive Thy work O Lord”. Born the youngest in a large
family his father died in 1824. Brought up in a Congregational church at the age of 23 he joined
the Plymouth Brethren but remained committed to Sunday school teaching and hymn writing. He
was encouraged to start writing at a young age by his teacher, and he wrote his first hymn "Hark!
in the presence of our God" in September 1842 while visiting Carisbrooke Castle. His hymn,
"There's a Friend for Little Children", was written in 1859. He later published several of his own
hymn books, including Jewish Children's Hymn Book, Bright Blue Sky Hymn Book, Gospel
Echoes Hymn Book and The Gospel Hall Hymn Book, each of which contained hundreds of his
hymns. He never accepted any money for his writing, and as such became bankrupt. Generosity
from his fans meant that this was later revoked.
SALESIANS [The Salesian Society of St John Bosco] – The society was founded in Turin by
Giovanni Bosco [see above]. It is the third largest Roman Catholic order which in 1970 had over
20,000 members throughout the world and was supporting over 1500 institutions. The order
maintains 140 mission stations in Asia, Africa, and South America and cares for more than half a
million orphans. Pius IX gave the order apostolic approval in 1868.
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SOUTHERN AFRICA ZIMBABWE – Attention was drawn to Central Africa by the travels and
writings of David Livingstone [see 1841]. The London Missionary Society established missions at
Inyati in 1859 but general Christian penetration of Zimbabwe followed its occupation by the
Chartered Company in 1890. The pattern of evangelism and education was similar to that which
evolved in South Africa. The Christian Council of Zimbabwe promoted common action and
several of its member churches with the Roman Catholic hierarchy confronted, from 1968, the
Smith regime after the Unilateral Declaration of Independence.
WILLARD, FRANCES ELIZABETH CAROLINE [1839-1898] – Educator and temperance leader
who was born in New York but grew up on the Wisconsin frontier. She graduated from
Northwestern Female College Evanston in 1859 where she was converted, later becoming a
Methodist. Never married, she taught for some years and became prominent in the Temperance
movement [1879] and helping to organise the Prohibition party in 1882. She was also a women’s
rights reformer being president of the National Council of Women.
1860
ALLEN, YOUNG JOHN [1836-1907]. – Young was an American Methodist missionary in China
with the American Southern Methodist Episcopal Mission during the late Qing Dynasty. He
arrived in China in 1860 and for the five years of the American Civil War was cut off from support
causing him to work in a number of occupations. Allen's most influential work was in the field of
education, as he worked at a government school before founding the Anglo-Chinese College in
Shanghai. He was also a strong force in educating women at a time when that was very radical
for Confucian society. His efforts helped to found the McTyreire School for girls. Allen also
published several newspapers and magazines as a form of both evangelism and education,
which influenced many Chinese reformers of the Self-Strengthening Movement and prompted
philosophical discussions comparing Christianity and Confucianism. His publications were
popular among many Chinese for their attention to Western concepts of international relations,
economics and the natural sciences.
BLISS, PHILIP PAUL [1838-1876] – America Baptist hymn writer who was converted at the age
of 12 and joined the Elk Run Baptist Church. He worked on farms and wood cutting until entering
the Normal Academy of Music in New York. He was a famous bass and became a musical
associate of D.L. Moody [see 1873]. He and his wife were killed in a train crash. On 29
December 1876 the Pacific Express train which Bliss and his wife were travelling in approached
Ashtabula, Ohio. While the train was in the process of crossing a trestle bridge, which collapsed,
all carriages fell into the ravine below. Bliss escaped the carriage but the carriages caught fire
and Bliss returned to try and extricate his wife. No trace of either body was discovered. Ninetytwo of the 160 passengers are believed to have died in what became known as the Ashtabula
River Railroad Disaster. Found in his trunk, which somehow survived the crash and fire, was a
manuscript bearing the lyrics of the only well known Bliss gospel song for which he did not write
a tune. “I Will Sing of My Redeemer” His hymns included "Man of Sorrows, What a Name". “I will
sing of my Redeemer” “Wonderful words of life”
FABRI, FRIEDRICH [1824-1891] – German mission executive. He was appointed inspector of
the Rhine Mission in 1857 and was particularly interested in the expansion of the work in South
Africa. On his initiative the highly successful Sumatra field was opened in 1860. He founded the
West German Association for Colonisation and Export in 1880 to pressure for a colonial policy.
In 1884 he retired from the Rhine Mission, accepted an honorary professorship in Bonn and
spent his last years in colonial agitation.
HIEROTHEOS Patriarch of Antioch [1860-1885] see also 1843 and 1885
JOACHIM II – Patriarch of Constantinople [1860-1863, 1873-1878] succeeded Cyril VI [see
1855]. There is no additional information readily available.
JOWETT, BENJAMIN [1817-1893] – English classicist and theologian who was educated at
Oxford and elected a fellow there while he was still an undergraduate in 1838. He was ordained
in 1842 and wrote commentaries on the Epistles of Paul [1855] and through an essay on
scriptural interpretation contributed to “Essays and Reviews” in 1860. He fell under suspicion of
unorthodoxy and ceased to write on theological subjects. He worked to secure the abolition of
theological tests for university degrees and offices. His classical learning was almost
unsurpassed in his day and he was known as “the Great Tutor”.
KAEHLER, MARTIN [1835-1912] – German Protestant theologian who spent his entire academic
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career from 1862 until his death at the University of Halle. He was strongly influenced in his
theological development by Rothe, Tholuck, Muller, Beck, and von Hofmann. In one of his books
he opposed the tendency of biblical scholars to drive a wedge between the historical Jesus and
the proclamation of the Apostles. He said that the real Jesus is not the portrait of Jesus of
Nazareth which historians are able to reconstruct, but the Christ of faith who is experienced
again and again by the Christian community (“the real Christ is the preached Christ”).
KEIM, KARL THEODOR [1825-1878] – German Protestant theologian and church historian who
was professor at Zurich from 1860 to 1873. He concentrated on the history of primitive
Christianity and the Protestant Reformation. He rejected the historicity of the fourth Gospel
altogether though he argued for the primitive nature and primacy of Matthew.
LYNE, JOSEPH LEYCESTER [1837-1908] – Religious community leader, as “Father Ignatius”
he revived the Benedictine monasticism in the Church of England. He was ordained deacon in
1860 and started communities at Claydon in 1863 and Norwich in 1864. In 1870 Lyne began
building a monastery in Wales. He was often away on missions and in fund raising including an
extended visit to America in 1890-91. During these times the life of the abbey became unsettled.
Despite his ritualism his theology was soundly evangelical after his conversion 1866. He rejected
penance and purgatory as detracting from Christ finished work. Crowds flocked to his simple
preaching of Christ as Saviour. Gladstone put him among the first of contemporary orators.
MABILLE, ADOLPHE [1836-1894] – Swiss missionary to South Africa who went to Lesotho in
1860 with the Paris Evangelical Mission. Apart from enforced absences and an expedition to the
East Transvaal in 1873 he spent his entire ministry at Morija where he operated a printing press
and established normal, Bible, and theological schools. He initiated a local synod arousing
resentment by his negative attitude to tribal custom. The British annexation of Lesotho in 1868
which prevented Boer domination owed much to his advocacy. Cape Colony took over the
administration and they tried to disarm the Basuto, so Mabille helped to obtain the transfer of
Lesotho from them to direct British rule in 1884.
MAZZARELLA, BONAVENTURA [1818-1882] – Italian patriot, preacher, and philosopher. He
studied at Naples and as a barrister and judge fought against poverty, ignorance, and social
injustice. He was actively involved in liberation movements and the war of 1848. He was
persecuted and left Italy. During the time he was away he came in touch with the Gospel and
was converted. Mazzarella first joined the Waldensian Church but soon found a more congenial
atmosphere in the rising Free Italian Church [see 1853] caring for a large community of believers
in Genoa. In 1860 he became professor of pedagogy at Bologna and then Genoa, a next to
impossible achievement for a non-Roman Catholic. He was one of the finest intellects of Italian
evangelism who championed the cause of religious liberty and the interests of the much
neglected southern regions of Italy, and was much respected for his moral integrity and deep
humanity.
METHODIST NEW CONNEXION entered China in 1860, immediately after the signing of the
Treaty of Tianjin, which virtually opened all China to the Christian missionaries. The pioneers of
the movement were Rev John Innocent and Rev W. N. Hall, who established themselves in
Tianjin, which was then a pioneer mission field. Hall died of fever in 1878, but Innocent survived,
and was the Nestor of the Mission. There were three preaching rooms in the city of Tianjin, one
being in the main thoroughfare, and in these daily preaching was maintained. On the English
concession there was a large mission establishment, consisting of a training college for native
students for the ministry, missionaries’ houses, and a boarding school for the training of native
women and girls in Christian life and work. Rev. J. Robinson-Brown was the principal of the
college, and Miss Waller was in charge of the school for girls. The largest mission of this Society
was in the north-east portion of the province of Shandong, where about fifty native churches
were maintained in an agricultural district extending over about three hundred miles. The
headquarters of this circuit were in Chu Chia, Lao-ling district, where were situated the mission
houses, and a medical dispensary and hospital. Another mission was opened at the Tang-san
Collieries, near Kai Ping, in the north of the province of Chih-li. This under the charge of Rev. F.
B. Turner rapidly extended having a church in the ancient city of Yung-ping-fu, near the old wall,
and also several rural chapels in the district round Kai Ping. The work of this Society was chiefly
carried on by native agency; a large number of efficient men had been trained and qualified by
means of the training college. Several native women were also set apart as Bible women to their
own sex. One of these, Mrs. Hu, laboured in this capacity for nearly twenty-five years, and was
the first such agent ever employed in China. This Mission in 1890 numbered seven missionaries,
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two medical agents, one lady agent, forty-six native helpers, and six female native helpers. It had
over thirteen hundred communicants, and about two hundred and fifty scholars in its day and
boarding schools.
ROBERTS, ISSACHAR JACOX (1802 – 1871) – Roberts was an American Baptist missionary in
China. Roberts graduated from Furman University, a Baptist school in Greenville, South
Carolina. He was known for his erratic behaviour and "falling into difficulties with nearly everyone
who worked with him", which cost his connection with Southern Baptist Convention. Roberts was
the only Baptist known to have influenced Hong Xiuquan who led the Taiping Rebellion (18511864) against the Qing Dynasty. Hong spent two months studying with Roberts at Canton in
1847. Roberts refused Hong's request for baptism, perhaps due to a misunderstanding. In 1860
Roberts left Canton for the Taiping capital at Nanjing. He was dismayed to find that the beliefs of
the Taiping departed widely from his own Christianity, but nevertheless accepted a post as
advisor to Hong Rengan, Foreign minister at the Taiping court. While there Roberts arranged for
some Baptists from the United States to visit Nanjing and meet Hong directly. He left in January
1862 on board the British gunboat Renard following a dispute with Rengan, and was thereafter
fiercely critical of the Taiping.
SOGA, TIYO [c.1829-1871] – The First African ordained minister in South Africa. Soga was the
son of a Christian mother and entered Lovedale Seminary in 1844 and went to Scotland for
theological training [1851-1856]. As a minister of the United Presbyterian Church he served at
Mgwali [1857] and Tutura [1868] proving himself a fine preacher and a faithful pastor. His work
on the revision of the Xhosa Bible and a translation of Pilgrim Progress in 1866 revealed great
literary ability. He died at the early age of 42.
WHITING, WILLIAM [1825-1878] – Hymn Writer. The original hymn “Eternal Father, strong to
save” was written by William Whiting of Winchester, England, in 1860. It was originally intended
as a poem for a student of his, who was about to travel to the United States. In 1861, John B.
Dykes, an Anglican clergyman, composed the tune "Melita" for this hymn. "Melita" is an archaic
term for Malta, an ancient seafaring nation and the site of a shipwreck involving the Apostle Paul.
It became a hymn often associated with the Royal Navy or the United States Navy and United
States Marine Corps. Accordingly, it is often known as The Navy Hymn.
1861-1870 AD
1861
BAKER, SIR HENRY [1821-1877] – English baronet and hymn writer. Baker was the son of Vice
Admiral Henry Loraine Baker. He attended Trinity College at Cambridge and was ordained in
1844 and be came assistant curate at Great Hockesley, near Colchester, Essex. In 1851, he
became Vicar of Monkland Priory Church in Herefordshire, England, where he served most of
his life. Upon his father’s death in 1859, Baker assumed the family baronetcy. From 1860 to
1877, he was editor-in-chief of the Anglican “Hymns Ancient and Modern, and contributed twenty
five hymns, tunes, and translations. This historic hymnal sold 60 million copies. His best known
hymns were "The King of Love my Shepherd is" and "Lord, Thy word abideth". His friend John
Ellerton reported that Baker’s dying words were from his famous hymn: “Perverse and foolish oft
I strayed, But yet in love He sought me, And on His shoulder gently laid, And home, rejoicing,
brought me.
ELLICOTT, CHARLES JOHN [1819-1905] – Bishop of Gloucester. Educated at Cambridge
where he was elected a fellow in 1845. He was a vicar in Rutland from 1848 and afterwards
professor of divinity at Kings College, London from 1858 to 61, and Hulsean professor of divinity
at Cambridge from 1860 to 61. He became dean of Exeter 1861 and the bishop of Gloucester
two years later until his resignation in 1905. He was chairman of the New Testament Revision
Company for 11 years and wrote a series of highly acclaimed commentaries on most of the
Pauline epistles.
INDRE MISSION – The popular name of the Danish Church Home Mission Society, an
evangelical movement within the Danish national church. It was formed in 1861 by some Pietistic
clergymen and laymen from “the awakened circles”. Toward the end of the 19th and the
beginning of the 20th century the Mission spread as a dynamic revival movement all over
Denmark; many clergymen joined it, numerous laymen were employed as preachers, and
gradually meeting houses were built all over the country. In the later 20th century the mission
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has become a recognised and established party within the church but at the same time has lost
much of its original zeal and spiritual power and to some extent even drifted away from its
original biblical and evangelical position.
JACOB Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1861-1865] see 1858 and 1866
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM [1809-1865] – 16th President of the United States who was raised on
frontier farms. He was a self educated lawyer who became president in 1861. A Republican, he
attracted support through simplicity of manner, his defence of established authority, his fusion of
farmers and industrialists, his equation of slavery's expansion with threats to Northern prosperity,
and his recognition of the inferior condition of the black Americans. His election prompted the
lower South to secede and his intransigence on secession in turn led the upper South to rebel
and sparked the Civil War. Assassinated by a Southern sympathiser within days of his forces
gaining the victory, he epitomised the nation’s ideals of self-reliance, opportunism, and
churchless religion.
NICOLAI [Ivan Kasatkin] [1835-1912] – Russian Orthodox missionary bishop to Japan. He
offered as chaplain to the Russian Consulate in Hokkaido, became a monk, and took the name
Nicolai. Arriving in Japan in 1861 he acquired a deep knowledge of the Chinese and Japanese
languages. Christianity being a prohibited religion he proceeded cautiously. Not until 1868 did he
baptise his first three converts. Returning to Russia in 1869 he was responsible for the
constitution of the Orthodox Mission. With the lifting of prohibition against Christianity he returned
to Japan in 1873 and built a cathedral in Tokyo and was consecrated bishop in 1880 and
archbishop in 1906. He encouraged the indigenous aspect of the church selecting promising
young men to evangelise their own people. At his death there were 30,000 converts.
NOEL, CAROLINE MARIA [1817-1877]. – Caroline Noel was born in London. Her first hymn
"Draw nigh unto my soul" was written when she was 17. During the next three years she wrote
about a dozen pieces. From 20 years of age to 40 she wrote nothing; and during the next 20
years the rest of her pieces were written. The first edition of her composition was published as
"The Name of Jesus and other Verses for the Sick and Lonely" in 1861. This was enlarged from
time to time and subsequently changed by the publishers to "The Name of Jesus and other
Poems". She, in common with Charlotte Elliott, was a great sufferer, and many of these verses
were the outcome of her days of pain. They are specially adapted "for the sick and lonely" and
were written rather for private meditation than for public use, although several are suited for the
latter purpose. Her best known hymn is "At the Name of Jesus".
NOMMENSEN, LUDWIG INGWER [1834-1918] – German missionary to Sumatra. He was
apprentice to a schoolmaster and entered the Rhine Mission’s school at Barmen in 1857. In
1861 he was sent out to the mission’s new field of Sumatra and soon proved to be a man of
great resolution and faith. His ministry among the Bataks proceeded slowly until a number of the
chiefs were converted and then Nommensen was overwhelmed by a great movement of over
103,000 Christians in 1911 and undreamed-of problems of church organisation. He decided it
should be a Batak not a Western church but in fact the church’s organisation was patriarchal and
the missionaries held all the positions of influence and authority until German control ended in
1940.
RICASOLI, BETTINO [1809-1880] – Italian politician and patriot who worked for the unity of Italy
and was minister of Tuscany, and later after Cavour’s death in 1861, prime minister of Italy. In
touch with the leaders of Tuscan evangelism and with Swiss Protestant circles he was greatly
influenced by them and hoped for a reform of the Roman Catholic Church. He never however
severed his connection with the latter.
SOUTHERN AFRICA MALAWI – The attempt of the Universities' Mission to Central Africa to
enter Malawi in 1861 ended in disaster. The Scottish missions which arrived in 1875 exercised
widespread influence from their headquarters at Livingstonia [Free Church] and Blantyre [Church
of Scotland]. The Dutch Reformed Church also entered this field in 1896 and joined the Scots in
the Church of Central Africa Presbyterians in 1926. The UMCA undertook work among Muslims
in the 1890's.
STRONG, AUGUSTUS HOPKINS [1836-1921] – American Baptist pastor and educator who
graduated from Yale and Rochester Theological Seminary and Berlin. Ordained in 1861, Strong
held pastorates in Massachusetts and Ohio. He was president of the Rochester Theological
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Seminary from 1872 to 1912 and was also professor of biblical theology. He was conservative in
his views but was open to certain trends developing late in the 19th century such as theistic
evolution and German idealism. Strong served as president of the American Baptist Missionary
Union from 1892 to 1895.
TOLSTOY, LEO [1828-1910] – Russian novelist and social reformer who was born into a family
of the ruling class and after serving in the Crimean War returned home to write and study. In
1861 he freed his serfs. In the midst of his fame he experienced a mystical transformation and
cast his lot with the peasants, adopting their dress and labouring in their trades. He rejected
Russian Orthodoxy and evolved his own form of faith, emphasising as a central creed the nonresistance to evil. Disowning his title and his wealth he turned over his property to his wife. In his
later years he became embittered and left his home in company with his daughter.
WEIZSACKER, KARL HEINRICH VON [1822-1899] – German Protestant theologian who was
successor to F.C. Baur [see 1845] as professor of church history at Tubingen in 1861. In his
work on the history of the gospels he attempted to provide a reunion between the radical
criticism of Baur and the concepts of the more conservative criticism. He also rejected the
teachings of Baur that there was conflict between the epistles of Paul and Peter in early
Christianity. His translation of the Bible into German was widely appreciated. Weizsacker held
offices from time to time in both church and academic life.
1862
AMERICAN SOUTHERN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION was an American Presbyterian missionary
society of the Southern Presbyterian Church founded in 1862 that was involved in sending
workers to countries such as China during the late Qing Dynasty.
CAIRD, JOHN [1820-1898] – Scottish theologian who was educated at Glasgow and ordained in
1845 and having ministered in a number of churches became professor of theology at Glasgow
in 1862. He preached what Dean Stanley called "The greatest single sermon of the century"
before Queen Victoria on Roman 12:11. The sermon was translated into several languages.
DYKES, JOHN BACCHUS [1823-1876] – English composer who studied at Cambridge. He is
important for his hymn tunes, a large number which have become extremely popular such as
Holy Holy Holy Lord God Almighty and Lead Kindly Light. His style found numerous imitators and
while he has been much criticised, he possessed a remarkable gift of providing memorable and
readily singable melodies.
DIMITRIOS II - Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1862-1870] see 1854 and 1874. He attended the
opening ceremony for the Suez Canal on 17 November 1869 during which he met the Ottoman
Sultan Abdülâziz. The see was vacant from 1870 to 1874
JAPAN [see also 1549 and 1925] – The first Protestant missionaries, the Rev John Liggins and
Bishop Channing-Williams of the Episcopal Church arrived in May 1859. Later that year the
Presbyterian missionary Dr James Hepburn [see 1859] and two missionaries from the Reformed
Church arrived while the following year the Baptists sent their first. The first church was
established in 1862 and in 1865 thousands of secret Christians, descendants of the 17th century
Catholic believers, revealed themselves. Intense persecution followed, but that was eased in
1873 when the edicts banning Christianity were removed. Ivan Kasatkin, later known as Bishop
Nikolai, founded the Eastern Orthodox Church and saw it grow to 30,000 members. From the
1870’s Christian groups emerged in Japan, at Yokohama under the Rev John Ballagh, at
Kamumoto under Captain L. Janes, at Sapporo under Doctor W.S. Clarke [see 1876] at
Nagasaki under Doctor G. Verbeck [see 1869], and others. From these groups came many
Japanese leaders in this period of rapid growth from 1880-1889, notably Yuzuru Neeshima,
Kanzo Uchimura, Masahisa Uemura, and Yoichi Honda. Numerous interdenominational bodies
were founded such as the Japan YMCA [1880], Scripture Union [1884], Christian Endeavour
[1886], and the Bible Society [1890]. The catastrophic influence of liberal theology which made
its first appearance in 1885 was being increasingly felt in the church. Japan eventually saw a
revival in 1904 led by Barclay Buxton and Paget Wilkes [see 1897].
KGAMA III [c.1828-1923] – African Christian chief who was baptised in 1862 by H.C.
Schulenbourg of the Hermansburg Mission and soon proved himself an uncompromising
Christian. He became chief of the Ngwato in 1875 and tried to apply Christian standards of
government despite strong opposition. He opposed many tribal customs, banned the liquor
trade, dispensed even handed justice, and refused to alienate tribal lands to white men. He was
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extremely patient and magnanimous to other members of his family who opposed him. He
consistently supported the London Missionary Society but had somewhat strained relations with
some missionaries. He accepted a British protectorate in 1885 and was successful in avoiding
control by the Chartered Company. His grandson Seretse Khama became first president of
Botswana.
LONGLEY, CHARLES THOMAS – Archbishop of Canterbury [1862-1868]. He was born
at Rochester, the fifth son of the recorder of Rochester. He was educated at Westminster School
and at Oxford. He was ordained in 1818, and was appointed vicar of Cowley, Oxford, in 1823. In
1829 he was elected headmaster of Harrow School. He held this office until 1836, when he was
consecrated bishop of the new see of Ripon. In 1856 he became bishop of Durham and in 1860
he became archbishop of York. Two years later he was transferred to Canterbury. Soon
afterwards the questions connected with the deposition of Bishop John William Colenso were
referred to Longley, but, while regarding Colenso's opinions as heretical and his deposition as
justifiable, he refused to pronounce upon the legal difficulties of the case. The chief event of his
primacy was the meeting at Lambeth, in 1867 of the first Pan-Anglican conference of British,
colonial and foreign bishops. His published works included numerous sermons and addresses.
He died at Addington Park, near Croydon. While headmaster of Harrow School, he married in
1831 and had six children some of whom later became prominent in society. He succeeded John
Bird Sumner [see 1848] and was succeeded by Archibald Campbell Tate [see 1868].
MOOREHEAD, WILLIAM GALLOGLY [1836-1914] – American biblical scholar educated at
Xenia Seminary and was ordained into the Presbyterian Church in 1862. For some eight years
Moorehead was a missionary to Italy. From 1873 to 1914 he was professor of Greek exegesis
and biblical literature at Xenia Seminary. An editor of the Scofield Bible he was also a leader in
the Bible Conferences and Student Volunteer movements and visiting lecturer at several Bible
schools. He was also a dispensationalist and wrote tracts and essays as well as biblical
commentaries.
ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA GEORGINA [1830-1894] – Anglican poet who was educated at home
and later helped her mother run a school. A High Anglican she had ill health which led to a
secluded life and intensified her religious attitudes. She published several books in prose for the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Rossetti wrote a number of poems some of which
are sung as hymns such as “In the bleak midwinter” and “Love came down at Christmas”.
STUNDISTS – Russian evangelical sect tracing their origin to a group of Bible students in southwest Russia about 1845. Bohnekamper, a Reformed pastor conducted pietistic devotional hours
[stunden] for Russian peasants as well as German settlers. Under his son Karl the religious
movement called "Stundism" arose about 1862. It freed itself from all connection with the
Reformed Church and became purely Russian in character. Despite persecution by church and
state, Stundism spread widely with the majority gradually linking with the Baptists.
1863
BURGOS, JOSE [1837-1872] – A Spaniard born in the Philippines who was the theologian
curate at Manila Cathedral. From 1863 he led a group of clerics in action for rights in the
Philippines and produced a manifesto. With Mariano Gomez and Jacinto Zamora he headed
reform committees.
CASWELL, EDWARD [1814-1878] – Hymn writer, son of an Anglican vicar, educated at Oxford.
Ordained in 1840 he converted to Roman Catholicism and joined J H Newman in 1850. He
translated such hymns as “When morning gilds the skies” and “Jesu the very thought of Thee”
and composed himself “See amid the winter snow”, publishing “Hymns and Other Poems” in
1863.
DARBOY, GEORGES [1813-1871] – Archbishop of Paris. From humble origins he became
chaplain at a school where he occupied increasingly important posts. As bishop of Nancy he
showed a deep interest in education. He was the archbishop of Paris from 1863. So strongly did
he oppose the definition of papal infallibility that he tried to persuade Napoleon III to intervene at
Vatican Council I. He eventually submitted and exemplified important pastoral instructions by his
distinguished care for the needy during the siege of Paris 1870-71. He was executed by the
Commune while blessing his executioners.
DAVIDSON, ANDREW BRUCE [1831-1902] – Scottish Old Testament scholar who was born in
a poor Aberdeenshire family which made considerable sacrifices for his education at Aberdeen.
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After three years school-teaching during which he mastered Hebrew and some modern
languages he entered New College in Edinburgh, the theological training school of the free
Church of Scotland. Licensed as a preacher in 1856, he was subsequently assistant and then in
1863 successor to the famous ‘Rabbi’ Duncan as professor of Hebrew and oriental languages.
He was also an influential member of the Old Testament revision committee [1870-1884]. He is
now best remembered for his “Introductory Hebrew Grammar” published in 1874 which was
known as a textbook to many generations of students.
GAVAZZI, ALLESANDRO [1809-1889] – Italian patriot and religious reformer. He joined the
Barnabite Order [see 1533] and taught in their schools in various Italian cities. A great orator, he
began to promote the cause of liberalism and Italian freedom against ecclesiastical authorities
and the Jesuits, who tried vainly to silence him. He was enclosed in a convent until being
liberated at the election of Pope Pius IX who sent him as a chaplain with the papal volunteers
fighting with Charles Albert against Austria in the first war of independence in 1848.
Disappointed with the papacy he joined the many Italian exiles who had founded the Italian
Evangelical Church in London. Lord Palmerston suggested hiring a hall in Oxford Street where
crowds went to hear him denounce papal abuses and Jesuits politics. He travelled widely in
England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in 1859 returned to Italy to join Garibaldi in the Wars of
Independence. Disagreeing with the Waldensians, he spent a number of years unsuccessfully
trying to join the Free Italian Church. He became disillusioned and embittered, rejected by his
friends, he died in Rome.
GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE [1805-1872] – French Roman Catholic scholar.
After an irreligious youth he studied theology at Strasbourg and was ordained in 1834. In 1863
he was appointed professor of moral theology in the Sorbonne. He was elected to the French
Academy four years later. He first opposed papal infallibility, but submitted to the decrees, being
much concerned for renewal in French church life which led to his work in restoring the Oratory
[see 1564].
NEW APOSTOLIC CHURCH – In 1863 the senior apostle of the Catholic Apostlic Church, F.V.
Woodhouse, excommunicated the movement's German prophet Heinrich Geyer for recognising
new apostles to replace those who had died. As a consequence the New Apostolic Church was
founded in Germany, and it continued to flourish even under Hitler, whom Johann Bischoff
patriarch from 1932 to 1960 claimed to be God's special emissary. There are now branches in a
number of other countries.
SEVENTH DAY ADVENTISTS – A religious denomination that grew from the work of William
Miller [d.1849] [see 1833] who began to preach that the end of the world was at hand and that a
fiery conflagration would usher in the new heaven and new earth. He predicted it would occur
between 1843 and 1844. When this did not occur the fervour was largely diminished, a few
however continued to believe that the end was near. One of these Hiram Edson saw a vision of
Christ entering a second compartment of heaven proving to Edson that Miller’s prophetic
calculations were correct. The Sabbath keeping was confirmed by visions especially those of
Ellen G. White who died in 1915 [see 1846] whose importance to the movement cannot be
overstressed. White, though possessing only a third grade education, wrote 45 major books and
4000 articles. The denomination was organised in 1863 and by 1874 their first missionary J.N.
Andrews was sent out. In addition to the Sabbath they teach about soul sleep and abstain from
certain foods as well as smoking, drinking, card playing, gambling, worldly entertainment and
dancing. They conduct extensive medical programs as well as promoting healthy foods.
SMALL, JAMES GRINDLAY [1817-1888] – James Small was a Scot born at Edinburgh, in 1817,
the son of George Small, and attended Edinburgh High School. Converted in 1834, he published
two volumes of poetry, “The Highlands and Other Poems” in 1843, and “Songs of the Vineyard in
Days of Gloom and Sadness” in 1846. Educated at the University of Edinburgh, he studied under
Dr. Chalmers and became a minister of the Free Church of Scotland in 1847, serving at the Free
Church of Bervie, near Montrose. Greatly interested in hymnology, Small published “Hymns for
Youthful Voices” in 1859. His most famous hymn, "I’ve Found a Friend, O such a Friend " was
first published in “The Revival Hymn Book” in 1863.
SOPHRONIUS III – Patriarch of Constantinople [1863-1866] succeeded Joachim II [see 1860].
There is no additional information readily available.
WARING, ANNA LAETITA [1820-1910] – Poet and Hymn Writer. She was born at Neath in
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Glamorganshire, South Wales, where it seems she spent her whole life. It has been said of her
"Few authors are so sensitive or shy of publicity as Anna Waring. She has written her heart into
her hymns, but particulars of her life and education are concealed from us". Her hymns were first
introduced into America by a minister named F.D. Huntingdon in 1863. Though her early
upbringing was among the Quakers, she was impressed by the sacraments of the Anglican
Church, and identified herself with that body in 1842. She wrote hymns in her teens and
completed 39 of them by 1863. In order to read the Old Testament in the original, she learned
Hebrew. She had a gentle but merry spirit and did helpful work for the "Discharged Prisoners' Aid
Society". Her ninety years of life were a blessing to all who knew her or read her poems and
hymns. She is best remembered for the hymn “In heavenly love abiding”
WILLIAMSON ALEXANDER [1829 – 1890] - Scottish Protestant missionary to China with the
London Missionary Society. He was known for his scholarship and translation work as well as
founding of the Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge Among the Chinese
or the Christian Literature Society for China. Born in Falkirk, Scotland he was the eldest of seven
sons and trained at Glasgow University with the aim of going to China as a missionary. He
completed his arts and theological studies, and offered himself to, and was accepted by, the
London Missionary Society for the mission field in China. For seven years he worked in
evangelism, Chinese literary studies, and travelling. His health and strength wore out and he
came home to Scotland on furlough from 1858-1863 to recover. In 1863 Williamson returned to
China with the National Bible Society of Scotland as its first agent there. He started at Yantai in
Shandong Province and then travelled extensively distributing copies of the Bible in Chinese.
During this period he visited Beijing, Mongolia, and Manchuria. In August 1869, his younger
brother and fellow missionary, James Williamson also of the London Missionary Society, was
murdered near Tianjin. Between 1871 and 1883 he was back at Yantai with the Bible Society
and also with the Scottish United Presbyterian Mission [see 1796] In 1883 he had to return to
Scotland for health reasons. While he was there he founded the “Book and Tract Society for
China” later renamed in 1887: the “Christian Literature Society for China”. Williamson returned to
China again and was in Shanghai in 1886, when his wife died. He died four years later at Yantai
in 1890. He was 61.
1864
CLOUGH, JOHN EVERETT [1836-1910] – American Baptist missionary who was the overseer
of a mass movement to Christianity among the Telegus of South India. In 1864 he and his wife
sailed to India to a mission that three times the Baptists had been about to give up in
discouragement. He allowed the mission to continue along Indian lines and the flow of converts
became a flood after the famine of 1876-8 in the relief of which he played a significant role.
When he left India in 1910 the Baptist Telegu Mission had reached 60,000 members.
CROSBY, FANNY [1823-1915] – Fanny Crosby was born in Putnam County, New York to poor
parents, John and Mercy Crosby. At six weeks old, she caught a cold and developed
inflammation of the eyes. The family physician was not available, and a quack who came in his
place recommended mustard plasters as treatment. The botched procedure blinded her. Her
father died when she was one year old, so she was raised by her mother and grandmother.
These women grounded Crosby in Protestant Christian principles, helping her, for example,
memorize long passages from the Bible. Crosby became an active member of the John Street
Methodist Episcopal Church in New York City. At age 15, Crosby enrolled at the New York
Institute for the Blind. She remained there for seven years. During that time she learned to play
the piano and guitar and to sing. In 1843, she joined a group of lobbyists in Washington, D.C.
arguing for support of education for the blind. From 1847 to 1858, Crosby joined the faculty at
the New York school, teaching English and history. She married Alexander Van Alstyne, a blind
musician and fellow teacher, in 1858. At his insistence, she kept her maiden name. They had
one daughter, Francis, who died while a baby. In 1864 she published 2000 hymns of which some
60 are still in common use including “Safe in the Arms of Jesus”, “To God Be the Glory”, "All the
Way My Saviour Leads Me" and “Blessed Assurance Jesus is mine"
DODS, MARCUS [1834-1909] – Scottish biblical scholar who graduated from Edinburgh and in
1864 became minister of Renfield Free Church Glasgow, a position he held until he was called to
the chair of New Testament criticism in New College Edinburgh. In 1890 a complaint was
brought against him in the General Assembly that he had denied the inerrancy of Scripture, but it
was dismissed, and a more liberal view in his church was consolidated with the passing of the
1892 Declaratory Act.
EAST AFRICA TANZANIA – Bishop Tozer in 1864 moved the headquarters the Anglo Catholic
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University Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) from Malawi to Zanzibar, and in 1868 the Holy
Ghost Fathers arrived from the island of Reunion. Soon the various missionary societies began
to penetrate the mainland. The UMCA landed at Tanga and worked inland as well as working up
to the north bank of the Rovuma River in the south. Before the German occupation of the
country, all the missionary societies were British and included the Anglican Church Missionary
Society (CMS) in the central area and the London Missionary Society (LMS) along Lake
Tanjanyika. With the declaration of the German protectorate in 1885 Lutheran and Moravian
missionaries began to arrive. The Bethel Mission started work in Dar es Salaam in 1887, and in
1891 Moravians took over part of the work of the LMS south of Lake Victoria. In 1893 the Leipzig
Mission took over the work of the CMS along with Chagga people at the foot of Mount
Kilimanjaro where the latter society had run into difficulties with the German administration. On
the Roman Catholic side the Holy Ghost Fathers were followed by the White Fathers in 1879 and
the Benedictines in 1888. By 1914 most of the country had been occupied by missionary
societies, but under the British occupation most of the German missionaries were interned in
World War I, and in 1920 they were all repatriated when the country came under British
mandate. Replacements came from America and Scandinavia. In 1925 the German missionaries
were allowed to return but in 1940 they were interned again during World War II but the Lutheran
Church of America took care of the German Mission stations. Post-war, all the churches
strengthened their work and local autonomous churches were established. The largest
Protestant body was the Lutheran Church. The Anglican Church set up several dioceses and in
1970 it became a separate province of the Anglican Communion.
GESS, WOLFGANG FRIEDRICH [1819-1891] – German theologian who studied at Tubingen
where he came under the influence of F.C. Baur [see 1845] and J. T. Beck [see 1836]. After
serving as assistant minister to his father he taught at the missionary college Basle [1850] before
becoming professor at Gottingen in 1864. Gess came from the Wurttemberg Pietism which
stressed biblical theology and Christian experience, but which adopted a looser attitude towards
biblical inspiration.
HANKEY, ARABELLA KATHERINE [1834-1911]. She was an English hymn writer, the daughter
of a banker, who had a story to tell. Though the members of her family were prominent members
of the Anglican Church, they were always associated with its more evangelical faction. Her father
was one of the influential members of the Clapham Sect. Early in life Katherine, or Kate, as she
was affectionately known, caught this same evangelical concern from her father. She began
organizing Sunday School classes for rich and poor throughout London. These classes had a
profound influence throughout the city with a large number of the young students in turn
becoming zealous Christian workers. Kate also did considerable writing, including such works as
Bible Class Teachings, a booklet on confirmation, as well as a number of books of verse. All of
the royalties received from these publications were always directed to some foreign missions
project. When Katherine was only thirty years of age, she experienced a serious illness that left
her bedridden for an extended period. During a long period of recovery she wrote a lengthy
poem on the life of Christ. The poem consisted of two main sections, each containing fifty
verses. From this came the words of “Tell Me the Old, Old Story”
MAXWELL, JAMES LAIDLAW [1836-1921]. – Maxwell was the first Presbyterian missionary to
Taiwan (Formosa). He served with the English Presbyterian Mission. Maxwell studied medicine
at Edinburgh and practiced in London before being sent to Taiwan in 1864. He donated a small
printing press to the church which was later used to print the Taiwan Church News. In the
following year he established the first Presbyterian church in Taiwan. His mission at first centred
in the then capital Taiwan Fu. In 1868 he moved near Qijin where his work, both medical and
missionary, became more appreciated. In early 1872 he advised Canadian Presbyterian
missionary pioneer George Leslie Mackay to start his work in northern Taiwan, near Tamsui. He
had two sons, John Preston and James Laidlaw Jnr, both of whom later also became medical
missionaries. He retired in London in 1885 where he formed and became the first secretary of
the Medical Missionary Association. He and his sons oversaw the construction of Sin-lâu
Hospital in Tainan, the first western-style hospital in Taiwan. The younger J. L. Maxwell served in
the Tainan hospital from 1900 to 1923.
PIERPOINT, FOLLIOT SANDFORD [1835-1917] was a hymnist and poet. Born at Spa Villa,
Bath, England, he was educated at Queens' College, Cambridge graduating in classical honours
in 1871. Pierpoint was a classics schoolmaster and a devout Tractarian. He taught at
Somersetshire College, spending most of his life in Bath and the south-west. He published “The
Chalice of Nature and Other Poems” His most famous hymn is “For the Beauty of the Earth” first
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published in 1864.
RITSCHL, ALBRECHT [1822-1889] – German Protestant theologian who was the son of the
evangelical bishop and studied at various German universities becoming professor at Bonn from
1852 to 1864 and Gottingen from 1864 to 1889. He began his career as a disciple of F.C. Baur
[see 1845]. He rejected the concept of a penal wrath of God. Christ’s death he said was not a
propitiation of just judgement but the result of His uttermost loyalty to his vocation. Christ’s object
was to bring men into the same fellowship with God by sharing His own consciousness of
Sonship which he preserved to the end. For Ritschl religion was always social.
SYLLABUS OF ERRORS – A list of 80 propositions condemning the doctrines of liberalism
attached to a papal encyclical issued by Pius IX in 1864. The first approach towards drawing up
the syllabus came from the provincial council of Spoleto in 1849 which requested a
condemnation of modern errors. The syllabus was arranged under 10 headings, Pantheism,
Naturalism, and Absolute Rationalism; Modern Rationalism; Indifferentism and False Toleration
in Religious matters; Socialism, Communism, Secret Societies, Bible Societies, and Liberal
Clerical Associations; the Church and its Rights; the State and its Relation to the Church; Natural
and Christian Ethics; Christian Marriage; Temporal Power of the Pope; and Modern Liberalism.
The Syllabus of Errors caused problems in Belgium, France and Germany.
WALDENSTROM, PAUL PETER [1838-1917] – He was a Swedish theologian and churchman
who studied at Uppsala and then taught biblical languages and theology at Gayle, a seaport on
the Gulf of Bothnia. Ordained in 1864 he found the theological outlook of the national church
depressing. Deeply interested in the revival movement, he stressed Scripture rather than creeds
and insisted that salvation came through a personal commitment to Christ. He resigned from the
national church's ministry in 1882 and worked with the Evangelical National Association, a
movement founded in 1856 for the reform of religion in Sweden. In 1878 he organised the
Swedish Mission Covenant. Many of its members migrated to the USA where they formed what
is now the Evangelical Covenant Church. Many say his devotional writings are the best reading
after the Bible.
WHITELAW, THOMAS [1840-1917] – Scottish Presbyterian minister and biblical scholar who
was educated at St Andrews and the United Presbyterians Theological Hall in Edinburgh. He
was ordained in 1864 and held ministries in Glasgow and Kilmarnock but refused a call to
Australia. However he was a special commissioner of the United Free Church at the union of
Australian Presbyterian Churches in 1901. He wrote a number of commentaries.
WOODSWORTH, JAMES [d.1917] – Canadian Methodist minister who was ordained into the
ministry in 1864. The same year he was sent to the Portage la Prairie circuit in the West where
he served the rest of his life. He was for many years superintendent of Northwest missions for
the Methodist Church.
1865
ABOTT, EDWIN [1838-1926] – Educationalist and writer who was appointed headmaster of the
City of London School in 1865 and resigned in 1889 to devote himself to study and writing. He
wrote biographies of Francis Bacon, Cardinal Newman and Thomas Becket. Having written
“Flatland” a story of a two dimensional world he concluded that miracles came from a fourth
dimension.
BARING-GOULD, SABINE [1834-1924] – Born in Exeter and educated at Cambridge. He was a
hymn writer who wrote "Onward Christian Soldiers" for a Sunday School procession. In 1881
after a number of incumbencies he appointed himself rector of Lew Trenchard in Devon which
had been the family seat for 300 years. He was the author of "The Lives of the Saints" in 15
volumes which has the distinction of being banned by the Roman Catholic Church by its placing
on its Index.
BOMPAS, WILLIAM CARPENTER [1834-1906] – Pioneer Anglican bishop of the Canadian
North who was educated privately and ordained a deacon in 1859. In 1865 he volunteered for
missionary work in the Yukon. He quickly earned the respect of the Indians and Eskimos and
translated the New Testament into many of their languages. He also founded hostels and
schools. He was a bishop in Canada from 1874 to 1905. His many travels and his endurance of
cold and famine earned him the title “Apostle of the North” and left a permanent mark on
missionary work in the Yukon.
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BOOTH, CATHERINE [1829-1890] – So called Mother of the Salvation Army and wife of William
Booth [see 1878] who was the daughter of a Wesleyan preacher. She was educated at home
and later joined the Brixton Wesleyan Church from which she and William were expelled for her
religious zeal. They married in 1855 and had eight children. In 1865 after years of itinerant
preaching they returned to London and set up the Christian Revival Association, a forerunner of
the Salvation Army. For many years she laboured on though never out of pain. She died of
cancer in 1890 with 36,000 attending her funeral at Olympia.
CHINA INLAND MISSION is an interdenominational Protestant Christian missionary society,
founded in Britain by Hudson Taylor [see below] on 25 June 1865. It was founded on principles
of faith and prayer. From the beginning it recruited missionaries from the working class as well
as single women, which was a new practice for a large agency. Even today, no appeals for funds
are made, instead a reliance upon God is practiced to move people through prayer alone. The
goal of the mission that began dedicated to China has grown to include bringing the Gospel to
the millions of inhabitants of East Asia who have never heard or had access to the message of
Jesus Christ. Reluctantly, along with the departure of all foreign Christian workers in the early
1950s, the China Inland Mission redirected all of its missionaries to other parts of east Asia, to
continue the work and maintain a ministry to China and the Chinese. The name was officially
changed to Overseas Missionary Fellowship in 1964.
HANBY, BENJAMIN RUSSELL [1833-1867] – Hanby was an American composer who wrote
approximately 80 songs, the most famous of which are "Darling Nelly Gray" and the hymn "Who
Is He In Yonder Stall?". Hanby was born in Ohio and was educated at Otterbein University. He
was the son of Bishop William Hanby. After graduation Hanby briefly taught school and then
became a minister in the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. During his tenure as minister of
a church near Dayton he composed "Who Is He In Yonder Stall?" Hanby was involved in the
Ohio Underground Railroad which was a means of assisting runaway slaves from the south
accessing freedom in Canada. In 1865 Chicago publisher George Frederick Root brought Hanby
to Chicago to pursue some publishing ventures. Hanby died there from tuberculosis in 1867
MANNING, HENRY EDWARD [1808-1892] – Cardinal, archbishop of Westminster. Educated at
Harrow and Oxford he was an Anglican until his 40s, then Roman Catholic from 1851 and helped
to consolidate the Catholic revival in England. He began as an Anglican Evangelical ordained in
1832, then archdeacon of Chichester in 1841. He was supported by Cardinal Wiseman [see
1850], amid opposition from older Catholic families, who took personal interest in him ordaining
him a priest in 1851 and then appointing him inspector of schools in the Westminster diocese in
1856. In 1860 Manning became the chief English defender of papal temporal power. Upon
Wiseman's death in 1865, Pius IX made Manning new primate and he became a cardinal in
1875. He generally supported Gladstone's policies.
PALMER RAY [1808-1887] – Congregational minister who at thirteen years of age he became a
clerk in a dry goods store in Boston, where he identified himself with the Park Street
Congregational Church, whose pastor, Dr. S. E. Dwight, discerning the promise of great
usefulness in the boy, took a deep interest in him, inducing him to go to Phillips Academy,
Andover, where he prepared for Yale College, from which institution he was graduated in 1820.
The next year he lived in New York City, taking up the study of theology privately and supporting
himself by teaching in a woman's college. From 1835 to 1850 he was pastor of the
Congregational Church at Bath before moving to pastor the First Congregational Church of
Albany until 1865. He then for thirteen years (1865-78) lived in New York City and filled the office
of Corresponding Secretary of the American Congregational Union. He then retired to private life.
Between 1829 and 1881 he published eleven volumes including hymnals. He is regarded by
many as the greatest hymn writer that America has produced, and his hymn "My faith looks up to
thee" as the greatest hymn of American origin. He also translated and promoted “Jesus, thou joy
of loving hearts” by Bernard of Clairvaux [1090-1153]
SALVATION ARMY – Founded by William Booth [see 1878] as the "Christian Mission" in East
London in 1865 which took the name Salvation Army in 1878. It was an essentially evangelical
movement, biblically orientated, theologically conservative. Their basis of belief includes the
divine inspiration of the Bible, the doctrine of the Trinity, the salvation of believers by faith
through grace, the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the body, and the final judgement.
The distinctiveness of the Army includes an Arminian emphasis on free will and a holiness
experience which can be subsequent to conversion, both of which can be traceable to William
Booth's Methodist origins, and the non-observance of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's
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Supper. By 1879 William Booth commanded 81 stations manned by 127 full-time evangelists
with another 1000 voluntary speakers holding 75,000 services a year. In 1878 the first brass
band appeared at an Army event with bands soon springing up everywhere, and the uniform was
adopted two years later. The Army was faced with the appalling social needs of Victorian
London. The sensational case in which William Booth son Bramwell was involved in exposing
the white slave trade forced the Army into prominence and within five years thirteen homes for
girls in need of care and protection had been set up in the United Kingdom and a further 17
overseas. The first Prison Gate home for discharged prisoners was opened in Melbourne in
1883. Other social action included cheap food depots, an unofficial employment exchange, a
missing persons bureau, night shelters, a farm colony, soup kitchens, leper colonies, wood yards
in the United States of America, home industries in India, hospitals, schools, and even a lifeboat
for the fishermen of Norway. Permeating it all was the basic concern for personal salvation as
had been the motivation from its beginning. The Salvation Army were very prominent in serving
people in the World Wars where they gained a lot of respect for their service.
SPURGEON, CHARLES HADDON [1834-1892] – Baptist preacher whose father and
grandfather were Independent pastors. Early in 1850 he was converted at the Primitive
Methodist Chapel in Colchester Essex into which he had entered because of snowy weather.
Spurgeon became pastor of the Waterbeach Baptist Chapel in 1851 and three years later was
called to the New Park Street Baptist Chapel Southwark London which he soon filled to
overflowing necessitating the building of the Metropolitan Tabernacle in 1859. In 1856 he began
the "Pastors College" for training men called to preach the gospel, an establishment which still
continues today as Spurgeon's College. In 1865 he was one of the founders of the London
Baptist Association and four years later established an orphanage now known as Spurgeon's
Homes. Other charitable religious organisations he founded or supported included Temperance
and Clothing societies, a Pioneer Mission, and Colportage Association. He suffered periodic
bouts of illness which sometime kept him out of the pulpit. He fought battles against hyper
Calvinism and Arminianism in his early ministry. Spurgeon was an evangelical Calvinist who
read widely and especially loved the 17th century Puritans. He last preached at the Tabernacle
in June 1891 and died the following January in the south of France.
TAYLOR, JAMES HUDSON [1832-1905] – English missionary pioneer who was the son of a
Methodist chemist. He was converted at 17 and soon felt a strong call to China. He landed in
Shanghai in 1854 after completing part of medical training, as an agent of the short lived
Chinese Evangelisation Society. The inefficiency of its home base threw him back on faith and
prayer to support and a succession of providences caused him to server connection. He adopted
Chinese dress and in 1858 married Maria Dyer in Ningpo despite the opposition of other
missionaries who viewed him as a poor "unconnected nobody". Invalided back to England he
bore a burden for the Chinese millions without Christ which grew even stronger. As the Chinese
Empire opened up he could find no mission willing to back him so he founded the
interdenominational China Inland Mission in 1865 asking God to send “24 willing skilful
labourers” two for each un-reached province. They sailed in 1866, and Maria died four years
later. Despite opposition from other missionaries and mandarins and some internal dissension,
the China Inland Mission established itself as the "shock troops" of Protestant advance. By 1895
he led 641 missionaries which was about half the total Protestant missionaries in the country. His
example led to other faith missions being founded. Among his main emphases were
identification with the people such as all missionaries to wear Chinese dress, the direction of the
mission to be from the field, not the home base, and dependence on God for provision. Hudson
Taylor retired in 1901 and died four years later in Changsha, capital of the last province to open.
WANGEMANN, HERMANN THEODOR [1818-1894] – German mission executive who studied
theology and became director in 1849 of a Lutheran teachers college. He was appointed director
of the Berlin Mission in 1865 and held that position until his death. He was strong willed and
somewhat authoritarian with some calling the Berlin Mission ‘Wangermann Mission”. His first
love was the South African field, which he visited on two occasions, but was not enthusiastic
about the mission’s moved to China in 1882 and German East Africa in 1890. He was seldom
interested in cooperative efforts with other missions either at home or abroad.
1866
BUSHNELL, HORACE [1802-1876] – American Congregational minister and theologian who
was ordained as pastor of the North Church at Hartford Connecticut [1833-1859]. He argued that
conversion should be educative rather than sudden and in "The Vicarious Sacrifice” of 1866
declared Christ's atonement as an illustration of the eternal principle of love rather than a
satisfaction by which God was reconciled to man.
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CHINA – After a period of isolation of over 100 years China was opened up again in 1841. The
China Inland Mission under Hudson Taylor commenced to send protestant missionaries into all
Chinese provinces making a great impact on Chinese society with its hospitals, schools, and
churches. [1601-1900]
CHRISTIAN SCIENCE was founded in 1866 as a religion which has its origin in Mary Baker
Eddy who claimed it came to her by direct revelation and that the book “Science and Health,
With a Key to the Scriptures” was written under divine dictation although she conceded that a
clergyman edited the bad grammar. There are around 3,000 churches worldwide of which 2000
are in the United States. The church has no preachers or sermons but have First and Second
readers who read passages from the Bible and from Science and Health. They believe Jesus is
not God, and that he neither died on the Cross nor rose from the dead.
DIX, WILLIAM CHATTERTON [1837-1898] – Dix was born in Bristol, the son of a surgeon.
William Dix' father wrote a biography of poet Thomas Chatterton and gave his son his middle
name in his honour. Young William attended the Bristol Grammar School for a commercial
career. After school he became the manager of a marine insurance company in Glasgow, a
vocation which he followed to the end of his life. At the age of 29 he was struck with a near fatal
illness and consequently suffered months confined to his bed. During this time he became
severely depressed. Yet it is from this period that many of his hymns date. His best known hymn
was “As with Gladness Men of Old”. His heart was in the poetry of worship. He wrote more than
40 hymns over the course of his life.
GUINNESS, HENRY GRATTAN [1835-1910] – Evangelist and writer who was the ordained as
an evangelist in 1857 and preached in Europe and America [1857 – 1872]. He had a part in the
conversion of Doctor Barnardo in Dublin in 1866. He founded the East London Institute for
training missionaries in 1873 and the Livingstone Inland Mission in the Congo in 1878 and other
missions in South America and India. All these societies were in 1899 amalgamated into the
Regions Beyond Missionary Union which supported nearly 100 and sent out more than 1000
missionaries.
HOPKINS, GERARD MANLEY [1844-1889] – English poet, educated Oxford where he was
influenced in art by the Pre-Raphaelites and in religion by the later Tractarians [see 1833]. In
1866 he seceded to Rome and joined the Jesuits and held several teaching and pastoral posts
including the chair of Greek at Dublin. On entering the order he destroyed the poetry he had
written to that date. In his poems Hopkins revealed his allegiance to Duns Scotus [see 1291]
rather than the official theology of the Jesuits, that of Thomas Aquinas.
MATHESON GEORGE [1842-1906] – Matheson was a Scottish theologian and preacher who
was educated at the University of Glasgow, where he graduated in classics, logic and
philosophy. In his twentieth year he became totally blind, but he held to his resolve to enter the
ministry, and gave himself to theological and historical study. In 1879 the University of Edinburgh
conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.D. In 1890, he became a fellow of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. He died suddenly of a stroke in 1906. He never married. One of his
hymns, "O Love That Wilt Not Let Me Go," has passed into the popular hymnology of the
Christian Church. Matheson himself wrote of the composition: "I am quite sure that the whole
work was completed in five minutes, and equally sure that it never received at my hands any
retouching or correction. I have no natural gift of rhythm. All the other verses I have ever written
are manufactured articles; this came like a dayspring from on high. "O Love That Wilt Not Let Me
Go" was written on the evening of Matheson’s sister’s marriage. Years before, he had been
engaged, until his fiancée learned that he was going blind and that there was nothing the doctors
could do. She told him that she could not go through life with a blind man. He went blind while
studying for the ministry, and his sister had been the one to care for him through the years, but
now she was gone. He was now 40, and his sister’s marriage brought a fresh reminder of his
own heartbreak. It was in the midst of this circumstance and intense sadness that the Lord gave
Matheson this hymn, which he said was written in five minutes.
NICANOR Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1866-1869] see 1861 and 1870
SOCIETY OF ST JOHN THE EVANGELIST – Popularly known as the "Cowley Fathers" the
society is the oldest men's religious community in the Church of England. In 1850 R.M. Benson
was appointed Vicar at Cowley and in 1866 took the vows with three others. The society has
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worked in India, South Africa, United States, Canada, as well as in Britain and in the 20th
century played an increasing part in ecumenical affairs.
1867
ANGLICAN COMMUNION originally involved England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales to which
was added the Protestant Episcopal Church of the USA in 1789. Due mainly to missionary
endeavours by 1971 there were some 365 dioceses including in Brazil, China, and Japan. The
focal point of the Anglican Communion has been the succession of Lambeth Conferences since
1867 which started with 70 bishops at its inaugural meeting and reached 310 in 1958. In 1966 an
Anglican centre was set up in Rome to facilitate better understanding between the Anglican and
Roman Catholic Churches with this action being endorsed at the 1968 Lambeth Conference.
BETHEL INSTITUTIONS – Housing for disadvantaged. Developed from a farmhouse near
Bielefeld Germany with five epileptic boys which opened in 1867 as a result of revival in
Westphalia, the institutions have grown, housing over 10,000 people. Besides homes for
epileptics, mental patients, tramps, refugees, and youths in need of guidance, there are institutes
for deacons and deaconesses, a mission to East Africa, a theological college, and secondary
schools. The institutions were named Bethel by Pastor Friedrich von Bodelschwingh [see 1872].
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT [1867] was the “foundation charter” of the Dominion of Canada
passed by the British Government. The self governing colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
Quebec and Ontario after a series of conferences were joined together under a federal
government. The act preserved the monarchy in British North America with a House of
Commons elected by the people and a Senate appointed from three basic regions of the nation.
Two key questions left to the provinces were property and education which allowed separate
schools to continue and placated the French Canadians.
BULLINGER, ETHELBERT WILLIAM [1837 – 1913] - Anglican clergyman, Author and
Theologian. His family traced their ancestry back to Heinrich Bullinger, the Swiss Reformer [see
1531]. He was educated at King's College London. He later received a Doctor of Divinity degree
in 1881 from Archibald Campbell Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury who cited Bullinger's "eminent
service in the Church in the department of Biblical criticism. He was ordained in 1862 and in
1867 Bullinger became clerical secretary of the Trinitarian Bible Society [see 1831], a position he
would hold till his death in 1913. In the great Anglican debate of the Victorian era, he was a Low
Churchman. He is well known for his books including the Companion Bible. He was also a
practiced musician.
CANADA – The Church since 1867 has been the tale of ecumenism with the Presbyterians
being untied in 1875, most of the Methodists in 1884, and the Anglican Synod in 1893. In 1925
the Methodists and Congregationalists and a large part of the Presbyterians joined to form the
United Church of Canada. The growth of liberalism continued in the 20th century with many
emphasising the social implications of Christianity such as James Woodsworth [see 1864].
However there are many in the denominations who remain conservative and orthodox as well as
groups such as the Brethren, Mennonites and the Fellowship of Evangelical Baptists. Missions to
the Indians and Eskimos however have been overwhelmingly in the evangelical and
conservative groups. [See Canada – The Churches under British Rule 1763]
CHALMERS, JAMES [1841-1901] – Scottish missionary trained by the London Missionary
Society who sailed in 1867 to the Cook Islands of Polynesia where for 10 years he continued the
work begun at Rarotonga by John Williams [see 1817]. He however longed for un-evangelised
areas such as New Guinea where he went in 1877. During his 24 years there despite setbacks
he opened up many areas for the Gospel and established a training institution in Port Moresby
seeing the whole area transformed. He was well known for his prayer, Christ-likeness and love
for the people. He was murdered by cannibals during a journey to explore new territories.
HOWSON, JOHN SAUL [1816-1885] – New Testament scholar who was educated at Cambridge
and served as a teacher and then headmaster of Liverpool Collegiate Institute. From 1867 he
was the dean of Chester. He is best remembered as the co-author of the influential work “The
Life and Epistles of St Paul”. Howson was chiefly responsible for the historical, geographical, and
archaeological aspects of the work.
JONES, JOHN CYNDDYLAN [1840-1930] – Welsh expositor and theologian who trained for a
Welsh Calvinistic ministry at Bala and Trevecca colleges. After serving as minister at English
Calvinistic Methodist Church at Pontypool from 1867 for two years he became a Congregational
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minister in London. He returned to Wales, and ministered in Cardiff until his resignation. In 1888
he joined the staff of the British and Foreign Bible Society in South Wales. He was much
influenced by American theologians such as W.G.T. Shedd [see 1888].
LAMBETH CONFERENCES – The origin of these conferences was as a result of the synod of
the Anglican Church in Canada which was held to discuss the Colenso Affair [see 1853]. As a
result the archbishop of Canterbury C.T. Longley proposed an informal gathering of bishops
which would meet at his personal invitation to discuss Anglican problems, though having no
legislative powers. In 1867 the first conference of 76 bishops met, and its success ensured that
calling of future conferences, which have occurred every 10 years, with the majority of Anglican
bishops attending. The 1888 conference endorsed the Lambeth Quadrilateral [see 1886], the
1920 conference issued a plea for reunion addressed to the heads of all Christian communities,
and in the 1958 conference the main topic was a review on race relations and family planning.
Though the conference lasts a month, large themes are frequently treated superficially.
PASSAVANT, WILLIAM ALFRED [1821-1894] – American Lutheran clergyman, editor and
philanthropist who in 1867 was one of the founders the conservative General Council of the
Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America. He served for the last 50 years of his life in
Pittsburgh where he was a pastor until 1855 of the English Lutheran Church. He edited
numerous papers including the monthly “Missionary” from 1856 and the “Workman” first
published in 1881. He opened hospitals and orphanage asylums in a number of American cities.
SCRIPTURE UNION – Founded in England in 1867 as the "Children's Special Service Mission".
Scripture Union is now an international, interdenominational evangelical youth and Bible reading
movement, with offices or representatives in 70 countries. Basic activities are children's
evangelism and youth work especially through school groups. Scripture Union especially in
Britain publishes books and booklets with a complete range of graded Sunday school lesson
aids, storybooks for children and youth, training literature and discussion group material, as well
as audiovisual material.
VON HUGEL, FRIEDRICH [1852-1925] – Roman Catholic philosopher and writer. Born in
Florence of an Austrian diplomat father and a Scottish mother he went to England with his family
at the age of 15 in 1867 and stayed there for the rest of his life. Baron of the Holy Roman
Empire, Von Hugel was a student of many subjects and master of seven languages. He never
held an office in the Roman Catholic Church but did have a relationship with controversialists
within that organisation. He was a Roman Catholic who did not believe in Purgatory hereafter,
and a mystic who walked the world with open eyes.
1868
BORNHOLMERS – The Danish Lutheran Mission, an evangelical layman’s home mission
formed within the Danish national church. Its name originates from a revival movement on the
island of Bornholm in the 1860’s and was officially formed in 1868. It has an evangelical basis
accentuating the total depravity of man, reconciliation through Christ alone and sanctification as
a consequence of salvation. In addition it accentuated individual spiritual gifts, the universal
priesthood of all believers and the maximum spiritual development of all Christians.
BRIGHT, WILLIAM [1824-1901] – Church historian who was educated at Rugby and Oxford and
after teaching there succeeded H L Mansel [see 1868] as regius professor of ecclesiastical
history at Oxford in 1868. Of his numerous works the most important were “History of the
Church” 313-451, “Early English History” and “The Age of the Fathers”. He was a High Church
Anglican and a dynamic preacher.
CHARTERIS, ARCHIBALD HAMILTON [1835-1908] – Scottish Church leader who was royal
chaplain to Victoria and Edward VIII and moderator of the Church of Scotland. Appointed to the
chair of biblical criticism at Edinburgh University he was founder of Woman’s Guild, Young Men’s
Guild and Deaconess Hospital as well as the “Life and Work” magazine.
CHRISTLIEB, THEODOR [1833-1889] – German preacher and theologian who in 1865 became
pastor at Friedrichaften where he influenced members of the German royal family. He became
professor of pastoral theology at Bonn in 1868 holding that position until his death. He was a
conservative and resisted the German biblical critics despite much opposition, and organised
missionary work.
EDISON, THOMAS ALVA [1847-1931] – Inventor who was born in Ohio and was a newspaper
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boy at 11 and later became a telegraph operator. In 1868 he purchased the publication
"Faraday's experimental researches in electricity" which inspired his life's work. Of his 1,100
inventions, the best known are the phonograph, electric lamp, and the alkaline storage battery.
Edison was a strong believer in God stating "the existence of an intelligent Creator, a personal
God, can to my mind almost be proved from chemistry”. He was motivated by a firm faith that
where man faced technological problems, God had in nature supplied materials necessary to
solve them. Thus despite early losses, no difficulty daunted him.
FLAD, JOHANN MARTIN [1838-1915] – German missionary to Ethiopia. He was a saddler by
trade and was one of a number of craftsmen who were selected to a new work in Ethiopia. He
went to Ethiopia in 1855 and initially was well received. He became a victim of the persecution of
Emperor Theodorus II in 1864 and two years later, with the his family held hostage, Theodorus
compelled him to undertake a diplomatic mission to England. After the British had forced the
downfall of Theodorus in 1868, Flad was able to pursue an undisturbed ministry of literature
distribution and evangelism among the Ethiopian Jews until his death.
MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE [1820-1871] – Dean of St Paul's who was educated at Oxford
and ordained in 1844. He was appointed as a professor in Oxford in 1859 and succeeded as
professor of ecclesiastical history in 1866. Two years later he was made dean of St Paul's.
Mansel maintained that man acquires knowledge of the nature of God only from supernatural
revelation. F.D. Maurice [see 1838] replied by challenging both Mansel's concept of revelation
his concept of Christianity. The conflict continued to drag on with little credit to either man.
MORTON, JOHN [1839-1912] – Founder of the Canadian Presbyterian Mission to the East
Indians in Trinidad. The East Indians were brought into Trinidad as indentured labour for the
sugar industry after emancipation, but social and religious factors inhibited their integration into
Trinidadian Christianity, and Morton was sent to open a special mission for them. From 1868
until his death in 1912 he was the leader of the mission which included, besides Trinidad, work in
Guyana, St Lucia, Grenada, and Jamaica. His approach was based on both education and
evangelism. Although the Indian churches were small his emphasis on schools enabled the
Indians for the first time to make their way in the West Indies. He was particularly enthusiastic
about independent Indian settlement.
TAIT, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL – Archbishop of Canterbury [1868-1882]. Born in Edinburgh
and educated the Royal High School, his parents were Presbyterian, but he early turned towards
the Scottish Episcopal Church, and was confirmed in his first year at Oxford. He won an open
scholarship, took his degree and became fellow and tutor of Balliol. He was also ordained
deacon in 1836 and priest two years later. Although his sympathies were on the whole with the
liberal movement in the university, he never took a lead in the matter. He succeeded Arnold at
Rugby School but left due to a serious illness in 1848. He had married at Rugby in 1843 but in
the spring of 1856 five of his children died because of scarlet fever. He was consecrated bishop
of London later that year and was translated to Canterbury in 1868. His last years were
interrupted by illness and saddened by the death in 1878 of his only son Craufurd, and of his
wife.
Tait as bishop of London devoted a very large part of his time at London in actual evangelistic
work and to the end his interest in the pastoral side of the work of the clergy was greater than
anything else. With his wife, he was instrumental in organising women's work upon a sound
basis, and he did not a little for the healthful regulation of Anglican sisterhoods during the
formative period in which this was particularly necessary. Nor was he less successful in the
larger matters of administration and organisation, which brought into play his sound practical
judgement and strong, common-sense. He was constant in his attendance in parliament, and
spared no pains in pressing on measures of practical utility. The modification of the terms of
clerical subscription (1865), the new lectionary (1871), and the Burials Act (1880) were largely
owing to him. The Royal Commissions on Ritual (1867) and on the Ecclesiastical Courts (1881)
were due to him, and he took a large part in the deliberations of both. He also promoted the
healthy development of the Lambeth Conferences on the lines of mutual counsel. On the other
hand, Tait was not successful in dealing with matters which called for the higher gifts of a ruler
and especially in his relations with the liberal trend in modern thought. The archbishop died in
1882 leaving a legacy of peace to the church. Tait was a churchman by conviction; but although
the work of his life was all done in England, he remained a Scotsman to the end. It was the
opinion of some that he never really understood the historical position of the English Church and
took no pains to learn. He succeeded Charles Thomas Longley [see 1862] and was succeeded
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by Edward White Benson [see 1883].
WHITE FATHERS – The common name for the “Society of Missionaries of Africa” taken from the
white cassocks and mantles. The society was founded in 1868 by Charles Cardinal Lavigerie
[1825-1892] archbishop of Algiers, to evangelise Africa. The Fathers are secular priests together
with Lay brothers who live in community bound by oath to lifelong work in African missions and
obedience to their superiors. They began their mission in Algeria and Tunisia and were
unsuccessful in an attempt to penetrate the Sahara. Later they entered Buganda where they
were very successful and subsequently going to Tanganyika, Nyasa, and Congo. The White
Fathers were also much concerned with the abolition of slavery, improvement of agriculture, and
the scientific exploration of Africa.
ZAHN, THEODOR [1838-1933] – German Lutheran biblical and patristic scholar who taught at
Gottingen [1868-1877] followed by Kiel, Erlangen, and Leipzig. Though he was one of the
greatest scholars of his day he did not have the impact that he might have had due possibly to
his defence of orthodoxy in a day when this was far from popular. He was a prolific writer
including twelve volumes on the New Testament.
1869
BLUMHARDT, CHRISTOPH FREDERICK [1842-1919] – German evangelical leader who
became an assistant to his father Johann [see 1852] in 1869 at Bad Boll and succeeded him as
head of the establishment in 1880. His theology included a strong emphasis on the
righteousness of God and His judgement against “the flesh”. He was a member of the Diet of
Wurttemberg from 1900-1906.
CHRISTADELPHIANS – A sect founded by Dr John Thomas who emigrated from Scotland to
the United States in 1832 and at first associated with the Campbellites and Millerites. Members
accept the Bible as their sole authority. They reject the immortality of the soul and do not believe
that Jesus Christ or the Holy Spirit is God, as well as there being no personal devil. Salvation is
through perseverance in good works and through acceptance of their doctrines and baptism.
DE LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON [1827-1891] – German oriental and Old Testament scholar who
studied theology and philology at Berlin and Halle. He rejected the pietistic faith of his father and
teachers and became a lifelong foe of organised religion. He entered into a productive scholarly
career in ancient oriental literature, especially the Septuagint, but his unpleasant personality
made it difficult to secure a university chair. Even after receiving an appointment at Gottingen in
1869 he remained an unrestrained polemicist.
GORDON, ADONIRAM JUDSON [1836-1895] – Baptist minister, educator, and author,
graduated from Brown University USA in 1860. In 1869 he went to Clarendon Street Baptist
Church, in Boston, a centre of evangelistic and philanthropic work. He founded a school training
missionaries for home and foreign service and for pastor’s assistants, from which came Gordon
College and its divinity school.
LINDSAY, THOMAS MARTIN [1843-1914] – Scottish church historian who was educated at
Glasgow and Edinburgh and ordained in the Free Church of Scotland in 1869. Lindsay was
appointed three years later to the chair of church history at his church’s Glasgow college.
Lindsay was a defender of W.R. Smith in the heresy trial 1877-1881 that led to the latter
deposition. He made substantial contributions to such projects as the Encyclopaedia Britannica
and the Cambridge Modern History.
RANKIN, JEREMIAH EAMES [1828-1904] – Rankin was an abolitionist and a champion of the
temperance movement. He was educated at Andover and was closely associated with Howard
College where he was professor of homiletics and pastoral theology, and president. He served
twice as delegate to general conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and once to the
Congregational union of England and Wales. Rankin is best known as author of the hymn "God
Be with You 'Til we Meet Again" In 1869 Rankin became pastor of Washington's First
Congregational Church. This appointment followed a split in the church over the issue of race.
Those who remained with the church felt that he was prepared to lead the church in a properly
unbiased direction. While pastor of the First Congregational Church (1869-1884), Rankin's
sermons were popular with vice president Wilson and numerous members of Congress.
SEELEY, SIR JOHN ROBERT [1834-1895] – English historian educated at Cambridge and
became professor of Latin at University College London in 1863 and professor of modern history
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at Cambridge in 1869 where he succeeded Charles Kingsley [see 1842]. He is best known for
his "Ecce Homo" of 1865 which tells the story of Jesus and his subsequent influence on the
morals of the world. As it dealt only with the human side of the story the book was construed as
an attack on Christianity and gave rise to much controversy.
TISCHENDORF, LOBEGOTT FRIEDRICH KONSTANTIN VON [1815-1874] – German
Protestant theologian and textual critic who studied at Leipzig where he was led to combine a
careful concern for the Greek language with a love of the sacred text. Though he was a
professor in the theological faculty at Leipzig he spent many years in the libraries of Europe and
the near East searching out unpublished ancient manuscripts. During his lifetime he published
more manuscripts and critical editions of the Greek New Testament than any other scholar. His
most famous discovery was the Codex Sinaiticus at St Catherine's monastery in Sinai which he
visited several times. His critical edition of the Greek Testament from 1869 remains a basic
reference tool for the New Testament scholar.
VATICAN 1 – This event was reckoned by Roman Catholics to be the 20th ecumenical council.
The First Vatican Council was convened in 1868 and sat from December 1869 until July 1870.
One of the major areas considered at the Council was the infallibility of the pope which caused
significant problems in the unity of the Catholic Church and involved the loss of certain groups.
The key figure in the council was the pope himself, Pius IX, who made his own convictions clear
in his famous reply to one dissident bishop, “Tradition? I am tradition.”
VERBECK, GUIDO HERMAN FRIDOLIN [1830-1898] – Dutch-American missionary to Japan.
Born in the Netherlands under Moravian influence he studied engineering at Utrecht and at the
same time developed linguistic, literary, and musical skills. Migrating to the United States in 1852
he studied at the Presbyterian Theological Seminary in New York before being ordained and
setting sail for Japan as a missionary. Verbeck established a school in Nagasaki and taught
English through the Bible. At the government’s request he opened a school for Japanese
interpreters using the New Testament and the American Constitution as textbooks. Several of his
students became prominent in national affairs. In 1869 he headed a school in Tokyo which
became eventually the Japanese Imperial University. Later he was appointed official translator
for foreign documents for the Japanese government. His final years were spent lecturing and
preparing literature for the Japanese church.
WILBERFORCE, SAMUEL [1805-1873] – Bishop of Winchester and third son of William
Wilberforce, Samuel was educated at Oxford. Brought up in an evangelical environment he was
influenced strongly at Oxford by J.H. Newman [see 1845] and H.E. Manning [see 1865] to whom
he was related by marriage. Ordained in 1828, after 10 years of parish work he became bishop
of Oxford in 1845 and Winchester in 1869 being known as a High Church bishop. Prime Minister
Gladstone would have made him archbishop of Canterbury but Wilberforce was killed by a fall
from his horse. He debated at Oxford on Darwin’s Theory in 1859 which precipitated the later
19th century conflict between science and religion.
WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER [1807-1885] – Bishop of Lincoln and hymn writer who was a
nephew of the poet Wordsworth. He had a brilliant career in classics and mathematics at
Cambridge. Wordsworth was headmaster of Harrow [1836-1844]. In 1850 he held a country
living until 1869 when he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. This conservative High Churchman
was involved in controversy with the Wesleyans in 1873. He wrote a number of hymns.
1870
BARNARDO, THOMAS [1845-1905] – Converted by Irish Plymouth Brethren in 1862, he moved
to London where he founded his first home for destitute boys in 1870. In 1882 he started sending
children to Canada because of better employment prospects. By the time of his death nearly
60,000 children had been admitted to his homes, 20,000 had emigrated and he had materially
helped 250,000 others.
CREMER, HERMANN [1834-1903] – German Protestant theologian who became professor of
theology at the University of Griefswald in 1870 combining it with a city pastorate that he held
until his death. He strongly resisted the liberal theology movement and reaffirmed a traditional
interpretation of Paul’s view of salvation.
ERSKINE, THOMAS [1788-1870] – This landed proprietor of distinguished ancestry and ample
means lives in the history of Scotland as the most outstanding lay theologian that country has
ever produced. He influenced profoundly some of the ablest men of his day including Dean
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Stanley, Thomas Carlyle, Benjamin Jowett, and Charles Kingsley. His book "The Unconditional
Freeness of the Gospel" introduced to thousands a daring thinker of deep spiritual insight with
something new and compelling to say about the Fatherhood of God, the nature of the
Atonement, and the doctrine of election. His letters have long since taken the place as a minor
religious classic and have been used as a textbook on practical Christianity in many college
classrooms.
FIELD, FREDERICK [1801-1885] – Anglican scholar who was directly descended from Oliver
Cromwell and was educated at Cambridge. He became partially deaf from an early age, the
affliction worsened, and in 1863 the scholarly bachelor retired to Norwich where he devoted
himself to his books. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the Old Testament Revision
Company but age and infirmity prevented his attendance at meetings, however, his meticulous
notes were always welcomed by his colleagues.
FINDLAY, GEORGE GILLANDERS [1849-1919] – Methodist biblical scholar who was born in
Wales and educated at London University. He served his denomination’s theological colleges at
Headingly and Richmond from 1870 until his retirement in 1917. Findlay contributed to “The
Expositor’s Bible”, “The Expositor's Greek Testament”, “The Cambridge Bible”, and “The Pulpit
Commentary”.
GILMORE, JAMES [1843-1891] – Scottish missionary to Mongolia who studied at Glasgow
University and in Congregationalist theological colleges before he left for Mongolia in 1870 to
reopen, under the London Missionary Society, work that had long been in abeyance. After
language study in Peking he went to Krechta in order to learn the Mongol language and
customs. Gilmore went to live in a tent on the plains, preferring to reach the nomads rather than
the settled Chinese-speaking agriculturalists who his seniors advised him to evangelise. With
tremendous perseverance and despite an almost total lack of response from all except the
Chinese, Gilmore persisted in his task 15 years in the face of adverse criticism. Promised
colleagues failed to materialise, and his lonely, hard, self-sacrificing task seemingly made little
effect on Mongolian Buddhism.
LIDDON, HENRY PARRY [1829-1890] – Anglican preacher who was educated at Oxford and
become a member of the Tractarian [see 1833] group after the secessions to Rome. He was a
famous preacher at St Paul's over the last two decades of his life. His Oxford sermons
sometimes took as long as 80 minutes to deliver during which he provided exhaustive treatments
of theological topics in a closely argued and deeply scholarly manner.
MOULTON, WILLIAM FIDDIAN [1835-1898] – Headmaster and biblical scholar who was brought
up in a strongly Methodist family and entered the Wesleyan Ministry in 1858 and began tutoring
in classics at Wesley College Richmond Surrey. In 1870 he was appointed to the New
Testament committee working on the Revised Version of the Bible and was by far its youngest
member. In 1875 he was appointed headmaster of the newly founded Leys School Cambridge
and stayed there for the rest of his life. In 1897 he published “A Concordance of the Greek
Testament” in collaboration with his son J.H. Moulton [see 1908] and A.S. Geden.
NUREMBERG DECLARATION – A German Old Catholic [see 1889] theological statement. It
was drafted by 14 German Catholic professors at a meeting in Nuremberg in 1870 which had
been called to protest the decrees of the Vatican Council. It declared firstly that Vatican I was not
a true ecumenical council because it was neither free nor morally unanimous; secondly that
chapters 3 and 4 of the dogmatic constitution which defined the primacy of the pope were not
dogma because they had not been universally believed and taught; and thirdly that papal
infallibility would stir up conflicts between church and state, Catholics and non-Catholics; and
fourthly that an unfettered general council should meet in Germany.
OVERBECK, FRANZ CAMILLE [1837-1905] – Professor of church history at Jena [1864-1870]
and of New Testament and early Christian history at Basle [1870-1897]. Overbeck was an
advocate of a totally secular interpretation of the church history. Although he was a member of
the Protestant faculty of theology he was a professed atheist from about 1870 and was an
unrelenting critic of both orthodox and liberal theology. He was a close friend of Friedrich
Nietzsche [see 1889].
PATRIMONY OF ST PETER – Denotes the material wealth and possessions of the Church of
Rome. Historically it refers to the lands given to the Holy See in 754 and 756 by Pepin the Short.
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These gifts became what were known later as the Papal States. Pepin's gift is significant in that it
launched the temporal power of the bishop of Rome and its corresponding events were the
beginning of Rome's claim to papal supremacy over the crowns of France and Germany. Papal
temporal power over the vast part of Italy ended in 1870 when King Victor Emmanuel took
possession of Rome as the capital of the free and united Italy. Papal economic power however
was restored when Mussolini signed the 1929 Lateran Treaty. This declared Rome a holy city,
returned it to the spiritual domination of the Church of Rome, and established the autonomous
Vatican State. The Administration for the Patrimony of the Holy See is responsible for overseeing
the Vatican’s worldwide investments. Estimates in the 1970s made it clear that the Vatican could
be the world's largest business corporation.
RICHARD, TIMOTHY [1845-1919] – Baptist missionary to China who was born in Wales and
went to China with the Chinese Evangelisation Society in 1870. Later he joined the Baptist
Missionary Society. Like Ricci [see 1583] he planned to evangelise China through influencing the
devoutly religious and the learned by adapting Christianity to Chinese culture and by education
and literature. In 1891 he became secretary of the newly formed Christian Literature Society and
started an ambitious publications programme. He succeeded finally in forming a university and
remained in charge of it for its first ten years.
SANKEY, IRA DAVID [1840-1908] – American singing evangelist and associate of D.L. Moody
[see 1886]. After service in the Union Army during the Civil War he returned to Newcastle
Pennsylvania where singing soon became his chief interest. He often sang at Sunday School
conventions. In 1870 as a delegate to the international convention of the YMCA, Sankey
impressed D.L. Moody who persuaded him to join him in his evangelical work in Chicago. This
meeting linked the two of them together for the next quarter of a century. They had a remarkable
series of meetings in the British Isles from 1873 to 1875 during which the popular Sankey and
Moody hymn book was published.
SCHAFF, PHILIP [1819-1893] – Theologian, church historian, and pioneer ecumenist, who was
born in Switzerland the son of a carpenter and gained his education through scholarships
eventually entering Tubingen University where he studied under F.C. Baur [see 1845]. Schaff
was a brilliant student who was invited to become professor of church history and biblical
literature in the theological seminary of the German Reformed Church at Mercersburg
Pennsylvania where he and John Nevin [see 1840] shaped the Mercersburg theology. From
1870 into his death he was professor at Union Theological Seminary in New York. Beginning in
1866 he was also active in the cause of Christian unity through working in the Evangelical
Alliance [see 1846]. A prolific writer he published A History of the Christian Church in seven
volumes and helped to prepare the Revised Version of the Bible. In 1888 he founded the
American Society of Church History and served as its first president.
SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON [1846-1894] – Scottish Old Testament scholar who was
educated in Scotland and Germany and in 1870 was appointed professor of Oriental Languages
and Old Testament exegesis at Free Church College Aberdeen. Seven years later he was
suspended after contributing to Encyclopaedia Britannica articles that allegedly undermined
belief in the inspiration of Scripture. His uncompromising spirit led to his dismissal from the
college in 1881 and he subsequently became editor-in-chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and
professor of Arabic at Cambridge where he also served for a time as chief librarian.
SOPHRONIUS IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1870-1899] see 1866 and 1900. Sophronius
III was Patriarch of Constantinople from 1863 to 1866. In 1870 he was elected Greek Patriarch of
Alexandria as a compromise candidate in a disputed election. He served there as Sophronius IV
until his death in 1899.
SOUTHERN AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE – The 16th century Roman Catholic Mission effort faded
away. During the late 19th century work was resumed through out Central Africa under the
control of the White Fathers [see 1868] and in Zimbabwe by the Jesuits. In Portuguese East
Africa the missionaries had the support of a Catholic government which restricted Protestant
missions of which the most important were the Swiss Mission and the American Methodists.
After Vatican Council II Roman Catholic pressure on Protestants eased.
1871-1880 AD
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1871
CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM [1815-1890] – Dean of St Paul’s was born in Portugal. Originally
an evangelical he moved, through his association with J H Newman [see 1845], to high
churchmanship. He was appointed dean on Prime Minister Gladstone’s recommendation in
1871.
FRIEDRICH, JOHANNES [1836-1917] – Church historian. Educated at Munich and ordained in
the Roman Catholic Church, he lectured in the theological faculty at Munich until his retirement in
1905. Secretary to a cardinal at Vatican I, he considered papal infallibility historically indefensible
and joined in opposing such a dogma. Leaving Rome before Vatican I ended, he refused to
accept the decrees and in 1871 was excommunicated. The Bavarian government gave him
protection in respect of his university appointment at Munich. He continued as a priest with the
Old Catholics [see 1889] whom he influenced profoundly, but left them because they did not
uphold clerical celibacy.
GUARANTEES, LAW OF – This defined the relationship between the Roman Catholic Church
and the Italian kingdom after the annexation of the States of the Church. Passed by the
Chamber in 1871, it determined the papal rights and prerogatives but Pius IX categorically
rejected the law, refused the financial offer, and withdrew into the Vatican as a voluntary
“prisoner”. It was formally abrogated by the Lateran Treaty of 1929.
MACKAY, GEORGE LESLIE [1844-1901] – Scots Canadian Presbyterian missionary born in
Canada and educated at Toronto, Edinburgh, and Princeton. He was ordained in 1871. He spent
the rest of his life in missionary service in Formosa, an island then scarcely touched by
Protestant missionary societies. He made converts among both the Chinese and aboriginal
inhabitants, built up a strong church and trained indigenous leaders. He died on the mission field.
MIALL, EDWARD [1809-1881] – Congregational minister who was the acknowledged leader of
the movement in the 19th century to disestablishment of the Church of England. Miall for this
reason left his pastorate in Leicester in 1847 and founded and edited a newspaper “The
Nonconformist”. In 1844 he arranged a large conference called by the Nonconformists and
organised the British Anti-State-Church Association which became a highly organised pressure
group. Miall also promoted the concept of universal suffrage, the ballot, the repeal of the Corn
Laws, and programmes for improving the living conditions of the working classes. He had two
terms in Parliament and the climax in his career came when in 1871 he was stirred by what he
considered to be the too favourable treatment of the Church of England in the Education Act of
1870, and he moved, although unsuccessfully, for a committee on church disestablishment.
MOZLEY, JAMES BOWLING [1813-1878] – Anglican theologian educated at Oxford who was
closely associated with the Tractarians [see 1833] and was joint editor of the “Christian
Remembrancer”. His examination of baptismal theology was profound and Mozley found that the
evangelical case was valid and thereby became estranged from many of his former colleagues.
He gave the Bampton Lectures on miracles in 1865 which defended miracles in a traditional
manner. Mozley was made professor of divinity at Oxford in 1871 and died a rather isolated
figure seven years later.
QUARRIER, WILLIAM [1829-1903] – Scottish founder of the Orphan Homes. Brought up in
poverty in Glasgow after his father died. He started work at 6 years of age and became a
shoemaker at the early age of 12. He became a devout Christian at 17 and never forgot the
plight of slum children such as he had been. He was very successful and soon owned a number
of shops, plus a shoeblack brigade, a newspaper brigade, and a parcels brigade. He said of his
concern for the poor, “When a little boy I stood in the High Street in Glasgow barefoot,
bareheaded, cold and hungry, having tasted no food for a day and a half and I gazed at each
passerby wondering why they did not help such as I. A thought passed through my head that I
would not do such as they once I would get the means to help others.” He opened his first home
for orphans in 1871. By the 1890’s “Quarrier village” as it was known had 34 houses, church and
school, housing 1500 children at a time. He also assisted in 7000 children emigrating to Canada
from 1870 to 1936. Quarrier made no appeals, had no collectors, street stalls, or entertainments
for money raising purposes, relying on God’s supply. His work still functions from the “village”.
1872
BARNETT, SAMUEL [1844-1913] – Anglican social reformer, vicar of St Jude's Whitechapel
[1872-1893]. In 1869 he founded the Charity Organisation Society. In 1884 and 1885 he helped
form the Education Reform League and advanced the Artisans Dwelling Act. During his period in
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Whitechapel he encouraged Christians to study social problems.
BODELSCHWINGH, FRIEDRICH [1831-1910] – German Lutheran pastor who found that
teaching the Word of God to children made it come alive for him. He was also deeply moved by
the loss of four of his own children in 1869. From 1872 he took charge at Bielefeld of an
institution for epileptics known as Bethel [see 1867] where the disadvantaged were found useful
work. He held strong views of the social responsibilities of the church and entered the Prussian
Landtag in 1903.
CLEPHANE, ELIZABETH CECELIA [1830-1869] – Elizabeth was the third daughter of Andrew
Clephane, Sheriff of Fife and Kinros
s. She lived most of her life in Melrose, Scotland, about 30 miles southeast of Edinburgh. She
spent most of her money on charitable causes, and was known locally as “The Sunbeam.”
Clephane’s hymns appeared posthumously, almost all for the first time, in the Family Treasury
(1872), under the general title of “Breathings on the Border.” Her two most famous hymns were
“Beneath the cross of Jesus“ and “The Ninety and Nine”. Folklore claims that Elizabeth wrote
“The Ninety and Nine” for her brother, George Clephane, who had "returned to the flock" only a
short time before his death. As the story goes, he fell from his horse and struck his head upon a
rock and was killed instantly.
COMBA, EMILO [1839-1904] – Waldensian historian, author, and theologian, a man of great
intelligence and spirituality who was ordained as a pastor in 1863. In 1872 he was called to
Florence to succeed G P Revel one of the founders of the Waldensian theological facility and
taught there for 32 years. He produced a number of books on the Waldensians.
GOMEZ, MARIANO [1788-1872] – Filipino priest and martyr. He had long defended his fellow
priests in their just grievances against the friars. When in January 1872 Filipino soldiers and
workers at the Cavite arsenal mutinied and killed their Spanish officers, the government and the
friars used this as an opportunity to suppress all dissent. In this connection, Gomez with his
colleagues Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora were arrested, and following a secret trial with
perjured witnesses, the three were garrotted before a large crowd in Manila. The three martyred
priests rapidly became a symbol of united nationalism.
MACLEOD, NORMAN [1812-1872] – Scottish chaplain and editor who belonged to a celebrated
clerical dynasty that gave six moderators to the Church of Scotland general assembly. He was
Queen Victoria's favourite chaplain who became widely known as editor of the immensely
popular “Good Words”, and as a champion of the working man, and as a foreign missionary
enthusiast.
PROCOPIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1872-1875] see 1845 and 1875
ROSS JOHN [1842-1915]. – Ross was a Scottish Protestant missionary to Northeast China who
established Dongguan Church in Shenyang. He is also known for translating the first Korean
Bible. He received his education at Glasgow University and Theological Hall, Edinburgh. In 1872
he was sent by the Scottish United Presbyterian Mission [see 1796] to Northeast China, known
at that time as Manchuria. John Ross went first to Yingkou, then moved to Mukden (the presentday Shenyang) and established a church there in 1889. This church was called Dongguan
Church (East Gate Church) because it was built just outside of East Gate, as Christian churches
were not allowed within the city wall. It was rebuilt after the Boxer Rebellion, and is now still used
as a Protestant church. While in China, John Ross met traders from Korea one day, and decided
to make a Korean translation of the New Testament, which was completed in 1887 and brought
to Korea. This was the first Korean version. Ross returned to Scotland in 1910, but continued to
help the Scotland-China Society.
1873
CHAMBERLAIN, JACOB [1835-1908] – American missionary to India from the Dutch Reformed
Church. He was a medical doctor who in 1859 joined the Arcot Mission in South India and
established two hospitals. From 1873 to 1894 he chaired a committee to edit the Telegu Bible,
and he formed a Telegu hymnal. Repeated sickness caused him to spend 10 years in the USA
where he was able to encourage missionary interest. First moderator of the Synod of South India
1902.
CHENEY, CHARLES EDWARD [1836-1916] – Founding member of the Reformed Episcopal
Church in America in 1873 in association with Bishop G D Cummins [see below]. He was a
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pronounced evangelical favouring the fundamentals of the Christian faith and opposed both
Romanism and radicalism. He was deposed because of not associating regeneration with infant
baptism but was reinstated on appeal.
CROSBY, HOWARD [1826-1891] – Presbyterian scholar who was a member of the New
Testament Committee for the American edition of the Revised Version and moderator of the
general assembly in 1873. He founded a society for crime prevention in 1877. Amongst his
writings were commentaries on Joshua, Nehemiah and the whole New Testament.
CUMMINS, GEORGE DAVID [1822-1875] – Founder of the Reformed Episcopal Church was
ordained after being a Methodist preacher for a number of years. As a low churchman he noticed
that many of his colleagues were using the Book of Common Prayer which provided for greater
ritualism. He tried to get the Prayer Book of 1785 accepted to change this, but failed, and as he
was unable to continue to obey the church’s mandates and strictures against celebrating Holy
Communion with non Anglicans he resigned his orders and in 1873 formed the Reformed
Episcopal Church using the 1785 Prayer Book and having himself as presiding bishop.
DAMIEN, FATHER – Roman Catholic missionary priest. Born in Belgium he was trained for the
priesthood by the fathers of the Sacred Heart in Paris and took the religious name Damien. He
was sent in 1864 to Honolulu to be ordained as a missionary in the Sandwich Islands. In the
1860s the government decided to use the island of Molokai as an isolation settlement for lepers,
but made no provision for permanent medical staff. Damien heard of the leper's plight and was
allowed to join them. The colony thereafter increased to over 1000. He undertook the duties of a
nurse, builder, superintendent, as well as priest. By 1885 he knew that he had leprosy, yet
continued to serve the lepers right up to his death. His growing fame also created hostility among
local officials and the Catholic hierarchy of the islands. The most famous defence of his
character came from Robert Louis Stevenson in 1905.
GREENWELL DORA [1821-1882] - Dora (Dorothy) Greenwell was born into a wealthy family,
but circumstances made it necessary for her father to sell the family estate, Greenwell Ford. This
began a life of hardship for Dora herself. Ongoing health problems complicated what hymn
historian J. R. Watson calls a sad and unfulfilled life. Dora lived for 18 years with her widowed
mother, who discouraged her friendships and did not understand her longing for a fuller, freer
existence. There is a possibility that she struggled later with an addiction to opium, possibly
administered because of the physical pain she endured. Dora Greenwell may have been
physically frail, but she had a keen mind and a loving heart. An evangelical Anglican, her longer
prose works were on religious subjects, but her essays covered a variety of social causes
including women's education, child labour, and the education of the learning disabled. The hymn
that is most commonly associated with her is “I Am Not Skilled to Understand”, published in her
book “Songs of Salvation”, in 1873.
MAY LAWS – Legislation associated with Bismarck's legislation against German Catholicism.
Passed in May 1873 they were based on the theory of the absolute supremacy of the state. They
limited the extent of Episcopal powers of excommunication and discipline, instituted a supreme
ecclesiastical court whose members were appointed by the emperor and directly under state
control, placed priestly training under close government supervision, and required all ordinance
to pass through a state university and submit their state examinations in literature, history, and
philosophy, and subjected clerical appointments by bishops to government veto. The laws were
condemned by Pope Pius IX in 1875 and were also opposed by many German Protestants. They
were eventually modified in 1886-87 after agreement between Bismarck and Pope Leo XIII.
MOON, CHARLOTTE DIGGES "LOTTIE" [1840–1912] was a Southern Baptist missionary to
China with the Foreign Mission Board who spent nearly forty years (1873–1912) helping the
Chinese. As a teacher and evangelist she laid a foundation for traditionally solid support for
missions among Baptists in America. Moon was born to affluent parents who were staunch
Baptists. She was very short in stature being only 1.3 metres tall. She excelled at languages
including Latin, French. Greek, Hebrew, Spanish and later Chinese She underwent a spiritual
awakening at the age of 18 and after the Civil War with her friend, Anna Safford, opened
Cartersville Female High School in 1871. To the family's surprise, Lottie's younger sister
Edmonia accepted a call to go to North China as a missionary in 1872 and Lottie herself soon
felt called to follow her sister. On July 7, 1873, the Foreign Mission Board officially appointed
Lottie as a missionary to China. She was 33 years old. While accompanying some of the
seasoned missionary wives on “country visits” to outlying villages, Lottie discovered her passion:
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direct evangelism. Most mission work at that time was done by married men, but the wives of
China missionaries had discovered an important reality: only women could reach Chinese
women. Gradually she began wearing Chinese clothes, adopted Chinese customs, learned to be
sensitive to Chinese culture, and came to respect and admire Chinese culture and learning. In
turn she gained love and respect from many Chinese people. In 1885, at the age of 45, Moon
gave up teaching and moved into the interior to evangelize full-time in the areas of P'ingtu and
Hwangshien. Her converts numbered in the hundreds. She pleaded the "desperate need" for
more missionaries, which the poorly funded board could not provide. She encouraged Southern
Baptist women to organize mission societies in the local churches to help support additional
missionary candidates, and to consider coming themselves. The first "Christmas offering for
missions" in 1888 collected over $3,315, enough to send three new missionaries to China. Moon
also argued that regular furloughs every ten years would extend the lives and effectiveness of
seasoned missionaries. She suffered with the Chinese wars, famines and diseases sharing her
meagre funds with them resulting in her health failing and death in Japan en route for America.
Lottie Moon has come to personify the missionary spirit for Southern Baptists and many other
Christians, as well. The annual Lottie Moon Christmas Offering for Missions has raised a total of
$1.5 billion for missions since 1888, and finances half the entire Southern Baptist mission budget
every year.
REINKENS, JOSEPH HUBERT [1821-1896] – Old Catholic [see 1889] bishop who was a
professor of church history at Breslau University. He opposed the Vatican Council's definition of
papal infallibility in 1870 joining J.J.I. von Dollinger [see 1826] in the Nuremberg Declaration. He
was excommunicated. He was elected and consecrated first bishop of the German Old Catholics
at Cologne in 1873 with his see at Bonn. Reinkens in turn consecrated Edward Herzog as the
first Swiss Old Catholic bishop in 1876 and took a prominent part in the Bonn Reunion
Conferences of 1874-75 and devoted the rest of his life largely to the Old Catholic cause.
SPAFFORD, HORATIO GATES [1828-1888]. He was born in New York and by the 1860s life
was good for Horatio G. Spafford and his wife Anna. They were living in Chicago with their five
children, Annie, Maggie, Bessie, Tanetta and Horatio, Jr. He had a successful law practice in
Chicago. Horatio Spafford was quite active in the abolitionist movement. Frances E. Willard,
president of the National Women's Christian Temperance Union as well as evangelical leaders
like Dwight L. Moody were often guests in their home. Spafford was a Presbyterian church elder
and a dedicated Christian. However, in 1870 their faith was tested by tragedy. Their four year old
son, Horatio, Jr., died of scarlet fever. In October of 1871 when the Great Chicago Fire broke out
Horatio faced another test of his faith as they had invested in significant real estate. The
Spaffords did not despair. Their home had been spared and they had their family. Even though
their finances were mostly depleted, Anna and Horatio used what resources they had left to feed
the hungry, help the homeless, care for the sick and injured and comfort their grief stricken
neighbours. The Spaffords planned to leave in November 1873 on their voyage to Europe. Due
to a sudden business emergency Anna and the four daughters were sent off with Horatio to
follow but on November 22, 1873 the steamer Ville du Havre was struck by a British iron sailing
ship, the Lockhearn. The steamer Ville du Havre, with Anna Spafford and her daughters aboard,
sank within twelve minutes in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. Only 81 of the 307 passengers
and crew members survived this tragic shipwreck. Anna was taken to Cardiff, Wales where she
telegraphed her husband Horatio. Anna's cable was brief and heartbreaking, "Saved alone. What
shall I do" Horatio left on the next available ship and the day that they crossed the place of the
disaster he penned his famous hymn "It Is Well With My Soul." He died of Malaria on October
16, 1888 in Jerusalem. Anna Spafford continued to work in the surrounding areas of Jerusalem
until her death in 1923.
STALKER, JAMES [1848-1927] – Scottish minister, scholar, and writer who was educated at
Edinburgh, Berlin, and Halle. He was ordained into the United Free Church and was the pastor
of two churches before becoming professor of church history at the United Free Church College
Aberdeen from 1902 to 1926. He was best remembered however as a preacher who shared in
the revival movement following the 1873 Moody and Sankey mission that have a lasting effect
upon him. Stalker was fearless and untroubled by personal ambition, declining a number of
advancements, and encouraged every movement that carried the Gospel to the people.
1874
BONN CONFERENCES where church reunion between the Catholics, Anglican, Greek and
Russian churches were examined in 1874 and 1875. One of the major problems was the gap
between the Eastern and Western doctrines of the Holy Spirit. Another was the refusal of the
Eastern Orthodox church to commit themselves to the validity of Anglican orders.
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CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT – began when John H Vincent, first chairman of the International
Sunday School Lesson Committee, began summer camps for Sunday School teachers at Lake
Chautauqua New York. Meetings are still held there in July and August.
FISK, JOHN [1842-1901] – American philosopher, historian, and lecturer. A highly precocious
child he graduated from Harvard and was admitted to the bar without formal legal training. He
turned from the Calvinism of his youth to propagating Herbert Spencer's evolutionary philosophy.
Claiming “Evolution is God's way of doing things” he infused evolutionism with religious values in
such works as “Outline of Cosmic Philosophy” in 1874 and “The idea of God” in 1885.
HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS [1832-1910] – German theologian and New Testament
scholar who was educated at Berlin before beginning his academic career. He taught in
Heidelberg from 1858 and in Strasbourg from 1874 until his retirement in 1904. In a study on the
synoptic Gospels he developed a two-source theory with its dual necessity of accepting a
“teachings” source for Matthew and Luke and the priority of Mark, which yielded the kind of
portraits of Jesus compatible with the liberal psychological scheme. As a consequence Holtzman
was involved in the church-political squabbles of the German pastors. He laid the foundation of
the New Testament research of the 20th century.
KIRELLOS V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1874-1928] see 1862 and 1929 He joined the
Paromeos Monastery in the Nitrian Desert, where he served as abbot prior to his elevation to
Pope. In the beginning of his papacy there was a dispute between him and the members of the
General Congregation Council of the Coptic Orthodox Church, whose secretary at the time who
went on later to become the Prime Minister of Egypt. This disagreement was despite the fact
they had elected him to become the Coptic Pope and contrary to the expectations of the council,
he spent the better part of his papacy at loggerheads with the council and objecting on its
interference in the church's matters. In general, his papacy was an era of regeneration for the
Coptic Orthodox Church and he continued the work begun by Pope Kirellos IV in educational
reform. In 1881, the Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV asked him to ordain a metropolitan and
three Bishops for the Ethiopian Empire. Pope Cyril V chose the four monks from El-Muharraq
Monastery. He was much loved in Ethiopia and once news of his death reached Ethiopia the
rulers ordered requiem masses be said throughout Ethiopia, and that government offices be
closed for three days. His was the longest of papal reigns in the Coptic church.
NEESHIMA, YUZURU [1843-1890] – Japanese Christian leader who was born into a Samurai
family in Tokyo and was determined to bring the learning of the West to Japan. He secretly left
his country in 1864 and finally reached Boston where the ships owner befriended him. Schooling
and seminary followed his conversion and in 1874 on fire with a desire to evangelise his own
people he was commissioned as a missionary by the Congregational Church. In 1875 he found
founded in Kyoto, the stronghold of Buddhism, the first Christian school in Japan. Undaunted by
broken health he worked passionately to give his students an education that united sound
biblical teaching with the highest academic standards. He died from overwork when only aged
46.
ORR, JAMES [1844-1913] – Scottish theologian educated in Glasgow and studied theology
under the United Presbyterian Church. He was the minister in Hawick from 1874 to 1891. Orr
taught church history at the UP Theological College from 1891 to 1901 and was then professor
of apologetics and theology in Glasgow. Writing in the heyday of liberal Protestantism he
contended for historical evangelicalism from the standpoint of modified Calvinism. He wrote
apologetics and also contributed to The Fundamentals from 1909 to 1915.
PASTOR, LUDWIG VON [1854-1928] – Church historian born in Germany who by 1874 had
decided to write a history of the popes. He studied at Bonn, Berlin, and Vienna and subsequently
played a role in opening up the Vatican Archives to all scholars in 1883. His major work was
“The History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages” in 16 volumes. This was based on
extensive research in the Vatican and in over 200 other European archives.
RAINY, ROBERT [1826-1906] – Scottish minister and scholar who graduated from Edinburgh
and in 1851 became minister of the Free Church of Scotland at Huntly. In 1862 he assumed the
chair of church history at New College Edinburgh a post which he held for the next 44 years and
with which from 1874 he combined the college principalship. He led the Free Church into union
with United Presbyterian Church in 1900 and his own third term as moderator was over the
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United Free Church assembly. His funeral, delayed because he died in Australia, was reported
as being the greatest spectacle in Edinburgh since that of Thomas Chalmers in 1847.
RYERSON, ADOLPHUS EGERTON [1803-1882] – Methodist leader and educationalist who was
born in Canada and called to the Methodist ministry and became a successful saddleback
preacher and missionary to the Credit River Indians. In 1829 he became the first editor of the
influential “Christian Guardian” and secretary of the Wesleyan Missionary Society. Vitally
concerned about education he helped found the Upper Canada Academy which became the
Victoria College in 1841 with himself as principal. The educational system of Ontario after 1870
was largely based upon his 1846 Report. From 1874 to 1878 he was the first president of the
General Conference of the Methodist Church of Canada and he was probably the most
influential Canadian Methodist of his time.
SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY [1845-1933] – Professor of Assyriology who was a son of a vicar.
Educated at Oxford, Sayce was ordained but did not marry and pursued a life of leisurely
scholarship which took him almost every winter from 1879 to 1908 to his houseboat on the Nile.
He became the first professor of Assyriology in England from 1891 until his retirement in 1919.
He was a member of the Old Testament revision company [1874-1884]. He was no literalist but
with his realisation of the importance of discoveries he became a wise opponent of higher critics
who were so involved with their own theories of literary formation to look at the empirical
evidence.
SMITH, HANNA WHITALL [1832-1911] – A member of a pious Quaker family who with her
husband Robert Pearsall Smith was a speaker at interdenominational "Higher Christian Life"
meetings in America and England. She was converted in 1858 under Plymouth Brethren
influence at the same time as her husband, a Presbyterian layman. After 1867 she testified to a
life of spiritual victory and rest through complete commitment to Christ. Her husband, originally
sceptical joined her as a leader of the Christian assemblies devoted to the study of teaching on
the life of victory in Christ. In 1872 they moved to England because of her husband's declining
health and for two years experienced great success in interdenominational meetings devoted to
biblical exposition of their new found religious experience. The movement thus initiated led to the
founding of the Keswick Convention in 1874 were annual sessions are still devoted to a
consideration of biblical teaching on the higher life for the believing Christian.
SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED [1847-1927] – Old Testament scholar of Puritan descent who
was educated at Lane Theological Seminary and the University of Berlin. He taught at Lane from
1874 and was ordained as a Presbyterian and up to 1882 was a conservative. An article on
Wellhausen reinforced his observation that textual corruption of the Bible implied non-infallibility.
It was not however until he defended C.A. Briggs [see 1890] that he too was tried for heresy by
the Presbyterian Church in 1892 and suspended from ministry. Subsequently he taught at
various theological schools.
STEBBINS, GEORGE COLES [1846-1945] – American gospel hymn writer who studied music at
Rochester, Chicago, and Boston. He served as musical director from 1874 at Boston's
Clarendon Street Church and was a lifelong acquaintance of D.L. Moody, Ira Sankey, P.P. Bliss,
and D.W. Whittle. For nearly 50 years Stebbins led choirs, wrote music, and worked as an
evangelical music director. He authored over 1500 hymns, the best-known of which being "Take
Time to be Holy".
STONE SAMUEL JOHN [1839-1900]. Samuel Stone is remembered as the writer of "The
Church's One Foundation," was the son of Rev, William Stone. He was educated at Pembroke
College, Oxford and served as curate of Windsor from 1862 to 1870, then of St. Paul’s
Haggerston where in 1874, he succeeded his father as vicar. In 1890 he became rector of All
Hallows-on-the-Wall in London. St. Paul's Haggerston was in a poor section of London. Stone
would open the church at 6:30 in the morning so that commuters, frequently poor working girls,
arriving early could have a brief service and prayer, then have time to rest, to read or to sew. He
built numerous churches; his belief was that poor people deserved beautiful churches in which to
worship. His thoughtfulness earned him the title of "the poor man's pastor". Stone wrote poems
and hymns, publishing several collections. His hymns have been described as expressing "a
manly faith" and being "rhythmic, vigorous and scriptural". He also was a member of the
committee that assembled “Hymns, Ancient and Modern”. He was a supporter of Bishop Gray in
the controversy of Bishop Colenso over the historicity of the Bible.
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SVERDRUP, GEORG [1848-1907] – American church leader of Norwegian descent who studied
theology at Oslo and at German universities. In 1874 he was called to America as professor of
theology at Augsburg Seminary Minneapolis. Sverdrup accepted the ideal of "living" Christianity
and in his new country felt convinced that this would prosper only in the form of a free church
with lay preaching and independent congregations. He became therefore the champion of the
free church ideal and the Norwegian Lutheran Church was founded in 1897 and organised
according to his ideas.
1875
BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN [1831-1899] – Scottish theologian educated at Edinburgh who
in 1859 became the minister at Cardross. He transferred to Broughty Ferry nine years later and
in 1875 was appointed professor of apologetics and New Testament exegesis. His writings
include “The Humiliation of Christ”, “The Kingdom of God”, and commentaries on the synoptic
gospels and the epistle to the Hebrews.
DIXON, AMZI CLARENCE [1854-1925] – Baptist pastor and author who was born in North
Carolina and studied at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. He had a number of
pastorates including the Moody Memorial Church in Chicago [1906-1911] and the Metropolitan
Tabernacle London [1911-1919]. He was active in the conservative Bible conference prophetic
movement and in evangelical crusades from about 1875. He joined R. A. Torrey [see 1900] in
the publication of The Fundamentals, a 12 volume paperback series dedicated to the defence of
the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith.
EDERSHEIM, ALFRED [1825-1889] – Biblical scholar born of Jewish parentage in Vienna who
went to the University of Vienna in 1841 but was forced to leave after a few months due to the
illness of his father. Shortly after, he came under the influence of the Scottish Presbyterian, John
Duncan, who was chaplain to workmen on the Danube bridge at Pesth. Edersheim accompanied
Duncan to Scotland and was enrolled as a student at New College, Edinburgh, and later at the
University of Berlin. In 1846 he became a missionary to the Jews in Rumania and three years
later was inducted as minister of the Free Church in Old Aberdeen. In 1875 he was ordained in
the Church of England and was vicar of Loders, Dorset. Of his writings the most widely read was
The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah 1883.
GALESBURG RULE – “Lutheran pulpits for Lutheran ministers only; Lutheran altars for Lutheran
communicants only” was adopted by the Lutheran General Council meeting at Galesburg, Illinois
in 1875. It was intended to preserve confessional distinctiveness threatened by practices of
some Lutherans that seemed to promote unionism and Americanisation. The rule, suggested by
president C.P. Krauth, was enacted at Akron, Ohio in 1872, with carefully worded provisions for
exceptional cases.
HAWKER, ROBERT STEPHEN [1803-1875] – English poet, educated Oxford, who spent most
of his life as a vicar on the north coast of Cornwall. Although his Anglo-Catholicism was marked
by his own eccentricities he was undoubtedly sincerely attracted to the lore of the Celtic saints.
There is some controversy as to whether or not he was accepted into the Roman Catholic
Church on his deathbed.
HIEROTHEUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1875-1882] see 1872 and 1882
KESWICK CONVENTION – This annual summer gathering of evangelicals at Keswick in the
English Lake District originated in the Moody - Sankey revival of 1875 through the efforts of the
then vicar of Keswick, Canon Harford Battersby. The keynotes of Keswick are prayer, Bible
study, addresses, and much enthusiasm for foreign missions. Local Keswick Conventions are
held in various cities. Supporters come mainly from Christians of the Reformed tradition
especially evangelical Anglicans.
LAWS, ROBERT [1851-1934] – Scottish medical missionary who joined the Livingstonia Mission
in 1875 as medical officer and second in command. As leader after 1877 he founded stations at
Bandawe in 1881 and Livingstonia in 1894 and helped to develop extensive work west of Lake
Nyasa. He regarded evangelism, education, industrial training, and medical work as
complementary aspects of the Christian mission and gave practical expression to this belief
while living at Livingstonia which he superintended from 1894 to 1927. His work there provided
trained leaders of the autonomous African Church which he hoped to create.
MACKAY, ALEXANDER MURDOCH [1849-1890] – Scottish missionary to Uganda who studied
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at the Free Church training college and in 1873 went to Berlin to acquire qualifications with an
engineering firm. In 1875 having read H.M. Stanley's book on David Livingstone [see 1841] he
changed his original intention about working in Madagascar and applied to the Church
Missionary Society (CMS) for work in Uganda. He arrived in East Africa and began work on
making a road through to Lake Victoria Nyanza 230 miles inland. It took two years. He arrived at
the lake shortly after the murder of two CMS colleagues and after all the others had left because
of ill-health. The boat, intended for the lake and brought up in sections, had suffered severe
damage but Mackay's engineering knowledge and resourcefulness resulted in its completion and
made an enormous impression. A party set out in the boat for Entebbe headquarters of King
Mtesa, and he gave him permission to read and expand on the New Testament on Sundays.
Arab traders opposed him and the French catholic priests introduced problems. There was much
persecution of Christians and Mackay finally withdrew to the south of the lake where he taught
and translated and there met Stanley. Mackay died from malaria but not before he saw the first
copies of Matthew's gospel printed.
NEW TESTAMENT CRITICISM – The application to the New Testament of techniques used by
scholars in the study of ordinary literature in the attempt to determine the original wording of the
various documents and to decide questions of date, authorship, literary composition, and the
like. “Criticism” has particularly negative connotations in many Christian circles not due to the
work but to the attitude of many of the critics in their hostility to orthodox Christianity. The
distinction between “the critics” and “Bible believing scholars” is a false one as anyone who
studies the Bible in depth must be classified as a biblical critic for they must face the same
questions. Criticism comes in five groups [1] Textural criticism which seeks to ascertain the
original wording of the text, [2] Linguistic criticism seeks to understand the nature of the words of
a document using Greek grammar. [3] Historical criticism which seeks to understand the
historical setting [4] Literary criticism is concerned about authorship, sources, composition date
and place of writing and is often called “higher criticism” as it is based on the previous type and
[5] Redaction criticism which relates to understanding the special contribution of every
evangelist.
PFLEIDERER, OTTO [1839-1908] – German Protestant scholar who studied at Tubingen under
F.C. Baur [see 1845] and became an adherent of the Tubingen School [see 1826]. In 1875 he
took the chair of theology at Berlin. After lecturing in Britain he considered Pauline theology a
very logical outworking of Christian teaching.
1876
CLARK, WILLIAM SMITH [1826-1886] – American agriculturist who reached Sapporo in Japan
and within eight months set up a college, school, and experimental farm. He converted all
sixteen students to Christianity and following his lead the converts won all the second class for
Christ. This group became known as the Sapporo Band. Its most prominent member was Kanzo
Uchimura [see 1881].
COMBER, THOMAS JAMES [1852-1887] – Baptist pioneer missionary born in London and
accepted by the Baptist Missionary Society he sailed for the Cameroons in 1876 meeting Alfred
Saker [see 1845] en route. With George Grenfell [see 1884] he was appointed to the proposed
Congo Mission. They established a base at San Salvador in 1878. His wife died within a month
of arriving in Africa. Comber and Grenfell explored the Congo River as far as Liboko on the
mission steamer “Peace”. Many missionaries died including Comber’s brother and sister and he
finally succumbed in his thirty fifth year.
EAST AFRICA UGANDA. The pioneer missionary work in Uganda may be said to have been
started by the explorer H. M. Stanley. In April 1875 he had several interviews with Mutesa I, the
Kabaka of Buganda in which he found the king to be very interested in the Christian faith. The
result was Stanley's famous letter to the Daily Telegraph and New York Herald in which he
appealed for some pious practical missionaries to come to the kingdom of the Buganda. The
Anglican CMS took up the challenge and in 1876 a party of eight missionaries led by Lieut.
Shergold Smith set out from Britain. Only three reached Buganda, and of these two were killed in
a local dispute leaving only the Rev C.T. Wilson who was alone for the next year or so. In
November 1878 Alexander Mackay [see 1875] a Scottish Presbyterian arrived. Stanley's letter
had been read also by the head of the White Fathers and in 1878 he sent a party of missionaries
to Buganda despite the personal request from the CMS Secretary not to do so in order to avoid
the competition and consequent confusion in their minds the people of Buganda. Much
unhappiness and even warfare would have been avoided if this request had been heeded.
Mutesa I died in 1884 and was succeeded by his son Mwanga who was a cruel and treacherous
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ruler and the infant Christian Church was subjected to persecution which produced many martyrs
both Anglican and Roman Catholic. The first Anglican bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, James
Hannington [see 1882] never reached Buganda but was murdered at Busoga on Lake Victoria in
1885 by Mwanga's orders.
Finally in 1894 Uganda was declared a British protectorate. This finished Mwanga's reign of
terror. The government built a railway from Mombasa to Lake Victoria which was a major factor
in opening up Uganda to the world. Outstanding among the Anglican missionaries was Alfred
Tucker, bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, who arrived in 1890. He had firm views on the needs
to establish an indigenous church. In 1898 he was installed as the first Anglican bishop of
Uganda but because of ill health was forced to resign in 1911. In 1894 the Mill Hill fathers of the
Catholic persuasion came from Britain to work in East Uganda. After the establishment of law
and order under the British administration there was a mass movement among the people in
Buganda into both the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. The Protestant influence in
Uganda has remained predominantly evangelical and Anglican but a few other Protestant
missions have entered the country; thus there has been no need for a Christian Council as in
Kenya and Tanzania. There have been a few separatist movements in the Uganda church, the
most important was led by Rubens Spartas in 1929 when he broke away from the Anglican
Church to establish the African Orthodox Church which in 1946 was recognised by the Greek
Orthodox patriarch of Alexandria.
HOWE, JULIA WARD [1819-1910] – Writer and reformer who married Samuel Howe in 1843. He
was a humanitarian and teacher of the blind which placed Julia in the company of prominent
Bostonian intellectuals, poets, and social reformers. Brought up an Episcopalian she became a
Unitarian and occasionally preached from Unitarian pulpits. After husband's death in 1876 she
gave herself unceasingly to public service, a leader of every humanitarian movement or cause.
She advocated women's suffrage, prison reform, international peace, and children's welfare. Her
most famous piece of poetry is ‘The Battle hymn of the Republic’.
LOBSTEIN, PAUL [1850–1928] – French Protestant theologian who was educated at
Strasbourg, Tubingen, and Gottingen where he taught as professor of theology from 1876.
Essentially a systematic theologian he wrote mainly in French with only a few books in German.
His later studies were in historical theology and dogmatics; aspects of Calvin's thought, studies
of the doctrines of God, and the person and work of Christ.
MCGRANAHAN, JAMES [1840-1907] – Born in Pennsylvania, his father sent him to a singing
school, and he soon became an assistant by playing the bass viol. At the age of nineteen he
organized his first singing class. He entered the Normal Music School in 1861 and in 1875 he
accepted the position as one of the managers of Dr. Root's Normal Musical Institute, in which
capacity he served as director and teacher for three years, He was a close friend of Philip Bliss
[see 1860] who encouraged him to use his tenor voice for Christian service. This was shortly
before Bliss’ death and he became his natural successor in 1876 for Major Whittle’s evangelical
ministry where he served for eleven years. His most famous hymn “Far, far away in heathen
darkness dwelling” reflected the need for world wide evangelism.
NIAGARA CONFERENCES – Gatherings for Bible study at Niagara-on-the-Lake Ontario in the
closing decades of the 19th century. These assemblies marked the beginnings of the Bible
Conference Movement. The idea of conferences probably originated in 1868 when eight men
associated with pre-millennial periodical “Waymarks in the Wilderness” met informally in New
York City. In 1875 another small group met near Chicago and the following year they met again
at Swampscott Massachusetts for fellowship and Bible study. The conference usually open with
a Wednesday evening prayer meeting and for the next week the participants heard two Bible
lessons each morning, two every afternoon, and another each evening. There is evidence that
the early conferences were a result of J Darby's travels in the United States and influence of the
Plymouth Brethren.
ROBINSON, GEORGE WADE [1838-1877] – George Robinson was a poet and hymnist from
Cork, Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and New College, St. John’s Wood,
London. He entered the Congregational ministry and was co-pastor at York Street Chapel in
Dublin with Dr. Urwick. He then became pastor at St. John’s Wood, Dudley, and at Union Street,
Brighton. His most remembered poetry is in the Hymn “Loved with Everlasting Love” with its
chorus “I am His and he His mine” He died in January 18, 1877.
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SLESSOR, MARY [1848-1915] – Missionary to West Africa who was born in Aberdeen, Scotland
in a very poor family. Her mother was a devout Christian who was deeply interested in the United
Presbyterian Church's Calabar Mission. Mary was converted in her teens and having
experienced youth work in Dundee slums she sailed for Nigeria in 1876 and worked there almost
continuously until her death. She fought against witchcraft, drunkenness, twin killing, and other
cruel customs. She acquired great skill in the languages and had an almost uncanny insight into
the African mind. She was instrumental in establishing trade between the coast and inland areas
to their benefit and in beginning the Hope Waddell Institution to train Africans in useful trades
and to carry out medical work. She was the first woman vice consul in the British Empire when
British rule was established in the area. As a result of her work under God the Ibo people
became more Christian than tribes in other parts of Nigeria.
WEBB-PEPLOE, HANMER WILLIAM [1837-1923] – Anglican minister and missioner who was
educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1863. He held a number of positions before becoming
vicar of St Paul’s Onslow Square London from 1876 to 1919. He was a prebendary of St Paul's
Cathedral London from 1893. A champion gymnast, he suffered an injury while at Cambridge,
putting him on his back for three years in which position he did all his degree and ordination
examinations. A leader of the Evangelical party and the chief promoter of Keswick he was also a
strong supporter of missions particularly among the Waldensians.
WESLEY, SAMUEL SEBASTIAN [1810-1876] – English composer and organist who was the
grandson of Charles Wesley [see 1738]. Anglican prejudice was against the Wesley's inhibited
him in his early years. Like Bach he suffered from inadequate forces to carry out his ideals and
was angered by official indifference. He did however write some fine anthems and composed the
well-known tune Aurelia for the hymn “The Church’s one foundation”.
1877
AMENT, WILLIAM SCOTT [1851-1909] – He was a missionary to China for the American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions from 1877, and was known as the "Father of Christian
Endeavour in China”. Ament became prominent as a result of his reported heroism during the
Boxer Uprising and controversial in its aftermath because of the personal attacks on him by
American writer Mark Twain for his collection of punitive indemnities from north China villages.
BAEDEKER, FREDERICK [1823-1906] – English based Brethren missionary to Russia and
Scandinavia with especial emphasis on prisons. Both he and his wife were converted in 1866
under the ministry of Lord Radstock who encouraged them to evangelise in Europe. In 1877 he
settled for three years with his family in St Petersburg and in 1889, in spite of official disfavour,
he obtained a unique permit which was renewed every two years until his death, to preach and
distribute Bibles in any Russian prison.
DELITZSCH, F. J. [1813-1890] – Lutheran Old Testament scholar who was born and educated
in Leipzig where he taught for some years, later holding chairs at Rostock and Leipzig. From a
Jewish background he sought to combat both the extremes of anti-Semitism and Zionism and to
aid in the conversion of the Jews to Christianity. In 1863 he founded a Jewish missionary
college; translated the New Testament into Hebrew in 1877 and established at Leipzig an
institution for the Jews. In 1886 he published a number of Old Testament commentaries of a
conservative character. He examined carefully the critical series of Wellhausen [see 1892] and
came to uphold the liberal view that there are different literary styles in the Pentateuch and of the
dual authorship of Isaiah. His critical views were probably more widely accepted in the Englishspeaking world than those of Wellhausen himself. It is however as an exegete for which he is
chiefly remembered.
EDDY, MARY BAKER [1821-1910] – Founder of Christian Science. Born into a Congregational
family in New Hampshire she was from infancy subject to attacks of convulsive hysteria and
even as a grown child had to be rocked to sleep in a cradle made by her father. She was highly
sensitive, intensely religious, seeing God everywhere. Reared on the Westminster confession,
she was accepted on confession of faith at the age of 12 by her father's church, despite her
rejection of the Westminster's predestinationism. In 1862 Mary visited "Doctor" Phineas Quimby
an ignorant non religious blacksmith who practised hypnotism and through it set her free from
years of suffering. Impressed by his healing through the use of mind, Mary combined Quimby's
methods with her understanding of Christianity and gave birth to her Divine Science of healing,
which she claimed came by direct revelation from God. In 1877 she married Asa Gilbert Eddy a
man of poor health whom she cured. After his death this remarkable widow of 61 went on to
fame, wealth, and the founding of her own church. She died at 89, after years of loneliness and
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mortal terror that enemies were projecting some mental arsenic into her mind.
GIBBONS, JAMES [1834-1921] – Catholic archbishop of Baltimore. Son of Irish immigrants, he
rose from simple surroundings to become the “American Cardinal”, the dominant Roman
Catholic prelate in United States history. He was appointed as archbishop of Baltimore in 1877
and named cardinal in 1886. He led the nation’s first archdiocese and thus much of the American
church until his death. Although untalented as a writer and a thinker he extended Catholic
influence in an age of intense anti-Catholicism.
GRANT, GEORGE MONRO [1835-1902] – Canadian minister and educator. Ordained a minister
in the Church of Scotland in 1860 he became pastor of St Matthew's Church Halifax in 1863. In
1877 he was appointed principal of Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, and held that office
until his death. Emphasising very strongly the practical, social, and political aspects of
Christianity, he became a national figure because of his involvement in national and imperial
interests, and because of his book Ocean to Ocean published in 1873. In 1899 he was
moderator of his denomination’s general assembly and in 1901 became president of the Royal
Society of Canada. Grant was known as author, educator, politician, and minister, and was
regarded almost as a national institution.
HODGE, ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER [1823-1886] – Presbyterian theologian and son of Charles
Hodge [see 1841] who succeeded his father at Princeton as systematic theologian in 1877.
Explainer of his father's ideas rather than creator of new concepts, and less prolific and
scholarly, he was noted for a number of works defending the Princeton fundamentals of divine
sovereignty and human depravity, and attempted to enliven these ideas through social
application.
LAMBUTH, WALTER RUSSELL [1854 – 1921]. – Lambuth was a Chinese-born American
Methodist Bishop who worked as a missionary establishing schools and hospitals in China,
Korea and Japan in the 1880s. Walter's parents were pioneering missionaries in China. Together
they also founded the mission work of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South in Japan. He
came from a line of Methodist ministers. Walter graduated with theology and medical degrees
before he returned to China with his wife Daisy Kelly as a medical missionary in 1877. Then he
was dispatched to West Japan where they were founders of Methodist work in Japan. He also
established Methodist work in the Belgian Congo, later travelling to Europe and establishing
Southern Methodism in Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Siberia and supervising
missionary work worldwide until his death in 1921.
SABATIER, LOUIS AUGUSTE [1839-1901] – French Protestant scholar who was brought up in
the early 19th century Protestant revival and became a leading exponent of liberal Protestantism
in France. He taught at Strasbourg [1868-1870] which was cut short for political reasons but
eventually in 1877 he helped to restore the faculty in Paris. From 1886 he taught also at the
Sorbonne. His theology evolved in relation to his wide interests in modern cultural problems and
was also shown in his prolific regular writings on literature and politics.
SCHERESCHEWSKY, SAMUEL ISAAC [1831-1906] – Missionary translator was born in
Lithuania of Jewish parents. He graduated from Breslau University and through reading the New
Testament became a Christian. Going to the USA he joined the Baptist Church and studied at a
Presbyterian seminary [1855 to 1858]. He served as a missionary in Shanghai in 1859 and
Peking [1863-1875]. He was gifted in languages and contributed with others in the translation of
the Prayer Book and New Testament into Mandarin and undertook the Old Testament by
himself. He became bishop of Shanghai in 1877 and four years later was struck down with
paralysis due to a stroke. He resigned his see in 1883 but over the next twenty years completed,
with the help of his wife, a translation of the Bible into Wenli, typing some 2,000 pages with the
middle finger of his partially crippled hand. Four years before his death in 1906, he said, “I have
sat in this chair for over twenty years. It seemed very hard at first. But God knew best. He kept
me for the work for which I am best fitted.”
SOLOVIEV, VLADIMIR SERGEEVICH [1853-1900] – Russian theologian and philosopher who
graduated from the University of Moscow in 1873. After research in London and Egypt he
returned to Moscow in 1876 and the following year moved to the University St Petersburg where
Dostoevsky [see 1880] and Leo Tolstoy [see 1861] were among those present at his lectures on
"Godmanhood". He was forced into retirement in 1881 after he advocated mercy for the
assassins of Alexander II, and devoted the rest of his life to his writings. He was deeply
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influenced by German idealistic philosophy and Gnostic mysticism. He advocated the reunion of
the Eastern and Western churches and the establishment of a universal theocracy. Because of
his connection with Rome he is sometimes called the Russian Newman. He was a prolific author.
TIELE, CORNELIUS PETRUS [1830-1902] – Dutch theologian who was educated in Amsterdam
and became professor of religious history at Leyden University in 1877. During his professorship
he exercised a great influence on the development of the study of comparative religion,
especially in the Netherlands. He had a vast knowledge of ancient languages and history and
was able to write in a lucid and orderly way.
WEISS, BERNHARD [1827-1918] – German Protestant New Testament scholar who taught at a
number of universities in Germany including Berlin from 1877 to 1908. Demonstrating that
criticism and positive Evangelical theology were not mutually exclusive, Weiss was one of a long
line of conservative German scholars who have not been given the recognition they deserve. He
was a strong critic of F.C. Baur [see 1845] and the Tubingen scholars.
WORLD ALLIANCE OF REFORMED CHURCHES – The oldest international Protestant body
membership of which was open to any church organisation based on Presbyterian principles
which honours the supreme authority of the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments in
matters of faith and morals and has a creed that is in harmony with the consensus of the
Reformed Churches. This group had its first general council in 1877. The Alliance remains
essentially consultative and advisory.
1878
BOOTH, WILLIAM [1829-1912] – Founder of the Salvation Army in 1878. He was converted in
1844 and became a minister and evangelist but resigned in 1861 from the Methodists to become
a freelance evangelist. With his wife Catherine [1829-1900] they tackled social evils alongside
his evangelical preaching. Cheap food centres, night shelters and unemployment exchanges
were all set up by Booth. While his wife was dying of cancer he conceived of a Missing Persons
Bureau and Legal Aid for the poor. In 1904 aged 75 he did a 29 day motorised evangelistic tour
of Britain 1224 miles long and 164 meetings long. In his preaching life he travelled 5 million
miles, preached 60,000 sermons and had drawn 16000 officers to serve in the Salvation Army.
FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM [1831-1903] – Dean of Canterbury. Born in India to missionary
parents, he went to school at King William's College, Isle of Man where the religious teaching
was strongly evangelical. He further studied at King's College London where he was influenced
by F.D. Maurice [see 1838], and after graduation and ordination was a schoolmaster until his
mid-40s. He had a tremendous influence on the Victorian middle classes in both religious and
cultural matters. His “Life in Christ” published in 1874 went through 12 editions in the first year
and his “Life and Works of St Paul” published in 1879 also had a great impact. Much controversy
was aroused by a collection of sermons in which he questioned the doctrine of eternal
punishment for the wicked. In 1882 he preached at Charles Darwin’s funeral. It was held that
Farrar's broad outlook long hindered his ecclesiastical promotion, but eventually, after having
been a royal chaplain and canon of Westminster, he was appointed dean of Canterbury, which
post he held the last eight years of his life. He was elected in 1866 as a fellow of the Royal
Society, an honour not accorded to many modern churchmen.
JOACHIM III – Patriarch of Constantinople [1878-1884, 1901-1912] succeeded Joachim II [see
1860]. He was born in Constantinople in 1834 and educated in Vienna. In 1858-1861 he was a
deacon in the holy temple of St George. In 1864 he was elected bishop of Varna and ten years
later bishop of Thessalonica. During his first reign, he worked on the improvement of the
financial state of the patriarchate. In 1880 he founded the magazine "Truth" and undertook
various other charitable acts. He is seen as one of the most prominent and important patriarchs
of modern times. Patriarch Joachim III repeatedly attempted to find a solution to the Bulgarian
schism.
LEO XIII – Pope [1878-1903]. He was educated by the Jesuits at Viterbo after which he studied
in Rome and was ordained a priest in 1837. He gained a reputation as a social reformer and in
the 1840’s mediated an educational controversy between the Jesuits and the Catholic University
of Louvain. In 1853 Leo was created cardinal and spent his long episcopate building and
restoring churches and encouraging learning and social reform and although not popular with
Pius IX protested against the loss of temporal power by the papacy in 1870. By conciliatory
methods he overcame anti-clerical protests in Germany after the decree of papal infallibility in
1870. After his election as pope he renewed contacts with Russia and Japan and improved
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relations with Britain. In France however he tried with little success to disassociate the Catholic
clergy from the Royalist party and during his last years relations between church and state in
France had deteriorated into a period of aggressive anticlericalism. In Italy as well the loss of the
Papal States remained permanent so that the pope was considered “The Prisoner of the
Vatican”. Leo did much in the social area attempting to stem the flow of common people away
from the church by promoting the concept of just wages and trade unions. He encouraged the
study of the Bible and in 1883 opened the Vatican library to historical research. He succeeded
Pius IX [see 1846] and was succeeded by Pius X [see 1903].
MILLS, BENJAMIN FAY [1857-1916] – He was an evangelist and Christian Socialist born in New
Jersey and ordained as a Congregational minister in 1878. In 1886 Mills started itinerant
evangelism. Believing social and economic problems could be solved only by effecting God's
kingdom on earth, Mills became the only major evangelist attempting to unite revivalism with the
social gospel. Finding this impossible, he terminated his itinerant ministry in 1895 to preach
Christian Socialism in New York and Boston. In 1899 despairing of evangelical awakening he
became minister of the First Unitarian Church in Oakland California.
PEARSON, CHARLES WILLIAM (1847-1917) – Pearson was a pioneer Anglican missionary in
Uganda, and thus was one of the pioneers of the Church of Uganda. He was later a parish priest
in England. He started life as a merchant seaman for some years before being discharged in
London in 1875. The next year he attended the Church Missionary Society's college in Islington,
and in 1878 led a party of four missionaries to Uganda to replace four who had died. The first
party of CMS missionaries, led by Lt. G. Shergold-Smith, had landed at Bagamoyo in July 1876,
but a year later two had been killed in a skirmish, and two others had died of fever. Pearson and
his party reached Rubaga in Uganda in February 1879, over nine months after setting out. They
were received at the court of Mutesa I, the Kabaka (King) of Buganda, A week later a party of
French Roman Catholic missionaries arrived, and difficulties ensued as Mutesa played off Arab,
British and French interests against each other. The Christian missionaries had not come
prepared to be used as political pawns. Their denominational rivalry reduced the effectiveness of
their message, as the Catholics refused to kneel for the Anglican prayers and vice versa.
Pearson appears to have been mainly occupied in translation work. After serving in Uganda for
two years Pearson returned to England for health reasons, using the more conventional route via
the East Coast and Zanzibar. He was known as a student of languages, and gained knowledge
of 17 languages. He was eminent as a translator, and served several publishers and missionary
organisations in that capacity.
ZAIRE – H.M. Stanley's exploration of the basin of the Congo brought the first Protestant
missionaries to Zaire in 1878. The first two societies were the Livingstone Inland Mission and the
British Baptists. The former was a branch of the Regions Beyond Missionary Union and when
the parent body found itself overextended the Congo mission was handed over to the American
Baptists. Other missions followed until they totalled some 46 societies, a high percentage of
them American. It was the missionaries who revealed the atrocities committed during the time of
King Leopold's personal rule. This obliged the Belgian government to step in and take control in
1908. The Roman Catholic government showed a distinct favouritism towards Roman Catholic
missions which had followed the Protestants into the field, until after World War II when a more
liberal party came into power. Independence brought chaos to much of the country. For the next
few years many missionaries had to be evacuated some of them up to three times. A number
were killed, both Catholics and Protestants, along with an uncounted numbers of Congolese
Christians.
1879
BRITISH ISRAELITES – Founded in England by John Wilson’s book “Our Israelitish Origin”
published in 1840. They believed that the British and American peoples are part of the "lost"
tribes of Israel. The first Anglo Saxon Association was founded in 1879. Critics urge that the
evidence for British Israelitism is very slender and that the lost tribes were largely absorbed into
Judah.
HAVERGAL FRANCES RIDLEY [1838–1879] – She was an English religious poet and hymn
writer. “Take my life and let it be” and “ Lord speak to me that I may speak” are the best known of
her hymns. She also wrote hymn melodies, religious tracts, and works for children. She was born
into an Anglican family, her father, William Henry Havergal (1793–1870), was a clergyman,
writer, composer, and hymn writer. In 1852-3 she studied in the Louisenschule, Düsseldorf, and
at Oberkassel. Otherwise she led a quiet life, not enjoying consistent good health; she travelled,
in particular to Switzerland. She supported the Church Missionary Society. She died of peritonitis
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at Caswell Bay on the Gower Peninsula in Wales.
HERGENROTHER, JOSEPH [1824-1890] – Roman Catholic scholar who studied at Wurzburg,
the German college in Rome, and was appointed as professor of canon law and church history
there. He was a consultant for the preparations of Vatican I and became a cardinal in 1879 and
the first prefect of the Vatican archives. Defending papal infallibility, he refuted Dollinger having
earlier attacked his liberalism.
LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER [1828-1889] – Bishop of Durham. He was a sickly child and
educated at home, then at King Edward's School Birmingham where he formed a friendship with
E.W. Benson later archbishop of Canterbury. In 1847 he went to Cambridge and studied under
B.F. Westcott [see 1851] and held professorships there. In 1879 he was appointed bishop of
Durham and devoted himself with great energy to his duties. He saw to the building of churches
into the expanding industrial areas, and also had living with him young graduates who were
training for the ministry. Lightfoot was fluent in seven languages and was at his best when
dealing with and assessing facts rather than ideas. This made him a good foil for both Wescott
and F.J. Hort [see 1881]. With both he intended to write a commentary on the complete New
Testament. Lightfoot was to do the Pauline epistles and completed Galatians in 1865,
Philippians in 1868, and Colossians and Philemon in 1875.
MACARIUS OF MOSCOW [1810-1882] – Metropolitan of Moscow who was educated at Kursk
and at Kiev and became a leading theologian in the Russian Orthodox Church holding a
professorship of dogmatic theology at St Petersburg. He was made metropolitan of Moscow in
1879 and became an authority on the official theology of the Roman Catholic church. He is the
author of a number of books.
MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK [1831-1879] – Scottish physicist who was educated at Edinburgh
and Cambridge. His investigations and discoveries cover a wide field but he is best known as the
creator of the electromagnetic theory. Throughout his life he was a committed Christian whose
philosophic consideration of his faith led him to some of his greatest scientific discoveries. Sir
Richard Glazebrooke said of him “all he read helped only to strengthen that firm faith in the
fundamentals of Christianity in which he lived and died.”
RENAN, JOHN ERNEST [1823-1892] – French humanist historian and oriental linguist who
unsettled both Catholics and Protestants with his publication ”The Life of Jesus” in 1863. In this
publication he depicted Jesus as a truly remarkable itinerant preacher but certainly not the Son
of God. His portrait came at the right historic moment for him and achieved immense popularity
among the enlarging sceptical readership. From 1845 he went on numerous archaeological digs
in the Near East and became professor of Hebrew at the College of France in 1862 until
removed because of the furore over his publication. He was reinstated in 1870 and appointed
director of the college in 1879 under the secularist Third Republic.
YOUNG, ROBERT [1822-1888] – Scottish theologian and Orientalist. He was apprentice to a
printer and combined his work with book selling from 1847 and spent much time in the study of
languages. In 1856 he went to India as a literary missionary, superintendent of the mission press
at Surat and retained his missionary interest when he returned to Europe in 1861. Young is best
known for his comprehensive “Analytical Concordance to the Holy Bible” published in 1879.
1880
CABRINI, FRANCES-XAVIER [1850-1917] – Italian Catholic who founded the Missionary Sisters
of the Sacred Heart. She was shy and delicate but had a strong spirit. Abandoning her career as
a primary school teacher she founded her own women’s missionary society in 1880. Leo III [see
1878] sent her to New York in 1889 where she worked with Italian immigrants founding schools,
hospitals, and charitable organisations on a worldwide scale.
CHURCH OF ENGLAND ZENANA MISSION was a British Anglican Christian missionary society
that was involved in sending workers to countries such as China during the late Qing Dynasty..
ELLIOT EMILY ELIZABETH STEELE [1836-1897] – Emily Elizabeth Steele Elliot was the niece
of Charlotte Elliot, author of the hymn “Just As I Am. She wrote a number of hymns for the
church in England where her father served as pastor. Elliot published a book called “Under the
Pillow” containing 48 of her hymns. It was designed for the use of those in hospitals and
infirmaries. The one song of hers in common use today is the Christmas hymn “Thou Didst
Leave Thy Throne.” She published “Chimes of Consecration”, a volume of seventy original
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hymns, in 1873, and “Chimes for Daily Service”, seventy-one hymns, in 1880. She edited the
“Church Missionary Juvenile Instructor” for several years.
HARRIS, JAMES RENDEL [1852-1941] – Quaker scholar and Orientalist who was educated
Cambridge and taught mathematics at the University until 1882 when he migrated the USA.
Returning to England he gained the reputation of a brilliant but unorthodox scholar who
specialise in textural problems. Having previously been a Congregationalist, in 1880 he joined
the Society of Friends or Quakers. In 1896 he organised relief for Armenians at the time of the
massacres. Theologically he was a liberal Christian and was scornful of fundamentalism.
KUYPER, ABRAHAM [1837-1920] – Dutch Calvinist theologian and political leader. As a young
preacher he was attracted by the deep-seated Calvinistic Pietism of the villagers and this along
with other influences led him to embrace orthodox Calvinism. He ran for parliament and made
orthodox Calvinism a political force. His programme called for state aid for religious schools,
extension of the suffrage, recognition of the rights of labour, reforms in colonial policies, and a
revitalisation of national life. By 1880 Kuyper started an orthodox Calvinist Free University which
was free from church and state control. He also taught in the seminary. By 1886 he led an
exodus of over 100,000 orthodox from the Reformed Church to set up the second largest
Protestant group in the Netherlands. This is known as the “Doleantie”. As a theologian he
revived a systematic, orthodox Calvinism, marked by an emphasis on common grace. His
achievement was also to give the long submerged common people the lower-middle-class
orthodox Calvinistic group a religious and political voice.
LATHBURY, MARY ARTEMISA [1841-1913]. – She was born in Manchester, Ontario County,
New York, a daughter of a Methodist minister and wrote extensively for the American religious
periodical press. She was a teacher, artist, and editor as well as a writer. She taught art at a
number of schools in the north eastern USA, and was then hired as associate editor for the
Methodist Episcopal Sunday School publications. She wrote and illustrated many poems and
other pieces for those books and magazines, including the “Child's Life of Christ.” Her two best
known hymns are "Break Thou the Bread of Life" a "Study Song" for the Chautauqua and
Scientific Circle written in the summer of 1880 and "Day is dying in the West" written in the same
year at the request of the Rev. John H. Vincent D.D.
PITRA, JEAN-BAPTISTE [1812-1889] – Cardinal and scholar. After study at Autun he became a
Benedictine and in 1843 prior of St Germain in Paris. He travelled widely in search of Latin and
Greek manuscripts. The pope sent Pitra on an ecumenical mission to Rome after which he
became Pius IX’S adviser on oriental matters. In 1869 he was appointed librarian at the Vatican
where he catalogued precious Greek manuscripts. In 1880 he was made cardinal legate of
Monte Cassino.
RYLE, JOHN CHARLES [1816-1900] – Bishop of Liverpool who was educated at Oxford the son
of a wealthy banker. Ryle was a fine athlete, he rowed and played cricket for Oxford. He was
spiritually awakened in 1838 on hearing Ephesians Chapter 2 read in church and was ordained
in 1842. He was a country pastor until at the age of 64 he was appointed in 1880 at Disraeli's
recommendation the first bishop of Liverpool. He was a prolific writer and the author of numerous
tracts and books. His leadership of evangelicals was sound and sensible persuading them not to
isolate themselves from the mainstream of church life by boycotting church congresses which
would leave the High Church alone to put forward their views. He formed a clergy pension fund,
constructed over 40 churches, and proved an able administrator. His strength of character was
shown in that, despite strong criticism, he declared his policy to put first the raising of clergy
stipends rather than commence the building of a cathedral. He worked well with people in having
a kind and understanding attitude in his personal relationships. Vast numbers of working men
attended his special meetings.
TYRRELL, GEORGE [1861-1909] – Roman Catholic modernist born in Dublin into an Anglican
family and studied briefly at Trinity College before converting to Roman Catholicism which led
him to entering the Jesuit order in 1880. After teaching philosophy he was called to his order’s
English headquarters in London and produced acceptable orthodox publications until 1899. An
article on Hell in the Weekly Register in 1899 in which he began questioning Roman Catholic
theology led to his transfer to a provincial mission house where he remained in an active
devotional life. Two letters to The Times in 1907 replying to Pius X condemnation of modernism
led to his being refused the sacraments. When he died at 48, having been plagued by ill-health
all his life, he still considered himself a Catholic but was unrepentant about his work. He was
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refused a Catholic burial and lies in a churchyard in Sussex
WATKINS, OWEN [1842-1915] – Wesleyan Methodist missionary who entered the ministry in
1863 and in 1876 was sent to Natal in South Africa for health reasons. In 1880 he became the
first chairman of the Transvaal and Swaziland district of the Wesleyan Methodist Church. He and
his colleagues travelled extensively contacting independent African evangelists, setting up
stations, purchasing mission farms, and providing pastoral care for white communities, especially
on the Witwatersrand goldfields. Watkins contracted a fever while walking 200 miles from Umtali
to Beira and was invalided home in 1892. He wished to advance into Central Africa but that was
not possible and he finished his ministry in British circuits.
1881-1890 AD
1881
ARNOT, FREDERICK STANLEY [1858-1914] – Scottish Brethren missionary who was
acquainted with the family of David Livingstone [see 1841] and wanted to follow his example. He
set out for Africa in 1881 making his way from Durham to the Zambezi. He suffered a lot from
malaria and dysentery. He was the foremost architect of Brethren missionary work in Central
Africa establishing a number of missionary stations including those in Zambia, Benguela, and
Katanga.
BIBLE VERSIONS – Revised section listed in order [for King James section see 1611 for
twentieth century see 1952]
1881. English Revised Version of the New Testament is published, immediately followed by the
innovative Greek New Testament of Westcott and Hort.
1883. Dean Burgon leads strong conservative attack on the English Revised Version and against
all critical Greek texts. The new version is eventually refused by the British churches.
1885. English Revised Version of the Old Testament.
1890. J.N. Darby's English Old Testament.
1895. Elizabeth Stanton's Woman's Bible repudiates Biblical teaching on woman's place.
1898. Eberhard Nestle's Greek New Testament.
1901. American Standard Version.
1903. First edition of Weymouth's New Testament (modern English version).
1904. Twentieth Century New Testament (modern English version).
1909. First edition of Scofield Reference Bible.
1913. Von Soden's Greek New Testament.
Moffat New Testament (popular paraphrase).
1917. Improved edition of Scofield Reference Bible.
1928. Moffat Bible published with Old Testament.
1935. Moffat Bible revised.
1946. Revised Standard version of the New Testament published with great fanfare.
1947. Dead Sea Scrolls (dated c. 150 B.C. to A.D. 75) discovered in Qumran.
CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE – Founded by A R SIMPSON [1844-1919] in 1881,
the name of the group was given to them in 1887. Predominantly in North America the C&MA
has groups in some 40 countries on six continents. The movement have over 5,000 indigenous
ministers and around 1,000 missionaries serving outside their home countries.
CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR SOCIETY was the first widespread non denominational youth
organisation in American churches and was set up by Pastor Francis CLARK [1851-1927] in
January 1881. Though many denominations subsequently set up their own youth organisations,
in 1960 CE could claim 3 million members. The organisation encourages young people to
confess Christ and to serve Him in fellowship with other young people in the Church. Francis
Clark became its first President in 1887 and served it for the remainder of his life making five
world trips for this youth work.
FRANSON, FREDRIK [1852-1908] – Evangelist and founder of the Evangelical Alliance Mission.
Born in Sweden he migrated to America in 1869 and was influenced by Moody to become an
evangelist to Swedish immigrants. He was ordained in 1881 and engaged in successful
evangelism in Scandinavia and Germany until 1890 when he led in the founding of the
Scandinavian Alliance Mission which has been known as the Evangelical Alliance Mission since
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1949. He was its general director from 1896 until his death. He stressed Christ's second coming
in his evangelistic messages.
HORT, FRENTON JOHN ANTHONY [1828-1892] – New Testament critic and biblical scholar.
With B. F. Westcott [see 1851] he edited an edition of the Greek New Testament in 1881 which
formed the basis of the English Revised Version and which set the pattern for nearly all future
editions of the Greek text. The 57 page introduction by Hort set out the basic elements of the
science of textual criticism which remain, in all essentials, valid to the present. With his friends
Westcott and J.B. Lightfoot [see 1879] he planned to write a complete commentary on the New
Testament. He was responsible for the synoptic gospels, Acts, the general epistles and the
Apocalypse. Due to a tendency towards perfectionism he published little. He is generally
regarded as the greatest of these three Cambridge scholars.
PLUMTRE, EDWARD HAYES [1821-1891] – Theological writer, classical scholar and poet
educated at Oxford and subsequently held the chair of pastoral theology at King’s College
London. In later years he held pastoral offices in Kent and in 1881 became the dean of Wells. He
enjoyed a high reputation for classical learning and helped in the translation of the Revised
Version of the Bible and contributed commentaries to various series.
UCHIMURA, KANZO [1861-1930] – He was the founder of the Japanese non-church movement.
He was won to Christianity by the zealous evangelism of students of Dr W.S. Clark [see 1876].
Under Uchimura’s leadership the “Sapporo Band” became the first independent Japanese
church in 1881. He is best known as founder and exponent of nondenominational Japanese
Christianity and his greatest legacy was a 22 volume Bible commentary, the fruit of his love, the
study of the Bible.
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO [1856-1915] – Negro educator who was the son of a
slave mother and white father. Washington was educated at Hampton Institute where he came to
believe that only training produces income and virtue for his fellow Negroes. He was called in
1881 to organise Tuskegee Institute in Alabama as a school for Negroes. He grew more
convinced that manual training unlike high school education, would prevent Negroes from
learning but would provide jobs which would not be offensive to whites. At the Atlanta Exposition
of 1895 he further pleased whites by declaring that Negroes were interested in hard work, not
social advancement. Whatever the merits of his ideas he was the leading spokesman for the
Negroes of his day.
1882
ANDERSON, SIR ROBERT [1841-1918] – Irish lay theologian and Bible teacher whose works
centred on apologetics and bible prophecy. A dispensationalist, he taught the difference for the
Church between the Pauline Epistles and the Gospels. Chief of New Scotland Yard [1888-1901]
Anderson wrote many books including "The Coming Prince" in 1882 and "The Bible and Modern
Criticism" in 1902.
BLANCHARD, CHARLES ALBERT [1848-1925] – President of Wheaton College [1882-1925].
He graduated from the college which he was to supervise in the time when his father Jonathon
was president .When called to succeed him Charles already had ten years of association with it.
He maintained the conservative evangelical character of the institution while he was also
pastoring the Moody Memorial Church in Chicago.
CARLILE, WILSON [1847-1942] – Founder of the Church Army. A businessman who was almost
ruined in 1873 which focused him on the meaning of his conversion. He became a great
evangelist presenting the gospel skilfully especially in open air and after-church venues. He
trained lay preachers which led in this year to the foundation of the Church Army.
COOK, DAVID CALEB [1850-1927] – American Sunday School leader who entered business as
a sewing machine salesman and developed a prosperous mail order business. Involvement with
several Sunday Schools led him to give up secular work and dedicate himself to the publication
of Sunday School material. He opened the existing publishing house in Elgin in 1882.
GLADDEN, WASHINGTON [1836-1918] – Liberal theologian and exponent of the Social Gospel.
He served churches in New York and Massachusetts [1860-1888]. His main pastorate was at the
First Congregational, Columbus Ohio from 1882-1914. He applied Christ’s teaching to social
problems, upheld the right of unions, and favoured profit-sharing and industrial arbitration.
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HANNINGTON, JAMES [1847-1885] – Anglican missionary to East Africa. Born in Sussex he
was educated at Brighton and then entered business and the army. He trained at Oxford for the
Anglican ministry and was ordained in 1874. In 1882 he offered to the Church Mission Society
and was appointed to Uganda. He reached Lake Victoria on his way out, but was forced to return
to England suffering from malaria and dysentery. He was consecrated the first bishop of Eastern
Equatorial Africa in 1884 and in 1885 reached Mombasa. After superintending the work at
Freretown near Mombasa he set off on foot for Uganda but was arrested and later killed on the
orders of Mwanga the Kabaka of the Baganda.
INTERNATIONAL BIBLE READING ASSOCIATION – A movement to encourage personal bible
study. It was founded in 1882 by the National Sunday School Union under the inspiration of
Charles Waters, a bank manager and a member of C.H. Spurgeon's congregation at the
Metropolitan Tabernacle. Waters became the first secretary. It first used a scheme of Bible
Reading related to International Sunday School Lessons. In three years the membership rose to
100,000 and by 1900 it had reached 750,000. The movement spread to Australia, New Zealand,
Canada, the United States of America, and many other countries. Expansion overseas has
continued both in association with missionary societies and independently such as in Nigeria in
1971.
MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY [1843-1901] – English writer and psychical researcher
educated at Cambridge where he taught classics until he became a school inspector in 1872. In
1882 he became the co-founder of the Society of Psychical Research and made the first deep
studies of the relations between hallucination, hypnotism, and mediumship. As a result of his
great desire to put religion on an empirical basis Meyers drifted slowly away from his early faith
in Christ.
NICODEMUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1882-1890] see 1875 and 1891
OWENS, PRISCILLA JANE [1829-1907] – She was an American song writer and teacher, born
in Baltimore, Maryland, she was of Welsh and Scottish descent. Her hymn “Will your anchor hold
in the storms of life” is the official hymn of The Boys’ Brigade. For more than fifty years she was
active in Sunday School work in her home town at the Union Square Methodist Episcopal
Church, and most of her hymns and songs were written for Sunday School children. Another well
known hymn is “We have heard the joyful sound; Jesus saves”
PIGOTT, JEAN SOPHIA [1845-1882] – Little is known today of Irish poetess and hymn writer
Jean Sophia Pigott. We know her brother Thomas was a missionary in China, and that he was
killed in the Boxer Rebellion in 1901. Jean Pigott wrote a number of hymns, but only one is still in
common use, the beautiful “Jesus, I Am Resting, Resting”. She died October 12, 1882 at Leixlip,
Lucan, County Kildare, Ireland at the early age of 37
PRUITT, CICERO WASHINGTON (1857–1946) – He was among the first Southern Baptist
missionaries to Northern China. He was ordained as a Southern Baptist minister at the age of 14
and began his evangelical work by preaching to Native Americans in Georgia. Later he attended
the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky. He appears to have followed
the ideals of Hudson Taylor's China Inland Mission, dressing like the Chinese, learning the
language and following Chinese customs. In 1882, he travelled to China as a missionary and
was stationed in Huangxian in North China, where he met his first wife, Ida Tiffany; she died two
years later. Later he married Anna Seward Pruitt and they opened a school for boys that
subsequently merged with the Carter School for Girls and Bush Theological Seminary, and
became the North China Baptist College. They along with William and Effie Sears and Laura
Barton were the only missionaries that remained loyal to Lottie Moon during a doctrinal dispute
with Tarleton Perry Crawford that led to dividing the Southern Baptist North China Mission.
Crawford believed missionaries should be self-supporting, but received criticism for spending
excessive amounts of time in subsequent business ventures. Crawford brought along most of the
North China Southern Baptist missionaries in starting his own mission named Gospel Mission.
Pruitt considered his greatest achievement to be the translation of his influential teacher John
Broadus' Commentary on Gospel of Matthew from English into Chinese.
SCOTT, CLARA [1841-1897]. – Clara Scott was born in Illinois and attended, in 1856, the first
Music Institute held in Chicago, by C. M. Cady. She went on to teach music at the Ladies
Seminary, Lyons, Iowa (1859). She married Henry Clay Scott in 1861. In 1882, she published
the “Royal Anthem Book”, the first volume of anthems published by a woman. Scott met and was
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greatly encouraged by Horatio Palmer, who helped publish many of her songs. Her most famous
hymn was “Open my eyes that I may see” She issued three collections of hymns before her
untimely death when she was thrown from a buggy by a runaway horse.
1883
BEACH, HARLAN PAGE [1854-1933] – Congregational missionary who graduated from Yale in
1878 and was sent by the American Board of Foreign Missions to Tung Chou China in 1883.
Here he developed a form of shorthand for the Mandarin language. He had to return home due
to his wife’s ill health in 1890 but was continually interested in missions. His most important
works was the production of the "World Missionary Atlas" in 1925.
BENSON, EDWARD WHITE – Archbishop of Canterbury [1883-1896]. He was born in Highgate,
Birmingham, the son of a Birmingham chemical manufacturer. He was educated at King
Edward's School, Birmingham and Trinity College, Cambridge. Benson began his career as a
schoolmaster at Rugby School in 1852, and was ordained deacon in 1852 and priest in 1857. In
1859 Benson was chosen by Prince Albert as the headmaster of Wellington College, Berkshire,
which had been built as the nation's memorial to the Duke of Wellington. He was largely
responsible for establishing Wellington as a great English public school, closely modelled on
Rugby School, rather than the military academy originally planned. Benson is best remembered
for devising the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols, an order first used in Truro Cathedral on
Christmas Eve 1880, a service format that is now used every Christmas around the world.
Benson and his wife had six children. None of the children married, and some of them appeared
to suffer from mental illnesses, probably bipolar disorder. Benson died from cardiovascular
disease in 1896. He succeeded Archibald Campbell Tate [see 1868] and was succeeded by
Frederick Temple [see 1896].
BONAR, HORATIUS [1808-1889] – Pastor, Author and Hymn Writer. He was born and educated
in Edinburgh coming from a long line of ministers who had served a total of 364 years in the
Church of Scotland. One of eleven children, his brothers John, James and Andrew Alexander
were also ministers of the Free Church of Scotland. He married Jane Catherine Lundie in 1843
and five of their young children died in succession. Towards the end of their lives, one of their
surviving daughters was left a widow with five small children and she returned to live with her
parents. In 1853 Bonar earned the Doctor of Divinity degree at the University of Aberdeen. He
entered the Ministry of the Church of Scotland at first being put in charge of mission work at St.
John's parish in Leith and settled at Kelso. He joined the Free Church at the time of the
Disruption of 1843, and in 1867 was moved to Edinburgh to take over the Chalmers Memorial
Church. In 1883 he was elected Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.
He was a prolific author including in 1884 "The Life and Works of the Rev. G. T. Dodds", who
had been married to Bonar's daughter and who had died in 1882 while serving as a missionary
in France. His hymns include: “Fill thou my life, O Lord, my God”, “I heard the Voice of Jesus
say” and “Thy way, not mine, O Lord”
BRYENNIOS, PHILOTHEOS [1833-1914] – Greek Orthodox theologian who was born to poor
parents and educated at Halki in Constantinople and in Germany. In 1861 he became a
professor at Halki. He was an Orthodox representative at the Bonn Conference of 1874. He is
famous for the publishing of the "Didache of the Twelve Apostles" in 1883 from a manuscript
from 1056 which was housed in the residence for the visiting patriarch of Jerusalem in
Constantinople.
BUDDE, KARLE [1850-1933] – German Protestant Bible scholar who continued to criticise the
O.T. following procedures laid down by his friend Wellhausen.
DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES [1846-1914] – Old Testament scholar who was educated at
Winchester and Oxford. Driver was connected with the University of Oxford all his working life
succeeding E. B. Pusey in the chair of Hebrew [1883-1914]. He was influenced by the critical
approach to the Old Testament of German scholars and did much to publicise their views in his
teaching and writing.
KAFTAN, JULIUS WILHELM MARTIN [1848-1926] – German Protestant theologian educated at
Berlin and later taught at the University of Berlin from 1883. He stressed personal religious
experience and the historical revelation of Christ. The Atonement was interpreted in mystical and
ethical categories, rejecting any idea of satisfaction or need for God's reconciliation with man
(rather than the reverse).
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LAGRANGE, MARIE JOSEPH [1855-1938] – French Roman Catholic scholar who studied in
Paris and Vienna. He was ordained in 1883 and lectured in history and philosophy at Salamanca
and Toulouse. He was appointed to the biblical commission in 1902 by Leo XIII and came as
close to Higher Criticism as Catholic orthodoxy would permit.
SHEKLETON MARY [1827-1883] – Mary Shekleton was for many years an invalid, during which
time she wrote several hymns, which were printed in broadsheet form. Several of these are
given in "Chosen, Chastened, Crowned - Memorials of Mary Shekleton” late Secretary of the
Invalids' Prayer Union, by her sister 1884" She is remembered for her hymn “It passeth
knowledge that dear love of Thine" published in the year of her death, 1883.
SMITH, WILLIAM [1854-1914] – Founder of the BOYS BRIGADE in Thurso Scotland. This was
the pioneer of uniformed voluntary organisations for boys and girls. A church centred
organisation with the purpose of helping boys achieve a true Christian faith, promoting habits of
obedience, reverence, discipline, and self respect. It currently has 5000 companies and over
250,000 members worldwide.
WHITTLE, DANIEL WEBSTER [1840-1901]. Daniel Whittle was an American poet, hymn writer,
evangelist, and Bible teacher who was influenced by Dwight L. Moody. He entered full time
evangelism and worked with P. P. Bliss and James McGranahan. He wrote the words for about
two hundred hymns, including, "I Know Whom I Have Believed" in 1883. Whittle reached the
rank of major in the American Civil War and for the rest of his life was known as "Major" Whittle.
He was converted in a prisoner of war camp while recovering from his war wounds in the
hospital while he was praying with a young dying soldier.
1884
CARMAN, ALBERT [1833-1917] – Superintendent of the United Methodists of Canada.
Originally a school teacher he eventually became the bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
He was an excellent administrator and held the position of superintendent until 1914. He is said
to have stood for the “integrity and veracity of the Book”.
DRUMMOND, HENRY [1851-1897] – Scottish writer and evangelist. Educated at Edinburgh
University, he was persuaded by D.L. Moody to suspend his theological course and to work with
him in evangelistic campaigns during Moody's first visit to Britain 1873-1875. From 1877 he
taught natural science at the Free Church College Glasgow and in 1883 published the bestseller
"Natural Law in the Spiritual World". In 1884 he was ordained and became professor of theology
in the college. During the last 14 years of his life he was involved in controversy about the
relationship of science and religion, and about the authority of the Bible. He might have been a
great scientist had not evangelism been the main focus of his life. He died after two years of
crippling illness.
FAUNCE, WILLIAM HERBERT PERRY [1859-1930] – Baptist minister and educator. After
training he entered the Baptist ministry in 1884. He worked for 15 years as a pastor, before being
appointed president of Brown University where he served until his retirement in 1929. Active in
many social causes, he was at various times president of the World Peace Foundation, the
National Education Association, and of the Religious Education Association. A liberaliser, he
moderated between modernists and fundamentalists and opened Brown University to nonBaptist leadership.
GORDON, GEORGE ANGIER [1853-1929] – Scottish Congregational minister and writer. A
preacher of great power during a long and influential pastorate at the Old South Church in
Boston from 1884 to 1927. Through numerous books and lectures in all the leading American
universities, he was a leader in introducing liberalism into the Congregational denomination. He
called Calvinism “the ultimate blasphemy of thought” and held that moral progress was the key to
history.
GRENFELL, GEORGE [1849-1906] – Baptist missionary who after a short apprenticeship in the
Cameroon's from 1875-78 led a pioneer party to the Congo. By inclination an explorer, Grenfell
travelled 25,000 kilometres on the Congo and its tributaries from 1884 to 1886 winning
recognition from the Royal Geographical Society. For over 20 years he supervised Baptist
Missionary Society work and continued exploring in two steam boats he himself assembled. His
base after 1889 was Boloba where he engaged in conventional missionary work. While
considering European rule preferable to intertribal conflict and Arab slave-raiding he later
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condemned official atrocities and was treated with marked disfavour. This prevented him from
completing a chain of stations linking up with the Church Missionary Society in East Africa.
HASTINGS, JAMES [1852-1922] – Scottish minister and editor who was educated at Aberdeen
and became a pastor at the United Free Church from 1884-1911 before retiring to engage in
editorial work. In 1889 he founded the monthly Expository Times which he edited until his death.
Hastings was a magnificent preacher, a man whose message was always unmistakably
evangelical, spoken without the aid of notes and with the eloquent simplicity which is frequently
associated with a wide range of knowledge.
HOLLAND, HENRY SCOTT [1847-1918] – Anglican preacher and theologian who was educated
at Oxford and was the canon of St Paul's from 1884 to 1910 before returning to Oxford as a
regius professor of divinity. A witty and prominent member of the “Lux Mundi” [see 1889] group
he combined High Churchmanship with a vague liberal theology. An advanced member of the
Christian Social Union of which he was sometime vice-president, he popularised the view of
Christ as “the solution of all human problems”. His religious and political optimism was shattered
by the experiences of World War I.
JACKSON, SHELDON [1834-1909] – USA, Presbyterian missionary to the West and Alaska.
Having served the Presbyterian Churches in Minnesota he was put in charge of the church's
Western missions and pioneered the use of prefabricated church buildings. He supervised the
Alaskan Presbyterians missions from 1884-1907. He set up a public school system in Alaska for
the government and in 1890 introduced reindeer into mainland Alaska to help the natives. He
was elected moderator of his denomination in 1897.
JOACHIM IV – Patriarch of Constantinople [1884-1887] succeeded Joachim III [see 1878].
There is no additional information readily available.
KOREA [see also 1950] – Christianity was planted in Korea by Koreans not by foreigners. Prior
missionary contacts were only peripheral the first Catholic de Cespedes arrived in 1593 as
chaplain to the invading Japanese troops. Not until Lee Sung-hun in 1784 returned baptised from
a visit to the ex-Jesuit mission in Peking did Catholicism begin to spread among Koreans. In the
next 100 years despite great persecutions the Catholic Church though was still a hidden
movement grew to some 17,5000 members. The first Protestant Karl Gutzlaff [see 1823] arrived
in 1832 exploring the coast. The year after the arrival in 1884 of the first resident Protestant
missionary, Suh Sang-yun, a Korean convert of Scots missionaries in Manchuria, brought
Korean Scripture portions into forbidden Korea and secretly gathered together the country's first
group of worshipping Protestants. The missionaries followed, first a Presbyterians physician Dr
Horace Allen and in 1885 two clergyman, the Presbyterian H.G. Underwood [see 1885] and
Methodist H.G. Appenzeller. The pioneer in opening North Korea was S.A. Moffat. And it was in
the north that church growth was the greatest and by 1910 Protestants had outstripped
Catholics. The Korean Presbyterian Church was organised as an independent body in 1907 with
the Korean Methodist Church following in 1930. Japanese annexation in 1910 brought
harassment of the Church culminating in open persecution when Christians in the 1930s refused
government demands to participate in Shinto ceremonies.
TAYLOR, WILLIAM [1821-1902] – American Methodist evangelist and missionary who did not
receive much early education but in due course entered the Methodist ministry and was
assigned to the tented city of San Francisco. His open-air meetings drew thousands of listeners
and brought many conversions. Taylor organised the first Methodist Church in his city. From
1856 to 1861 Taylor travelled through North America and thereafter to England, Australia, the
West Indies, South America, the Middle East, and South Africa. Elected missionary bishop of
Africa in 1884 he systemised the work particularly in the Congo and Liberia advocating selfsupporting missions where possible. His zeal and methods sometimes alarmed his home board
but his results were often impressive.
1885
BARNBY, SIR JOSEPH [1838-1896] – English conductor and composer of more than 200 hymn
tunes including "When morning gilds the skies". He did much to introduce the works of Bach and
Dvorak to England.
BUTLER, JOSEPHINE [1828-1907] – Social reformer, concerned initially with educational
facilities for women she later supported refuges for the destitute and the removal of sexual
exploitation of women. She was able to effect the raising of the age of consent to 16 in 1885 and
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repeal the Contagious Diseases Act which had virtually recognised prostitution in seaports and
garrison towns. She formed the Ladies National Association for Appeal in 1869 which was a
means to appeal to Parliament.
CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY [1841-1915] – Old Testament Oxford scholar who participated in the
preparation of the Revised Version of the Bible. He spent time in Germany and was a pioneer in
England of the critical approach to the Old Testament. He was co editor of Encyclopaedia Biblica
1899-1903.
DOSTOEVSKY, FYODOR [1821-1881] – Russian writer born in Moscow, son of a doctor, who
was educated as an engineer but early turned to writing. He became involved with an antigovernment socialist group for which he was arrested and sentenced to death but at the public
execution he was given a last-minute reprieve. He was forced to spend 10 years in Siberia in
prison and in military service instead. He wrote about his prison experiences in “The House of
the Dead” 1861, and "Notes from Underground" in 1864 is an extraordinary picture of a mentally
disturbed and alienated man. For a period he became very unstable, overwhelmed by gambling
debts and emotional tensions, and epileptic seizures. His Russian Orthodoxy is represented by
characters who seek salvation through suffering.
EVANGELICAL COVENANT CHURCH OF AMERICA – Founded in Chicago in 1885 it traces its
origins to the Reformation, biblical instruction in the Lutheran State Church of Sweden, and the
awakenings of the 19th century. It has traditionally cherished the historic confessions and
creeds, but recognises the sovereignty of the Word of God over their interpretations. Its chief
institutions are North Park College and Seminary in Chicago, and it has extensive missionary
outreach.
GERASIMOS Patriarch of Antioch [1885-1891] see also 1860 and 1892
JONES, SAMUEL PORTER [1847-1906] – Evangelist and prohibitionist, born in Alabama USA.
Chronic nervous indigestion kept him from his college and alcoholism soon ended a law career
begun in 1868. He was converted under his Methodist grandfather's preaching and became a
circuit rider for the North Georgia Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South in 1872.
He was very successful in winning converts in Georgia and in raising funds as an agent for the
Methodist Orphanage Home at Decatur. After 1885 he became an evangelist of national
prominence. His meetings, characterised by controversial, vernacular oratory, often produced
organised efforts to enforce local restricting laws and helped stimulate the National Prohibition
movement.
KEITH-FALCONER, ION GRANT [1856-1887] – Missionary, Hebrew and Arabic scholar who
was born into a noble Scottish family and educated at Cambridge and Leipzig. He was very tall,
had an attractive personality and was also one of the earliest bicycle champions. He helped
found the Cambridge Intercollegiate Christian Union in 1877 and engaged in evangelism among
the poor. In 1885 he went as a missionary to the Arabs even though he had been appointed
professor of Arabic at Cambridge. He and his young wife founded the Sheikh Othman hospital
near Aden but he died of fever within a few months. His social, academic, and athletic standing,
together with his early death, made him a great Christian influence on his contemporaries.
PARKER, WILLIAM HENRY [1845-1929]. – Baptist Hymn Writer. Parker was born and died in
Nottingham, England. He was said to have been apprenticed in the machine construction
department of a large lace making plant in Nottingham but was also involved in an insurance
company. He was a Baptist layman, who attended the Chelsea Road Baptist Church and was
greatly interested in the work of the Sunday School. His 1885 gospel song “Tell Me the Stories of
Jesus” was inspired by the often repeated request of the children in his Sunday School class,
“Teacher, tell us another story.”
REVISED VERSION of the English Bible published.
SABATIER, PAUL [1859-1928] – French Calvinistic scholar and pastor who studied at Lille and
enrolled at the Protestant faculty of the University of Paris where his brother Louis [see 1877],
and Ernst Renan [see 1879] were amongst his teachers. From 1885 he was vicar at a Protestant
church in Strasbourg for five years but was expelled from Germany and returned to France
where he was a pastor for another five years before resigning to devote himself to a life of
scholarship. He travelled to Assisi in Italy where he studied the life of Francis and the Franciscan
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Order. Later he became professor of Protestant theology at Strasbourg. His “Life of St Francis of
Assisi” was an immediate success and shows a sympathetic understanding of Francis. During
World War I he served as chaplain for pastors who were in the Armed Forces.
STUDD, CHARLES THOMAS [1862-1931] – Pioneer missionary who was the third son of
Edward Studd a wealthy retired planter who was converted under D.L. Moody in 1877. Charles
was converted the year after and educated at Cambridge where he excelled at cricket and was
in the English team in 1882. He volunteered for missionary service and was one of the group of
students known as the Cambridge Seven which aroused much enthusiasm on missions in
Edinburgh and elsewhere. He sailed for China under the China Inland Mission in 1885 and gave
away his inheritance to Christian causes. Invalided home in 1894 he was working two years later
with students in America when the Student Volunteer Missionary Union was formed. He was
pastor of the Union Church in Ootacumund in South India in 1900 to 1906 until forced home
again through illness. Contrary to medical advice, after preaching in Britain for some while he
went to Africa in 1910 where he founded the Heart of Africa Mission in 1912 which later became
the Worldwide Evangelisation Crusade [WEC]. He laboured with Alfred Buxton and others in
Central African until his death.
SWAINSON, CHARLES ANTHONY [1820-1887] – Anglican theologian who was son of a
Liverpool merchant and educated at Cambridge. After a series of appointments he became Vice
Chancellor of the University in 1885. Swainson was an authority on church creeds and liturgy.
He travelled widely to view early manuscripts and published several works on the subject. He
was also devoted to practical work of the ministry despite his high academic standing.
UNDERWOOD, HORACE GRANT [1859-1916] – Dutch Reformed missionary to Korea who was
born in London and emigrated to America in 1872 where he graduated from New York University
and three years later from the New Brunswick Theological Seminary. He went to Korea in 1885
under the Presbyterian Board for Foreign Missions and four years later married the queen's
physician. Underwood mastered the language, taught theology, and helped establish a hospital
and college as well as a church. Trust and confidence of the Royal family generated through his
persistent efforts brought more freedom for Christian missions in Korea.
VAN MANEN, WILLEM CHRISTIAAN [1842-1905] – Dutch theologian who became a preacher
in the Dutch Reformed Church. He was recognised as an able theologian who moved from a
relatively orthodox position steadily towards an advanced higher critical viewpoint. In his early
40s he was appointed as professor at Leyden in 1885 and became a brilliant exponent of radical
higher criticism. He concluded that the Pauline epistles were sub-apostolic and extended this to
most of the New Testament dating them from the second century and saw it as part of an effort
to transform Judaism into a universal religion.
WALKER, THOMAS [1859-1912] – Anglican missionary to South India who was named “Walker
of Tinnevelley”. Walker was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1882 and sent by the
Church Missionary Society to Tinnevelley in 1885. Apart from his evangelism and Bible teaching
in the Tamil field he was a noted preacher at conventions particularly at hill stations and exerted
considerable influence on the reformed section of the Syrian Orthodox Church. He was
associated closely with the work of Amy Carmichael [see 1903] who wrote his biography.
WORDSWORTH, JOHN [1843-1911] – Bishop of Salisbury and elder son of Christopher
Wordsworth [see 1869]. From 1878 he worked on a critical edition of the Vulgate text of the New
Testament amassing and collating a huge number of manuscripts and was a professor of
interpretation of Scripture in 1883. Wordsworth was made bishop of Salisbury in 1885 and was a
close friend and adviser of Archbishop E.W. Benson [see 1882]. In the hope of a church reunion
he maintained relations with the Eastern churches.
1886
ANDOVER CONTROVERSY involved the Andover Theological Seminary from 1886 to 1893.
The seminary had been founded in 1808 by the Congregationalists to counter the Unitarian
tendencies at Harvard. E.C Smyth and his colleagues argued that the heathen who die without
knowledge of the Gospel will have an opportunity to accept or reject the gospel before facing
final judgement. In 1887 Smyth was deprived of his chair but in 1891 his dismissal was voided by
the Supreme Court of Massachusetts.
BEYSCHLAG, WILLIBALD [1823-1900] – German Evangelical Church leader who was a strong
supporter of the rights of the laity and for the autonomy of the church. Active as a religious
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journalist in 1876 he founded an organisation for the moderates in the church and was always
concerned about the Catholic aggression which he had met in Trier when he was there in 185056. In 1886 he founded a group to counter the influence of the Catholic Church in the
Evangelical Church.
BOBERG, CARL GUSTAV [1859–1940] – Boberg was a Swedish poet, author and hymn writer,
and parliamentarian, best known for writing the Swedish language poem of "O Store Gud" (O
great God) from which the English language hymn "How Great Thou Art" is derived. He was a
carpenter’s son, worked briefly as a sailor, and served as a lay minister. The inspiration for "How
Great Thou Art" came from a visit to a beautiful country estate on the southeast coast of
Sweden. Boberg got caught in a midday thunderstorm with awe inspiring moments of flashing
violence, followed by a clear brilliant sun. Soon afterwards he heard the calm, sweet songs of the
birds in nearby trees. The experience prompted Boberg to "fall to his knees in humble adoration
of his mighty God." A nine-stanza poem beginning with the Swedish words "O Store Gud, nar jag
den varld beskader" captured his exaltation of how great God is. It was translated into English by
British missionary Stuart K. Hine, who also added two original verses of his own composition. It
was popularized by George Beverly Shea and Cliff Barrows during Billy Graham crusades.
Boberg was the editor of a weekly Christian newspaper, Sanningsvittnet (Witness of the Truth),
from 1890 until 1916. He served in the Swedish Parliament for 20 years from 1912 to 1931 and
published more than 60 poems, hymns and gospel songs.
CHICAGO LAMBETH ARTICLES adopted by American Bishops. The four basics are known as
the Chicago Quadrilaterals and consist of [1] adherence to the Holy Scriptures as the ultimate
standard of faith, [2] adherence to the Apostles and Nicene Creed, [3] adherence to the two
sacraments of Baptism and Lord’s Supper, and [4] adherence to a belief in an historic
episcopate. In 1888 the Lambeth Conference adopted a similar quadrilateral as the basis for its
own discussion of Christian unity with other churches.
FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN [1838-1912] – Congregational minister who had little regular
schooling and was earning his living before he was 10. He however read widely and eventually
studied at Edinburgh University. He entered the Evangelical Union theological college in
Edinburgh in 1857 and ministered as a pastor before becoming the principal of Airedale
Theological College in 1877. He transferred to Mansfield College Oxford in 1886 at which he was
the first principal, a post which he held for 23 years. An original and refreshing teacher whose
theological liberalism reflected the views of the German scholars, Fairbairn was much in demand
as a preacher and lecturer and paid several visits to the USA.
KAFTAN, THEODOR [1847-1932] – German Lutheran churchman and elder brother of Julius
Kaftan [see 1883. He was general superintendent for the province of Schleswig from 1886 to
1917. A strong confessional Lutheran, he clashed with the spokesman for both the orthodox and
neo-Protestant positions. He opposed Prussian attempts to Germanise north Schleswig and
sought to protect the Danish character of the church life there. He disliked the church’s growing
dependence upon the state and was the author of numerous works in the field of practical
theology.
LISZT, FRANZ [1811-1886] – Hungarian composer and pianist who was one of the most
influential figures of the Romantic era in music and was one of the great innovators of the 19th
century. His interest and involvement in religious music is not so generally recognised. He wrote
three large-scale settings of the Mass, two oratorios, and an assortment of other sacred works.
MOODY, DWIGHT LYMAN [1837-1899] – American evangelist who started work at the age of
13 in Northfield and at 17 secured employment in a shoe store in Boston. He began attending
Mount Vernon Congregational Church in Boston and was converted in 1855. He moved to
Chicago and became a travelling salesman and successful businessman. Moody joined
Plymouth Church and soon rented four pews for men invited from the hotels and on street
corners. In 1860 he decided give up business and spend full-time in Sunday School YMCA work.
During the Civil war he also threw himself into work among soldiers and soon established the
nondenominational Illinois Street Church. At a national Sunday School conference he met Ira
Sankey [see 1870] who he enlisted as a musical associate. In 1873 Moody sailed for Britain.
This his third tour which lasted two years, was destined to make him a national figure. Major
crowds attended his meetings in Scotland and when he went to London for a four-month period
total attendance at the meetings reached more than 2 1/2 million. He returned to the United
States where he established a school for girls, Northfield Seminary, and two years later a school
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for boys, Mount Hermon School. In 1880 he began a summer conference ministry, and in 1886
started the Chicago Evangelization Society later to be known as the Moody Bible Institute. It has
been established that he travelled more than 1,000,000 miles and addressed more than 100
million people. In the midst of his last evangelistic campaign in Kansas City Moody became ill
and died a few days later.
NICOLL, WILLIAM ROBERTSON [1851-1923] – Religious journalist, son of a Free Church of
Scotland minister, who was educated at Aberdeen and subsequently entered the ministry. Ill
health caused his resignation from the pastorate and moving to London he edited “The
Expositor” [1885-1923] and “The British Weekly” [1886-1923]. He also wrote for the secular
press and published many books. He was knighted by Edward VII in 1909.
ROWLEY FRANCIS HAROLD [1854-1952] – The son of a doctor, Francis Harold Rowley
became an ordained Baptist clergyman who, for about 30 years, served churches in several
States in America. He was also greatly interested in animal welfare, wrote books on the subject,
and was president of the Massachusetts S.P.C.A. for 35 years, being made chairman of the
board at the age of 91. For his notable interest in both human and animal welfare, the Rowley
School of Humanities at Oglethorpe University in Atlanta was named in his honour. “I Will Sing
the Wondrous Story” is the only hymn credited to Rowley. He was serving a church in
Massachusetts at the time of writing it (around 1886). The church was holding a series of
evangelistic meetings, assisted by gospel musician Peter Bilhorn. Pastor Rowley says, “One
night, after the close of the service, he said, ‘Why don’t you write a hymn for me to set to music.’
During the night these most unpretentious and wholly unworthy verses came to me.” Years later,
the author was walking down a street in London, late at night, and saw a group of Salvation
Army people holding an open-air service. He says, “As I came nearer to them, it occurred to me
that the hymn they were singing was familiar. Then it dawned upon me that it was this one.”
SOUTHERN AFRICA ZAMBIA – Zambia was entered from several directions with F. Coillard
[see 1857] coming from Lesotho to found the Barotse Mission in 1886 closely followed by the
Primitive Methodists. The London Missionary Society entered Bembaland from Tanganyika; the
Presbyterians, the Dutch Reformed Church, and Anglicans from Malawi; the Wesleyan
Methodists from Zimbabwe. The development of the Copper Belt after 1925 led to the
spontaneous formation of an African Union Church and to united action by several missions.
Zambia was proclaimed a Christian country in 1991.
TERESA OF LISIEUX [1873-1897] – Carmelite and devotional writer who had a deprived
childhood and became gravely ill. This led however at Christmas 1886 to a conversion
experience that led her to her monastic commitment. She was able to enter the Carmelite
convent in Lisieux at only fifteen years of age. From 1893 she was acting novice mistress and
wrote “Little Way”. Pope Benedict XV said it contained the secret of sanctity for the entire world.
Dying of tuberculosis she wrote her autobiography, the wide circulation which has led to her
extensive cult. She was canonised in 1925.
1887
BLACKSTONE, WILLIAM EUGENE [1841-1935] – American friend of the Jews who was
converted as a boy and served in the Civil War with the US Christian Commission. Impressed by
the lack of literature on the Second Coming he became a writer on the Second Advent. He
founded the Chicago Hebrew Mission in 1887 and three years later headed the first conference
between Jews and Christians in that city.
DIONYSIUS V – Patriarch of Constantinople (1887-1891) succeeded Joachim IV [see 1884].
There is no additional information readily available.
EVANS, OWEN [1829-1920] – Welsh minister with elementary education only, who served as
minister in several Congregational churches. He was chairman of the Union of Welsh
Independents in 1887. Apart from being a successful pastor he was a prolific author. He
specialised in books of the popular nature dealing with biblical themes and written in a clear and
interesting style. Throughout his life he was an ardent defender of the Reformed faith against the
attacks of modernism and liberalism.
GOFORTH, JONATHAN [1859-1936] – Canadian Presbyterian missionary to China. Educated at
Knox College Toronto he was ordained in 1886 and went with his wife to China in 1887. Here
they were pioneers in the Canadian Presbyterian work in Honan Province. Theologically
conservative and a firm believer in preaching he became famous for his leadership and
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participation in revivals which swept over China in the early 20th century. Though he lost his
eyesight during his final years in China, he continued to minister there until 1934.
KIDD, BERESFORD JAMES [1864-1948] – Church historian educated at Oxford and was
ordained in 1887. He was vicar of St Paul’s at Oxford from 1902 to 1920 then became warden of
Keble College until his retirement. He wrote a number of books on church history. His work on
the history of Christianity was based on careful study of its documents, illustrative collections of
which he also published.
POLLARD, SAMUEL [1864-1915] – Missionary to China who was born in Cornwall son of a
Methodist minister. Pollard reached China under the Bible Christian Mission [see 1815] in 1887
and was appointed to the south-west region. He soon began the evangelisation of the Miao tribe
and spent 20 years among them. He reduced their language to writing and prepared literature in
the script he devised. His educational efforts were greatly resented by those who gained from
their workers being illiterate, and on one occasion Pollard was severely beaten. Before he died
of typhoid he witnessed the mass movement of the Miao into the Christian church.
PREMILLENNIALISM – The view which asserts that Christ will come a second time before the
1000 years of His millennial reign, and places the Rapture of the Saints, the First Resurrection,
the Tribulation, and The Second Advent before the Millennium in prophetic time sequence with
the brief release of a bound Satan, the Second Resurrection and Last Judgement afterwards.
This view was held by the early church fathers until Origen, Eusebius, and Augustine modified it.
It was revived in the modern era by John Darby [see 1845], W.E. Blackstone [see above], and
C.I. Scofield [see 1909], among others.
SAMMIS, JOHN HENRY [1846-1919] – John Sammis was born in Brooklyn, New York and died
in Los Angeles, California. He was a businessman who later attended McCormick and Lane
Theological Seminaries. Ordained a Presbyterian minister in 1880, he served in numerous
pastoral positions in the Midwest and taught at the Bible Institute of Los Angeles for the
remainder of his career. He wrote over 100 hymns of which the most famous is “When we walk
with the Lord” written in 1887.
SLEEPER, WILLIAM TRUE [1840-1920]. – William Sleeper was an American Congregational
clergyman. He had pastorates in Massachusetts and Maine. He was pastor of the Summer
Street Congregational Church in Worcester, Massachusetts, for over 30 years. He is best
remembered for his hymn “Out of my bondage, sorrow, and night Jesus I Come” published in
1887. Musician George Stebbins [see 1874] spoke of his ability to compose hymns. He said “I
spoke to Reverend Sleeper, one of the pastors of the city who sometimes wrote hymns, of my
impression of the message and asked him if he would write me some verses on the subject. He
acted at once on my suggestion and soon after came to me with the hymn. Before the meetings
closed a musical setting was made.”
STAINER, JOHN [1840-1901] – English composer and organist both at Magdalen College in
1860 and St Paul’s cathedral 1872. His most famous composition was the oratorio “The
Crucifixion” published in 1887. He was knighted the following year by Queen Victoria.
WARFIELD, BENJAMIN BRECKINRIDGE [1851-1921] – American Presbyterian scholar who
took an arts degree at Princeton and travelled in Europe for a year before becoming editor of the
“Farmers Home Journal”. Later he trained for the ministry at Princeton Theological Seminary and
at the University of Leipzig. In 1878 he became instructor of New Testament language and
literature in Western Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, holding the rank of professor from 1879
to 1887. He then moved to Princeton where he succeeded A.A. Hodge [see 1877] as professor
of didactic and polemical theology. Warfield was a committed Calvinist with a high regard for the
Westminster Confession of Faith and held dogmatically to an inerrant Scripture, original sin,
predestination, and a limited atonement. He fought a running battle with the C.A. Briggs [see
1890] and H.P. Smith [see 1874] over biblical inerrancy, which he and Charles Hodge [see 1841]
defended vigorously.
1888
ABBOT, LYMAN [1835-1922] – Congregational minister who became pastor in Terre Haute
Indiana in 1860 and after the Civil War served on the American Union Commission which
promoted reconstruction in the South. In 1888 he succeeded H Beecher [see 1847] as pastor of
Plymouth Church in Brooklyn. During the 1880’s he changed from an orthodox position to radical
biblical criticism and liberalism accepting Darwinism and applying evolutionary principles to
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religious questions.
AFFIRMATION which is the right to affirm, provided for those giving evidence in English civil
courts who, with or without religious faith, object on conscientious grounds to take an oath on
God’s name. The Common Law Procedure Act of 1854 extended this right to any who had
conscientious reasons for objecting to be sworn but this option did not explicitly include atheists
until the Oaths Act of 1888.
BATIFFOL, PIERRE [1861-1929] – French Roman Catholic scholar who specialised in Roman
Catholic Church history and took a strong stand against modernism. In 1888 he was appointed
to teach in Paris where he worked for the next decade. His book on the Eucharist was placed on
the Index. He later took part with Cardinal Mercier at the conversations at Malines [see 1921]
between the Catholics and Anglicans.
BURGON, JOHN [1813-1888] – Anglican scholar educated at Oxford who was an author and
controversialist. He wrote in 1888 the popular "Lives of Twelve Good Men" which was a study of
twelve high churchmen of his era. He strongly defended Textus Receptus for the N.T. and was
against the Revised Version of the Bible. He also denounced the disestablishment of the Irish
Church in 1869.
HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM [1823 – 1897]. Bishop and hymn writer. The son of a Shrewsbury
solicitor How was educated at Shrewsbury, Oxford and Durham. He was ordained in 1846 and
for upwards of thirty years was actively engaged in parish work at Whittington in Shropshire and
Oswestry (rural dean, 1860). He refused preferment on several occasions, but his energy and
success made him well known, and in 1879 he became a suffragan bishop in London, under the
title of bishop of Bedford, his province being the East End. There he became the inspiring
influence of a revival of church work. He founded the East London Church Fund, and enlisted a
large band of enthusiastic helpers, his popularity among all classes being immense. He was
particularly fond of children, and was commonly called the children's bishop. In 1888 he was
made bishop of Wakefield, and in the north of England he continued to do valuable work. His
sermons were straightforward, earnest and attractive; and besides publishing several volumes of
these, he wrote a good deal of verse, including such well-known hymns as “For all the saints”
and “It is the thing most wonderful” Some thought him possibly the greatest 19th-century hymn
writer. In 1863-1868 he brought out a Commentary on the Four Gospels and he also wrote a
manual for the Holy Communion. Published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge
during the 1890s this book was widely distributed. In the movement for infusing new spiritual life
into the church services, especially among the poor, How was a great force.
LOOFS, FRIEDRICH ARMIN [1858-1928] – Lutheran theologian who was educated at Tubingen
and Leipzig before being appointed church history professor at Leipzig in 1886 and at Halle in
1888 where he remained until his death. He played a leading role in Lutheran affairs and
became a member of the Saxon Consistory in 1910. He was a prolific author.
NICHOL, HENRY ERNEST [1862-1926]. – Nichol originally planned to be an engineer. But he
switched to a study of music, graduating from Oxford University in 1888 with a Bachelor of Music
degree. Most of his hymns were written for the Sunday School. For many of the songs he wrote
both words and music. But in a few older hymnals it may not seem like it. Nichol created a pen
name by rearranging the letters of his middle and last name. So you may see H. Ernest Nichol
as the composer of the tune, and Colin Sterne as the author of the words, but it is the same man.
One of Nichol’s contributions is the hymn “Lord it is eventide, the light of day is waning”
NORTH AFRICA – Unlike Egypt and the Lebanon, North Africa had no remnants of ancient
churches to keep alive some semblance of Christian testimony. When Islam swept across the
area in the seventh century the church of Augustine was all swept away because there had been
no real missionary activity in the rural areas with each group remaining in their cities which were
easy to take. It was not until the 1860s that the Roman Catholic missionaries were concerned
with much more than ministering to the European population in North Africa and not until 1908
was the mission raised to the status of importance. There had been sporadic work in Algiers and
Tunisia in the mid-17th century and progress was made by the Catholics reporting that by 1930
the Roman Catholic population was reported at about three quarters of a million. In 1888 John
Anderson founded the Southern Morocco mission seeking especially to evangelise the Berbers
and Arabs. Also early Lilias Trotter [see 1888] was responsible for the formation of the Algiers
Mission Band which made special efforts to reach the oasis dwellers of the South. It was over
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the same period that Edward Glennie was the prime mover in the establishment of the North
African Mission. These three eventually combined to form the North African Mission with an
international structure and headquarters in the south of France. Other missions, including the
American Methodists, the Emmanuel Mission, Mennonite Mission, Sahara Desert Mission,
Southern Baptist Convention, the Gospel Missionary Union, the Bible Churchman's Missionary
Society, and the Christian Brethren have all worked in different areas of North Africa. Most if not
all have suffered setbacks due to aggressive nationalism in more recent times which has been
strongly Islamic. Arabic is the main language of North Africa and the Van Dyke Bible has been
widely distributed. Two World Wars saw the emergence of Islamic nationalism and a resentful
feeling that Christianity was the religion of the occupying power and that it and its religious
emissary's should go.
SHEDD, WILLIAM GREENOUGH THAYER [1820-1894] – American theologian educated at
Vermont and Andover Theological Seminary. He was a pastor in both Congregational and
Presbyterian churches but the major portion of his life was spent as professor of English
literature at the University of Vermont and then in teaching in various theological seminaries. His
theology was strongly conservative Calvinistic. His major work was "Dogmatic Theology"
published from 1888 to 1894 and was a clear statement of Westminster Presbyterian Calvinism.
TROTTER, ISABELLA LILIAS [1853-1928] – Missionary to North Africa. She was the daughter of
a London businessman and was privately educated. In 1876 she made the acquaintance of John
Ruskin who admired her expert miniatures and exhorted her to devote her life to painting. Trotter
however determined to sail as a missionary to North Africa. She began her work in Algeria in
1888 making dangerous missionary journeys and securing converts among the Arabs, French,
Jews, and Negroes, and establishing preaching stations. Her Algiers Mission Band grew steadily
from 3 to 30 full-time workers. Her translation of the New Testament into colloquial Algerian, and
her illustrated tracts for Muslim readers, were greatly admired. She died while still on active
service. Her society is now incorporated in the North Africa Mission.
VINCENT, JOHN HEYL [1832-1920] – Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church and Sunday
school educator who was born in Alabama and was ordained an elder in 1857 after studying at
the Wesleyan Institute in New Jersey. He pioneered in Sunday school improvements such as
uniform lessons [1872] and with Lewis Miller two years later started the famous Chautauqua [see
1874] conferences in west New York State. The general conference of his church ordained
Vincent bishop in 1888. He served in Switzerland from 1900 to 1904.
WALKER, WILLISTON [1860-1922] – He was an American Church historian who was educated
at Amherst College, Hartford Seminary, and Leipzig University. In 1888-89 he lectured at Bryn
Mawr College and after 12 years of being a professor at Hartford seminary became professor of
ecclesiastical history at Yale where he remained until his death. He was a prolific writer.
1889
ADDAMS, JANE [1860-1935] – American social reformer who attended medical school but had
to retire due to poor health. She travelled in Europe and on her return with her friend Ellen Gates
Starr founded Hull House as a refuge for poor immigrants near Chicago patterned after Toynbee
Hall in London. She was active in legal improvements for the poor and participated in the
women’s suffrage movement. She received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 and although not an
orthodox Christian encouraged many to assist in the plight of the poor.
BUDRY EDMOND LOUIS [1854-1932] – Pastor and Hymn Writer. Budry was a Swiss hymn
writer famous for writing the lyrics to the hymn "Thine Be the Glory" to music from Judas
Maccabaeus by George Frideric Handel. Born in Vevey, he studied theology in Lausanne and
was a pastor at Cully and Sainte-Croix between 1881 and 1889. He then became pastor of the
Free Church in Vevey for a further 35 years, retiring in 1923. Besides writing original hymns, he
translated German, English, and Latin lyrics into French.
FINLAND [see also 1249] – The pietistic revivals were most important in the development of the
church and continued to enrich it from the end of the 17th century onwards. During the 20th
century new groups arose such as the Fifth Movement which emphasis faithfulness to the Bible
and the Lutheran Confession in reaction to liberal theology and higher criticism. These
movements enjoy much freedom within the church and have influenced it to a great extent. The
Church of Finland is a state church, but has considerable liberty. The Church assembly meets
every five years; its enactments must be ratified by Parliament. In 1889 church law was passed
giving everyone the right of choosing his religion. In 1923 this was enlarged to include the right to
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freedom from religion. There is a significant number of the Orthodox Church in Finland due to
relationship with the Russian area. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland claims more
than 90% of the population in 1970 having rather more than 4.5 million members while the
Orthodox church numbers about 68,000. There are few Roman Catholics in Finland.
GURNEY, DOROTHY FRANCES [1858-1932]. Anglican Poetess. She grew up in a devout
Anglican Church parsonage. Her father, Rev. Frederick G. Blomfield, was rector of a London
parish, while her grandfather had been a distinguished bishop of London. She displayed literary
gifts early on. She wrote two volumes of verse as well as a devotional work title A Little Book of
Quiet. One of her best known poems is "God's Garden." Dorothy married Gerald Gurney, a
former actor who be came an ordained minister in the Anglican Church. Dorothy Gurney was
visiting her soon-to-be married sister in the lovely, English Lake region of Windermere, the land
of William Wordsworth, when her sister complained that for her forthcoming wedding, she could
not find appropriate words for one of her favourite hymn tunes "Strength and Stay" by John B.
Dykes. Apparently, her sister challenged her in a way that since she writes poetry, she can write
new words to the same tune of "Strength and Stay." Gurney went to the library and in about 15
minutes came back with the text, "O Perfect Love." Her sister was pleased and asked it to be
sung on her wedding. Gurney wrote only this one hymn text throughout her lifetime. Since then,
it has been sung at many weddings, and eventually, found its way into the hymnals in 1889.
HARNACK, ADOLF [1851-1930] – German scholar who became professor at Berlin from 1889 to
1921. His appointment was challenged by the church because of his doubts about the authorship
of the fourth Gospel and other New Testament books, his unorthodox interpretation of biblical
miracles including the resurrection and his denial of Christ’s institution of baptism. Nevertheless
he was perhaps the most influential church historian and theologian of his era until World War I.
He was liberal in theology.
JULICHER, ADOLF [1867-1938] – German New Testament scholar and professor of theology at
Marburg [1889 -1923] who wrote a very influential work on the parables of Jesus in which he
argued that Jesus’ parables were originally intended to illustrate one truth only i.e. as true similes
and not as allegories, and that all allegorical features are therefore secondary.
KENYON, SIR FREDERIC GEORGE [1863-1852] – Greek manuscript scholar, educated at
Oxford and appointed to the British Museum staff in 1889. From 1898 to 1909 he was assistant
keeper of manuscripts and from 1909 until 1930 director and principal librarian. His main work
was done with Greek papyri and particularly with New Testament manuscripts. He used his
considerable knowledge of manuscripts in the ancient world to demonstrate the substantial
reliability of the New Testament text and its closeness to the events which it records.
LUX MUNDI – The title of a book containing “A Series of Studies in the Religion of the
Incarnation” edited by Charles Gore [see 1911] bishop of Oxford and published in 1889.
Dissatisfied with the superficial level of the Anglo-Catholic movements during the latter half of the
19th century, the contributors to this volume present a more liberal and socially informed
Catholicism for the Church of England. These Oxford essays were violently attacked by the
conservative members of the Church of England and assailed publicly in Convocation.
NIETZSCHE, FRIEDRICH [1844-1900] – German philosopher and philologist who was the son
of a Lutheran minister. Before passing his final examination he was appointed an associate
professor of classical philology at the University of Basle. He volunteered as a medical orderly in
the Franco-Prussian war and due to ill-health returned to the University the same year finally
retiring in 1879. He went insane in January 1889 as he had been awakened by the work of
Charles Darwin [see 1859] and what he took to be the nihilistic implications of evolutionary
theory. Nietzsche attacked Christian dogma but more especially he attacked the prevalent idea
that Christian ethics could survive the overthrow of the Christian’s view of man which he believed
the work of Darwin had brought about. He had the concept that the “superman” who had evolved
could go beyond good and evil by his self-mastery and therefore beyond the “defunct” values of
Christianity. The fascists later grasped the concept of “superman” in Nazi principles.
OLD CATHOLICS – The movement in German-speaking Europe especially Bavaria which
rejected the dogma of papal infallibility declared by the Vatican Council [1870], and organised
the Old Catholic Churches, in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, not in communion with Rome.
The movement was motivated by Febronianism and then Jansenism when it associated with the
already established Church of Utrecht by a common adoption of the Declaration of Utrecht
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[1889]. The First International Old Catholic Congress convened at Cologne in 1890. From the
start Anglicans have been close to Old Catholics. The bishops of Ely and Lincoln sent
communications to the Munich Congress of 1871 and attended the second at Cologne in 1872
Old Catholics recognised Anglican ordinations in 1925 and achieved full inter-communion with
the Church of England in 1932 and most other Anglican churches thereafter. By 1957 Old
Catholics numbered 350,000 mainly in Germany, Holland, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, and
North America.
SMITH, RODNEY “Gypsy” [1860-1947] – English evangelist who was the son of gypsies who
travelled in East Anglia. Smith was greatly affected by his mother's death from smallpox. Soon
after his father was converted and began to hold services where Rodney himself was converted
in 1876 in Cambridge and the following year he joined William Booth in his Christian Mission
serving as a captain in the Salvation Army until 1882. In 1889 he went to America on an
evangelistic tour, after which he joined the Manchester Wesleyan Mission. Following a world
preaching tour [1897-1912] he was missioner for the National Free Church Council. He served
with the YMCA in World War I and George VI made him a member of the Order of the British
Empire. He sang simple gospel solos.
SPURGEON, THOMAS [1856-1917] – Baptist pastor and twin son of C.H. Spurgeon. He studied
theology at Spurgeon's College and art and wood engraving at London. In 1877 Thomas visited
Australia including Tasmania and returned two years later accepting a Baptist pastorate in
Auckland New Zealand in 1881. He acted as an evangelist for the New Zealand Baptist Union
from 1889 to 1893. He returned to London as pastor of the Metropolitan Tabernacle but later
resigned due for health reasons in 1908. His son Thomas Harold Spurgeon [1891-1967] served
for many years in Dublin as the principal of the Irish Baptist College.
STUBBS, WILLIAM [1825-1901] – English historian and bishop who was educated at Oxford and
from 1850 to 1866 was the vicar of Navestock. Between 1864 and 1889 Stubbs produced
remarkable editions of English Mediaeval Chronicles which made him the outstanding historian
of his time and the person who laid the foundation of the modern approach to the study of
mediaeval history. In 1866 he was appointed regius professor of modern history at Oxford. He
became bishop of Chester in 1884 and was translated to the see of Oxford in 1889.
Theologically he was a High Churchman, politically he was a conservative.
TORREY, REUBEN ARCHER [1856-1928] – American evangelist and Bible scholar who
graduated from Yale and also studied at German universities. He was ordained into the
Congregational ministry in 1878 and became superintendent of the Congregational City
Missionary Society of Minneapolis. Torrey had a long association with D.L. Moody [see 1886]
and was the first superintendent of the Moody Bible Institute [1889 -1908]. He toured widely and
from 1912 was dean of the Bible Institute of Los Angeles and pastor of the Church of the Open
Door. Torrey wrote numerous devotional and theological books, the most important being “What
the Bible Teaches”, “How to Work for Christ”, and “The Person and Work of the Holy Spirit”.
TURNER, CUTHBERT HAMILTON [1860-1930] – Anglican historian of early Christianity and
New Testament scholar who came to Oxford as a student in 1879 and there remained until his
death. He served as a research scholar, lecturer, and latterly as fellow of Magdalen College from
1889 to 1930 and Dean Ireland’s professor of exegesis from 1920-1930. His work centred on
matters of chronology and textual criticism related to the Church Fathers and canon law. Turner
failed to complete several major writing projects but published an extensive collection of
documents relating to early Western canon law and a large number of essays, the most
important being a classic study of New Testament chronology.
UTRECHT, DECLARATION OF – A creedal summary issued in Utrecht in 1889 which is
important in the history the Old Catholic movement [see above]. The original Old Catholic
Church grew out of the Jansenist controversies. Cornelius Steenhoven in 1724 was consecrated
by a Catholic bishop without papal approval as bishop of Utrecht. The Old Catholic church
continued as a small group and it wasn't until the 1870s when after Vatican I and the adoption of
the doctrine of papal infallibility that many turned to Utrecht for their ordination. The 1889
declaration affirmed adherence to Catholicism but rejected the doctrine of papal infallibility. This
was accepted as a doctrinal statement by the Old Catholic churches, including since 1897 the
Polish Old Catholic movement in the USA.
1890
BINGHAM, HIRAM, JR [1831-1908] – American Congregationalist missionary who was born to
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missionary parents in Honolulu. In 1856 the American Board sent him out as a missionary to the
Gilbert Islands where he published the first Bible portion in the native tongue four years later,
and finished translating the whole Bible in 1890 having opened up missionary work in the Gilbert
Islands.
BRIGGS, CHARLES [1841-1913] – American minister and scholar who on being appointed
professor of theology at Union Seminary vigorously condemned the dogma of verbal inspiration.
As a result he was tried for heresy and acquitted. However on appeal he was suspended from
the ministry. Union Seminary ignored this and he was ordained into the Episcopalian Church in
1900.
DE FOUCAULD, CHARLES EUGENE [1858-1916] – Roman Catholic missionary and ascetic
who was born in Strasbourg of a distinguished and devout family. He had a somewhat dissolute
army career but was honoured by the Paris Geographical Society for his expedition work in
North Africa. Impressed by the Moslems he gave himself to prayer and asceticism followed by
residence in a Trappist monastery in search of increased poverty and self-sacrifice. He read
theology in Rome 1897 and lived there until 1900 with the Poor Clares [see 1213] at Nazareth,
and in 1901 returned to France for ordination. Thereafter he went to the Sahara establishing a
hermitage. He was murdered in circumstances that remain obscure.
GORDON, CHARLES WILLIAM [1860-1937] – Canadian Presbyterian minister and writer. After
ordination in 1890 Gordon carried out a mission work in the lumber camps and mines of western
Canada, and then accepted a call to Stephen's Church Winnipeg, where he remained apart from
a period of chaplaincy service until his retirement in 1929. With considerable powers of
description and an understanding of certain types of men, his stories found a large readership.
His avowed reason for writing he stated was “Not wealth, not enterprise, not energy, can build a
nation into true greatness, but men and only men with the fear of God in their hearts.”
HUGHES, HUGH PRICE [1847-1902] – Welsh Wesleyan who was trained for the ministry at
Richmond College and graduated from London University. He served in various circuits,
founding new churches wherever he went, and in 1885 launched the Wesleyan Forward
Movement, a campaign of evangelism and social service characterised by the erection of central
halls. Other related causes were the Wesleyan 20th Century Fund which he presented at the
conference in 1898 for promoting the work including the construction of large halls which remain
his most permanent memorial.
PARKER, HORATIO WILLIAM [1863-1919] – American composer who was the most
distinguished composer of church music born in America at that time. He studied in Germany
and held various organist posts in New York and Boston. He taught at Yale and had many
distinguished pupils including Charles Ives.
PILKINGTON, GEORGE LAWRENCE [1865-1897] – Missionary to Africa who was born in
Dublin and educated at Cambridge. He was a promising classical scholar who was converted in
1885. Although lacking theological training he felt called to Christian service and went to Uganda
under the Church Missionary Society in 1890. He took on the task of translating the Bible into the
Luganda language. In his personal ministry he stressed the need for the baptism of a Holy Spirit.
He advocated the principle of self supporting and propagating indigenous churches and
contended that most of the European missionaries should go to those areas where a strong
aggressive national church was active. He was killed in a Sudanese militia uprising in Uganda.
ROWE, SAMUEL EVANS [1834-1897] – Rowe was a minister who reached high rank in the
Methodist church before a distinguished period as a missionary in South Africa, holding senior
posts in the church, and founding an educational institution for girls. In 1857 he was accepted as
a Candidate for the Ministry and eventually entered the Wesleyan ministry and preached in
several towns in England. He served on the London Circuit before going to South Africa as a
missionary. He was appointed to Pietermaritzburg, where he worked for twelve years. He
founded the educational Institution for Native Girls and was also Chairman of the Maritzburg
Girls’ Collegiate School. In 1890, he was elected President of the Methodist Conference in Cape
Town and five years later he was appointed to the Harrismith Circuit.
TORREY, REUBEN ARCHER [1856-1928] – American evangelist and Bible scholar who
graduated from Yale and also studied at German universities. He was ordained into the
Congregational ministry in 1878 and became superintendent of the Congregational City
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Missionary Society of Minneapolis. Torrey had a long association with D.L. Moody [see 1886]
and was the first superintendent of the Moody Bible Institute [1889 -1908]. He toured widely and
from 1912 was dean of the Bible Institute of Los Angeles and pastor of the Church of the Open
Door. Torrey wrote numerous devotional and theological books, the most important being “What
the Bible Teaches”, “How to Work for Christ”, and “The Person and Work of the Holy Spirit”.
TUCKER, ALFRED ROBERT [1849–1914]. – Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa [1890-1898]
and Uganda [1898 -1911]. Tucker renounced an artistic career for Anglican priesthood and after
seven years in English parishes he joined the Church Missionary Society and reached East
Africa in 1890. His main achievement was to consolidate and extend the Anglican Church in
Buganda and neighbouring chieftains. He promoted educational and medical work and travelled
widely to supervise established missions and pioneer new work. Tucker’s progressive views on
church government aroused opposition among European missionaries who rejected full
integration with the local church. He also campaigned for a British protectorate over Uganda in
1894 and frequently championed the interests of its people. Ill health compelled his resignation in
1911 after which he became canon of Durham.
TURNER, CUTHBERT HAMILTON [1860-1930] – Anglican historian of early Christianity and
New Testament scholar who came to Oxford as a student in 1879 and there remained until his
death. He served as a research scholar, lecturer, and latterly as fellow of Magdalen College from
1889 to 1930 and Dean Ireland’s professor of exegesis from 1920-1930. His work centred on
matters of chronology and textual criticism related to the Church Fathers and canon law. Turner
failed to complete several major writing projects but published an extensive collection of
documents relating to early Western canon law and a large number of essays, the most
important being a classic study of New Testament chronology.
TYNDALE-BISCOE, CECIL EARLE (1863 — 1949) – An Anglican missionary and educationalist,
who ministered in Kashmir He was educated at Cambridge where he coxed the winning
Cambridge crew in the 1884 Boat Race. In 1890, after a short time working in London's East
End, Tyndale-Biscoe was appointed to a missionary school in Kashmir by the Church Missionary
Society. Seeing the squalid conditions and caste system as a serious problem he aimed to use
his own Christian values and western civic ideals to improve Kashmiri society. He did not actively
pursue conversions as much as his missionary backers would have liked. His schooling placed
emphasis on physical activities such as boxing, boating and football which would stimulate
senses of courage, masculinity and physical fitness. The pupils were also engaged in civic
duties, such as street-cleaning, and in helping deal with flooding and cholera. Enforcing
participation in team sports and activities in a highly socially-stratified culture had significance
beyond the replication of his English public school educational experience. By his later years he
had founded six schools with 1,800 students.
1891-1900 AD
1891
BROOKS, PHILLIPS [1835-1893] – American Episcopal preacher and hymn writer who became
rector of the Holy Trinity Church Philadelphia in 1862. Early in 1877 he delivered his “Lectures
on Preaching” before Yale Divinity School and three years later preached in Westminster Abbey
in the presence of Queen Victoria. Brooks was an eloquent preacher who wrote the hymn "O
little town of Bethlehem". He was consecrated bishop of Boston in 1891 and died some 15
months later.
EVANGELICAL FREE CHURCH OF AMERICA – The Midwest churches coalesced to form the
Evangelical Free Church and the eastern churches to form the Eastern Association in 1891 for
fellowship and mutual aid. These two Norwegian-Danish groups merged to form the Evangelical
Free Church in 1909. The Swedish Evangelical Free Church merged with this group at Medicine
Lake Minnesota in June 1950 to form the Evangelical Free Church of America.
GERASIMUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1891-1897] see 1882 and 1897
HARPER, WILLIAM RAINEY [1856-1906] – Semitics scholar who was educated at Yale and
became professor of Hebrew at the Baptist Union Theological Seminary in Illinois. Having
returned to Yale to teach Semitics in 1886 he became head of the new University of Chicago in
1891. Over the next 14 years his enormous energies burnt out his life but not before he had
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created a great graduate University.
INTERNATIONAL CONGREGATIONAL COUNCIL – This was formed in London in 1891 for the
purpose of obtaining greater co-operation among the Congregational churches around the world.
It was the Congregational response to the emerging ecumenical movement of the latter part of
the 19th century, and designed not only to bring greater unity among Congregationalists, but
also to bring Congregationalism into greater co-operation with other Protestant churches in the
task of evangelism. It proved however to be a suitable vehicle for the promotion of the Social
Gospel and was increasingly used for that purpose by liberal theologians.
LONGSTAFF, WILLIAM DUNN [1822-1894] Hymn Writer. For many years, William Longstaff
was treasurer of Bethesda Free Chapel in Sunderland, England. He was friends with Salvation
Army founder William Booth and evangelists Dwight Moody and Ira Sankey. He wrote “Take time
to be holy, speak oft with thy Lord” after hearing a sermon at New Brighton on “Be ye holy as I
am holy,” 1 Peter 1:15. First published in Gospel Hymns and Sacred Songs and Solos, in 1891,
it was greatly used in encouraging holiness among the Lord’s people. It is usually sung to the
tune ‘Holiness’ by George C. Stebbins, written in 1890.
PIERSON, ARTHUR TAPPAN [1837-1911] was an American Presbyterian pastor, an early
fundamentalist leader, and writer who preached over 13,000 sermons. He wrote over fifty books,
and gave Bible lectures as part of a transatlantic preaching ministry that made him famous in
Scotland and England. He was a consulting editor for the original "Scofield Reference Bible"
(1909) for his friend, C. I. Scofield and was also a friend of D. L. Moody, George Müller (whose
biography 'George Muller of Bristol' he wrote), Adoniram Judson Gordon, and C. H. Spurgeon,
whom he succeeded in the pulpit of the Metropolitan Tabernacle, London, from 1891 to 1893.
Throughout his career, Pierson filled several pulpit positions around the world as an urban pastor
who cared passionately for the poor. Pierson was also a pioneer advocate of faith missions who
was determined to see the world evangelized in his generation. Prior to 1870, there had been
only about 2000 missionaries from the United States in full-time service, roughly ten percent of
whom had engaged in work among Native Americans. A great movement of foreign missions
began in the 1880s and accelerated into the twentieth century, in some measure due to the work
of Pierson. He acted as the elder statesman of the student missionary movement and was the
leading evangelical advocate of foreign missions in the late 1800s. From the viewpoint of hymns
he is known for his hymn “With harps and viols there stand a great throng”
NEOPHYTUS VIII – Patriarch of Constantinople [1891-1894] succeeded Dionysius V [see 1887].
There is no additional information readily available.
PIERSON, ARTHUR TAPPAN [1837-1911] was an American Presbyterian pastor, an early
fundamentalist leader, and writer who preached over 13,000 sermons. He wrote over fifty books,
and gave Bible lectures as part of a transatlantic preaching ministry that made him famous in
Scotland and England. He was a consulting editor for the original "Scofield Reference Bible"
(1909) for his friend, C. I. Scofield and was also a friend of D. L. Moody, George Müller (whose
biography 'George Muller of Bristol' he wrote), Adoniram Judson Gordon, and C. H. Spurgeon,
whom he succeeded in the pulpit of the Metropolitan Tabernacle, London, from 1891 to 1893.
Throughout his career, Pierson filled several pulpit positions around the world as an urban pastor
who cared passionately for the poor. Pierson was also a pioneer advocate of faith missions who
was determined to see the world evangelized in his generation. Prior to 1870, there had been
only about 2000 missionaries from the United States in full-time service, roughly ten percent of
whom had engaged in work among Native Americans. A great movement of foreign missions
began in the 1880s and accelerated into the twentieth century, in some measure due to the work
of Pierson. He acted as the elder statesman of the student missionary movement and was the
leading evangelical advocate of foreign missions in the late 1800s. From the viewpoint of hymns
he is known for his hymn “With harps and viols there stand a great throng” A leader in the Bible
Conference Movement and Student Volunteer Movement [see 1886] he was also a consulting
editor for the Scofield Bible, lecturer in the Moody Bible Institute from 1893, and was one of the
few Americans to speak at Keswick. The Pierson Bible Institute of Seoul in South Korea was an
outgrowth of his ministry.
RAMABAI, PANDITA [1858-1922] – Indian Christian Reformer who was the daughter of a
Brahman who had a remote hilltop ashram. She lost both her parents during a pilgrimage to
South India in 1874 and with her brother wandered on making a living by reciting the Hindu
scriptures. After a short marriage she met Christians and discovered the Bible. She went to
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Poona organising women's societies for reform and pursuing her new interest in Christianity in
which she was helped by father Nehemiah Gore, an Anglican who was a convert from her caste.
The Wantage Sisters helped her to go to Britain for education in 1880 and she and her young
daughter were baptised there. In 1886 she went to America studying kindergarten methods and
getting support for a scheme to educate high-caste widows. Ramabai’s evangelical conversion in
1891 made her an ardent evangelist as well as a social worker and baptisms followed. Land
purchased near Poona laid the ground for the rescue of hundreds of girls and women after the
famines of 1896-97. She established the Mukti [“Salvation”] Mission which grew to a community
of over 1300. During her last eighteen years Ramabai made a simplified Marathi translation of
the Bible.
1892
COMMUNITY OF THE RESURRECTION – Founded by six men at Pusey House Chapel after
lengthy study of various orders. The distinctive feature of the rule was to be a communal life lived
in simplicity. The community consists of lay as well as ordained brethren, undertakes mission
work in South Africa and the West Indies, and has been active in ecumenical affairs while
continuing to serve the church in missions and retreats.
FIGGIS, JOHN NEVILLE [1866-1919] – Anglican historian and son of a minister in the Countess
of Huntingdon Connection in Brighton. Figgis in his youth reacted against his father's evangelical
religion. He had a brilliant Cambridge career as a student and teacher of history, pioneering
interpretation of the transition from mediaeval to modern periods. Figgis surprised his friends by
deciding to be ordained to the Church of England's ministry in 1892 as he had not been
noticeably religious. He was not very successful as a parish priest, but as vicar of Marnhall from
1902 to 1907 he had a “middle age conversion” from a humanitarian and moralist religion, to
enter the Community of the Resurrection, and become a prophetic preacher of the Gospel and of
the supernatural and disciplined redemption in Christ. He was more of an evangelist and
apologist than a theologian. Figgis’ influence did not survive World War I and his death.
GRENFELL, SIR WILFRED THOMASON [1865-1940] – Medical missionary and author whose
life of Christian service began in 1885 in response to a challenge presented by D.L. Moody at an
East London tent meeting. After graduating in medicine he joined the Mission to Deep Sea
Fishermen, became its superintendent in 1890, and cruised from the Bay of Biscay to Iceland
ministering to the physical and spiritual needs of the fishermen. In 1892 he went to Labrador and
devoted the rest of his life to the welfare of its inhabitants. Before he retired in 1935 Grenfell
founded five hospitals, seven nursing stations, three orphanage boarding schools, co-operative
stores, industrial centres, agricultural stations, and in 1912 the King George V Seaman’s Institute
in St John's Newfoundland. He was knighted in 1927.
LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT [1830-1892] – German Protestant theologian who was
educated at Leipzig and became professor of systematic theology at Jena where he wrote
extensively on dogmatics and the history of the Christianity. He attempted to harmonise scientific
principles and methods with those of religion. In this he was opposed by the Lutheran Church
and accused of theological liberalism. He was co-founder of the Evangelical Alliance and the
Evangelical Protestant Missionary Union.
MILLIGAN, WILLIAM [1821-1893] – Scottish New Testament scholar educated at St Andrews
Edinburgh and Halle. After ministering in parishes he became professor of biblical criticism at
Aberdeen in 1860, a post he held until his death. He was moderator of the general assembly of
the Church of Scotland in 1882, a member of the company formed for the revision of the New
Testament in English in 1870, and the first president of the newly founded Scottish Church
Society in 1892. He was a liberal in theology.
MOBERLY, ROBERT CAMPBELL [1845-1903] – Anglican theologian. The son of a bishop, he
was educated at Oxford and after service in a parish and two theological colleges he returned as
professor of pastoral theology at Oxford from 1892 until his death. One of the Lux Mundi [see
1889] school of liberal Anglo-Catholics, he wrote strongly from that standpoint.
PEAKE, ARTHUR SAMUEL [1865-1929] – English scholar and writer who after graduating from
Oxford became a lecturer there and achieved the rarity for a Nonconformist of a theological
fellowship at Merton College. He left to take up the position of tutor at the Primitive Methodist
College in Manchester in 1892 and held the tutorship for the rest of his life transforming the
college and its reputation. In 1904 he became the first Rylands professor of biblical exegesis at
Manchester University and the first dean of its theological faculty. Best-known of his writings was
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a one volume commentary on the Bible which he edited in 1919 and which introduced thousands
of students and laymen to biblical criticism. Peake was of an ecumenical spirit and worked hard
for the union of the British Methodist churches but died before its consummation.
SMITH, SIR GEORGE ADAM [1856-1942] – Old Testament scholar who was born in India
where his father was the editor of the "Calcutta Review". He studied arts and theology at
Edinburgh before pursuing further studies in German universities and in Cairo. He was minister
of Queens Cross Free Church in Aberdeen for 10 years from 1882 before becoming professor of
Old Testament at the Free Church College Glasgow [1892-1909] where he campaigned for
proper labour conditions. His went on lecture tours of America and his 1901 lecture series at
Yale threatened a heresy trail in Scotland. From 1909 to his retirement in 1935 he was principal
of Aberdeen University.
SPYRIDON Patriarch of Antioch [1892-1898] see also 1885 and 1899
WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS [1844-1918] – German biblical critic who studied at Gottingen and after
teaching there for two years went as professor of Old Testament to Greifswald in 1872 where
orthodox Lutherans were alarmed at the doubts he cast on the inspiration of Scripture.
Wellhausen resigned 10 years later and transferred to the teaching of oriental languages first at
Halle and then as the professor at Marburg [1885] and Gottingen again commencing in 1892. His
“History of Israel” published in 1878 gave him a place in biblical studies comparable, it was said
“to that of Darwin in biology”, and he also contributed significantly to the Islamic and New
Testament studies.
WILDER, ROBERT PARMELEE [1863-1938] – Missionary to India and virtual founder of the
Student Volunteer Movement [see 1886]. Born in India he was studying and promoting missions
at Princeton College when D.L. Moody called for the summer Bible conference out of which the
Student Volunteer Movement came. In 1892 on his way to India he founded the British Student
Volunteer Missionary Union. In India he worked with students through the YMCA. After ill health
forced him to leave India in 1902 he spent 14 years in Europe promoting the World Student
Christian Federation. Wilder was also the executive secretary of the new Near East Christian
Council, residing in Cairo.
1893
BOUNDS, EDWARD MCENDREE [1835-1913] – American Methodist minister who studied law
and was admitted to the bar at 21. At the age of 24 he was called to preach in the Methodist
Episcopal Church South. During the Civil War he was a captain in the Confederate army and
captured. He was editor of the St Louis Christian Advocate and author of "Spiritual Life Books"
which had a wide influence in many denominations.
CHAPMAN, JOHN WILBUR [1859-1918] – was a Presbyterian evangelist generally travelling
with gospel singer Charles Alexander. Chapman grew up attending Quaker Day School and
Methodist Sunday School. At age 17, he made a public declaration of his Christian faith and
joined the Richmond Presbyterian Church. Having trained Chapman took on several pastorates
before shifting to the evangelistic circuit. He began preaching with the legendary D. L. Moody in
1893, as well as leading many evangelistic events of his own. Among Chapman's disciples on
the evangelistic circuit was Billy Sunday. In late 1895, Chapman was appointed Corresponding
Secretary of the Presbyterian General Assembly's Committee on Evangelism, overseeing the
activities of 51 evangelists in 470 cities. In 1905, John H. Converse, a wealthy Presbyterian
philanthropist, offered to underwrite Chapman's expenses if he would re-enter the evangelistic
field full time. Chapman accepted the offer and launched a campaign in 1908 in Philadelphia. In
1909, Chapman demanded that any field evangelist who doubted the inerrancy of Scripture be
removed from ministry. In that year he undertook a world tour. In May 1918, Chapman was
elected Moderator of the Presbyterian General Assembly, a position which inundated him with
such a high level of stress causing him to develop a serious enough case of gall stones to need
emergency surgery on December 23, 1918 and died two days later, on Christmas Day, aged 59.
He is remembered for his hymn ‘’One day when heaven was filled with His praises”
GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANÇOIS [1818-1893] – French composer who is remembered today
mainly for his popular opera “Faust”. He maintained throughout his career a great interest in
sacred music. He spent several years in England, where he attained much popularity as a choral
conductor and composer. His best-known oratorio was “Redemption” which is no longer
performed, although parts of his St Cecilia Mass are still heard.
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GRAY, GEORGE BUCHANAN [1865-1922] – English Old Testament scholar. Son of a
Congregational minister he was educated at Exeter and London, becoming a schoolmaster. He
was ordained as a Congregational minister in 1893 and from 1900 was professor of Hebrew and
Old Testament exegesis at Mansfield College Oxford. An independent and original thinker, his
preaching and teaching were permeated by the devotional spirit of the Old Testament.
MCGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN [1861-1933] – American church historian and educator who
graduated from the Union Theological Seminary and pursued studies in Paris, Rome, Berlin, and
Marburg. Ordained as a Presbyterian he taught at Lane Theological Seminary before succeeding
Philip Schaff [see 1870] as professor of church history at Union in 1893. He caused controversy
with his book “A history of Christianity in the Apostolic Age” which caused him to withdraw from
the Presbyterian Church and become a Congregationalist in 1899.
MACHRAY, ROBERT [1831-1904] – Anglican primate of Canada. Born in Scotland educated at
Aberdeen and Cambridge and after three years of travel he returned to Sydney Sussex
Cambridge as a dean. He also was appointed to a vicarage at Madingley in 1862. In 1865 he
was consecrated the second bishop of Rupert's Land. He revived St John's Anglican College in
Winnipeg in 1866 as a prelude to the establishment of the University of Manitoba in 1877 of
which he was the first Chancellor. In 1893 he became primate of Canada and helped the church
in Canada pass from missionary status dependent on England to self-sustaining independence.
NUTTALL, ENOS [1842 – 1916] – He was first archbishop of the West Indies. Born in England
he went to Jamaica first in 1862 as a Methodist but in 1866 was ordained in the Anglican
Church. He was involved in the complex negotiations surrounding disestablishment in 1870 and
10 years later elected bishop of Jamaica. He became archbishop in 1893. He regarded the
British Empire as, on the whole, a good thing and advocated an institutional connection with
Canterbury and recruited clergy first in England but in 1893 founded the first diocesan
theological college in Jamaica. He pioneered the founding of a church nursing home in 1893. He
was primarily concerned with individual rather than social problems.
RILEY, WILLIAM BELL [1861-1947] – Baptist minister and educator who was ordained to the
Baptist ministry in Kentucky and was pastor of several Indiana churches including Calvary
Baptist Church in Chicago from 1893. Riley founded and was president of Northwestern Bible
Training School and was strongly opposed to theological liberalism and evolution.
SCUDDER, IDA SOPHIA [1870-1960] – Missionary doctor and founder of the Christian Medical
College at Vellore in South India. She was born in India where her father Doctor John Scudder
was in the North Arcot mission of the Dutch Reformed Church of America. She was at first
determined not to be a missionary. She was only on a short-term commitment to India to be near
her sick mother when in 1893 she received a call which was not the least remarkable feature of a
remarkable life. Three different men came to her door asking her to come and attend to their
respective wives in childbirth. They refused the services of any male doctor such as her father
preferring rather that their wives die. She could do nothing and the wives all died. The
experience sent her home to America to study medicine and commit her life to service for India
and its women. She returned to India in 1900 and opened up a hospital at Vellore. Later she
founded a nursing school and then in 1918 the medical college for women. Eventually in 1950
the college was affiliated with the Madras University medical course as one of the outstanding
interdenominational Christian institutions of Asia.
SMITH, WALTER CHALMERS [1824-1908]. – Walter Smith, was a hymnist, poet and minister of
the Free Church of Scotland and is chiefly remembered for his hymn “Immortal, Invisible, God
Only Wise.” He was born in Aberdeen and was educated at Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He was
ordained pastor of the Chadwell Street Scottish Church, Pentonville, Islington, London, on
Christmas Day, 1850. He later served at a number of churches in Scotland. The Free Church of
Scotland elected him its moderator during its Jubilee year in 1893. He was a distinguished
preacher and a man of wide sympathies. He attained considerable reputation as a poet.
TUCKER, WILLIAM JEWETT [1839-1926] – Congregational minister and educator. He was
educated at Andover Theological Seminary and became a pastor at churches in New Hampshire
and New York City before teaching at Andover. Influenced by Horace Bushnell [see 1866], he
asserted that only humane theology or “progressive orthodoxy” would improve society. He
founded Andover House in 1881 and was tried with others for heresy but acquitted. From 1893
until his retirement in 1909 Tucker was president of Dartmouth College.
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1894
GAEBELEIN, ARNO CLEMENS [1861-1945] – Writer on prophecy. Born in Germany he went to
America at eighteen and was later ordained in the Methodist Episcopal Church, holding
pastorates including New York City where he began a remarkable ministry to the Jews. He
founded and edited “Our Hope” magazine published 1894-1958 and a press by that name to
provide literature for Jews, chiefly on their prophecy and biblical exposition. He wrote nearly 50
books and numerous pamphlets mainly on prophecy and lectured and preached widely and was
active in the Bible Conference Movement.
MATTHEWS, SHAILER [1863-1941] – American theologian who graduated from Colby College
and afterwards served on the faculty there from 1887 to 1894. He then joined the theological
faculty at the University of Chicago teaching New Testament and then theology until 1933. He
was leading voice of the Chicago School of Theology which was the champion of the modernist
cause against American fundamentalism. He had a significant role in the formation of the
Federal Council of Churches and the Northern Baptist Convention.
POLLOCK, ALGERNON JAMES [1864-1957] – Plymouth Brethren minister who was a banker
until his late twenties when he was called to the ministry. The rest of his life he lived by faith
without stipend and travelled the world as evangelist and teacher. A member of the Glanton
Open Brethren his influence kept them from divisions. He studied Spiritualism and wrote articles,
tracts, and books on devotion and prophecy as a Dispensationalist and for many years edited
“The Gospel Messenger”.
WHITE, JOHN [1866-1933] – Wesleyan missionary who served in Southern Zimbabwe from
1894 to 1931 and was chairman of the district from 1903. White supervised a growing work
south and north of the Zambesi. He was the founder of the Southern Rhodesia Missionary
Conference and the translator of the Shona New Testament. He laid equal stress upon personal
salvation and the social implication of the Gospel. Throughout his ministry he championed Shona
interests, denouncing injustice, opposing discriminatory legislation, and earning much
unpopularity among Europeans. His health broke down completely in 1931.
ZWEMER, SAMUEL MARINUS [1867-1952] – “Apostle to Islam”. He was the 13th of 15 children
born to an American Dutch Reformed family. He became a Student Volunteer when Robert
Wilder [see 1892] visited Hope College. With James Cantine he founded the Arabian Mission
with Cantine going out to the Arabian Gulf in 1889 and Zwemer the following year. In 1894 the
Reformed Church of America assumed responsibility for the mission. He worked across the
Islamic world from Cairo to India and North-west China. In 1929 he began a teaching ministry
first at Princeton then the Missionary Training Institute at Nyack after some time at Biblical
Seminary in New York. He authored over fifty books.
1895
ALEXANDER, CECIL FRANCES [1823-1895] – Irish hymn writer and wife of the archbishop of
Armagh. On a complaint from her godsons that they found the catechism difficult she started to
write verses to assist them. In all she wrote almost 400 hymns many of them for her Sunday
School class. They include “All things bright and beautiful”, “Once in royal David’s city”, “There is
a green hill far away” and “Jesus calls us! O’er the tumult”.
ANTHIMUS VII – Patriarch of Constantinople [1895-1896] who succeeded Neophytus VIII [see
1891]. In 1895, he criticised the encyclical Praeclara Gratulationis Publicae of Pope Leo XIII
[see 1878]. He died in Halki, Turkey. There is no additional information readily available.
BRIDGES, ROBERT [1844-1930] – Poet who was educated at Eton and Oxford and practiced
medicine until 1882 when he retired to devote himself to literature. His concern for church music
led to him translating, writing, and publishing the Yattendon Hymnal in 1895 which included "Ah
Holy Jesus, how hast thou offended" and “All my hope on God is founded”. He became Poet
Laureate in 1913.
CASSELS, WILLIAM WHARTON [1858-1925] – Missionary, consecrated as the first bishop of
Szechwan under the joint sponsorship of the Church Missionary Society and China Inland
Mission. He was one of the four Cambridge undergraduates who formed the nucleus of the
“Cambridge Seven” who went to China with the China Inland Mission in 1884. The other
members of the group were Charles T Studd [see 1912], Dixon E Hoste, Stanley P Smith, Cecil
and Arthur Polhill-Turner, and Montagu H P Beauchamp.
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DUCHESNE, LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER [1843-1922] – French archaeologist and church historian.
He read theology in Rome and was ordained a priest in 1867, lecturing in schools a further six
years. He then served as a member of the French archaeological school of Rome [1874-1876]
overseeing work in Epirus, Thessaly, Mt Athos, and Asia Minor. He returned to be the school's
director in 1895, a post he held to his death. He resigned from holding the chair of church history
in Paris because of opposition to his views on pre-Nicene doctrine and the founding of the
French Church.
HORNER, RALPH [1853-1921] – Founder of the Holiness Movement Church in Canada. He was
converted at a Methodist meeting in 1876 and began almost immediately preaching to his
neighbours. After training at the Methodist seminary he embarked on an independent evangelical
tent ministry. Because of mounting protests against the speaking in tongues which accompanied
his preaching the Montréal Annual Conference deposed him from its ministry in 1895. He
organised his followers into a Holiness Movement Church in 1895 and at a convention held the
same year in Ottawa attended by evangelists from Ontario, the Western Provinces, and Quebec,
he was elected bishop. He held this position until he withdrew from the Holiness Movement
Church in 1916 over the interpretation of sanctification and set up another church. Both churches
declined rapidly after his death.
JACKSON, SAMUEL MACAULAY [1851-1912] – American Presbyterian Church historian,
educator and philanthropist. He was educated in the USA and in Germany. From 1895 to 1912
he taught church history at New York University but declined to take any salary. He devoted
much of his later life to philanthropic causes.
RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL [1851-1939] – Classical scholar and archaeologist who
studied at Aberdeen and Oxford. During the 1880s and from 1900 to 1914 he was engaged in
extensive exploration among the antiquities of Western Turkey. He was professor both at Oxford
and Aberdeen, and also made important contributions to the study of the New Testament.
Though he had earlier accepted the conclusions of radical German scholarship concerning the
historicity of Acts, study led him to an increasingly high estimate of Paul, and Luke as a historian.
His work on the New Testament served to fill in historical background for the life of Paul,
establish the so-called South Galatia destination of the Epistle of Galatians, and commend the
historical reliability of Luke’s writing to scholars.
STANFORD, SIR CHARLES VILLIERS [1852-1924] – British composer who was born in Ireland
and studied in England and Germany. A whole generation of significant figures were at some
time his pupils among them Ralph Vaughn Williams. He wrote much music of every kind, but it is
his church music that has lived.
STUDENT CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT – This is the British section of the World Student Christian
Federation [see below] which was founded by John Mott [see 1948] in 1895. Each national
movement preserved its autonomy as a fellowship of students who desired to understand the
Christian faith and live the Christian life. It was the product of several student movements in the
latter part of the 19th century in which the Student Volunteer Missionary Union was of special
importance. It began in Cambridge in 1892 through the inspiration of the Cambridge Seven.
Many of the leaders of the modern ecumenical movement sprang from on its ranks, J.H. Oldham
[see 1921], William Temple [see 1942], and N. Soderblom [see 1914]. In 1929 the Student
Christian Movement Press Ltd was set up to supply students with literature at low cost.
WORLD STUDENT CHRISTIAN FEDERATION – Uniting the 40 autonomous Christian student
groups, the federation was formed in Sweden in 1895. Student leaders from Scandinavia,
Europe, Great Britain, the United States, and nations receiving missionaries met under the
leadership of John R. Mott [see 1948] the secretary of the International Committee of the YMCA.
For Mott and many others this was the culmination of a movement which had been drawing
together such organisations for some years. The Student Volunteer Movement had adopted the
motto “The evangelisation of the world in this generation”, and the Federation reflected this
evangelistic thrust in its stated purpose, “to lead students to accept the Christian faith in God the
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, according to the Scriptures, and to live together as true disciples of
Jesus Christ”.
1896
BLASS, FRIEDRICH [1843-1907] – German philologist and grammarian who taught at the
universities of Kiel and Halle. He published a grammar of New Testament Greek which was a
foundational for work in that area. He argued that the so called Western and non Western texts
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of Acts originated as different editions by Luke himself but this view has little support in the
academic realm.
BOOTH, BALLINGTON [1857-1940] – Born in Brighouse England, second son of William Booth.
He founded the Volunteers of America in 1896 [see below]. This group had similar objectives as
the Salvation Army but was more democratic. He was an outstanding orator, musician and
leader. He was joint commander of the Salvation Army in Australia [1883-1887] and four years
later he and his wife took over the work in the United States where his evangelistic style was
very popular. He became naturalised and had conflict with his father over Salvation Army
discipline. He was ordered to step down which he did and left the Salvation Army forming the
Volunteers of America group.
BRUCKNER, ANTON [1824-1896] – Austrian composer and organist who in his earlier years
was organist at Linz Austria where he was acclaimed for his playing. He wrote a considerable
amount of church music including his famous "Te Deum" and "Moto Propio" and three great
masses for soloists, chorus and orchestra.
DOWIE, JOHN ALEXANDER [1847-1907] – Faith healer and founder of the Christian Catholic
Church. Born in Edinburgh and taken to Australia in 1860 by his parents, he was in business in
Adelaide for seven years, then studied at Edinburgh University. Ordained as a Congregational
minister in 1870 he served as pastor of churches in Alma and Sydney. In 1878 he resigned to
become an evangelist and faith healer. He moved to Chicago in 1896 and founded the Christian
Catholic Church, a theocracy headed by himself as ‘Elijah III, the Restorer’. By 1901 he moved
his community to Illinois, and as first apostle after 1904, he ruled the theocratic community
strictly and banned pork, alcohol, tobacco and drugs.
HARTZELL, JOSEPH CRANE [1842 – 1929]. – Hartzell was an American Missionary Bishop of
the Methodist Episcopal Church who served in the United States and in Africa. He entered into
ministry in 1866 and held various positions in the USA. When the retirement of Bishop William
Taylor made necessary a successor, the 1896 General Conference elected Dr. Hartzell
Missionary Bishop for Africa. For the next four years he travelled 70,000 miles performing the
duties of his office including numerous conferences and advancement of missions throughout
much of sub Saharan Africa. For his service in Africa Bishop Hartzell was made a Knight
Commander of the Order for the Redemption of Africa by the Republic of Liberia. He retired in
1916. He died in 1929 as a result of injuries sustained during a robbery at his home in Blue Ash,
Ohio. He was 87.
IRONSIDE, HENRY ALLEN [1876-1951] – Canadian Bible teacher and author who was never
ordained but began preaching when 14 years old. After a time as a Salvation Army officer he
joined the Plymouth Brethren in 1896. For over 50 years he travelled widely as a missionary,
evangelist, and Bible teacher. After 1924 he held meetings under the auspices of Moody Bible
Institute, was visiting professor at Dallas Theological Seminary [1925-1943], and pastor of
Moody Memorial Church, Chigago [1930-1948]. He was the author of over 60 books.
MOFFATT, JAMES [1870-1944] – Bible translator born and educated in Glasgow and was
ordained in the Free Church of Scotland in 1896. He became professor of Greek and New
Testament exegesis at Mansfield College Oxford in 1911 and went on to the United Free Church
college in 1915 to teach church history for 12 years and then went to New York and taught
church history in the Union Theology Seminary. His fame rests on the single-handed translation
of the entire Bible. The New Testament was published in 1913 and the Old in 1924 and is known
as the Moffatt Bible. It was the first unofficial translation to acquire widespread readership and
popularity.
PROBST, FERDINAND [1816-1899] – German liturgical scholar who was educated at Tubingen
and ordained into the Roman Catholic Church in 1840. Probst became a parish priest and later
professor of pastoral theology at Breslau in 1864 and finally dean of Breslau Cathedral in 1896.
He was a prolific writer though few if any of his works have been translated English.
RIZAL, JOSE [1861-1896] – Filipino physician and political writer who studied in various
European universities where he was influenced by Masonry and theological and political
liberalism. His parents were turned off their land by Dominican friars. He wrote much
propaganda against the tyrannical Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines and against the
corruption of the friars. He was strongly critical of much traditional Roman dogma which he
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regarded as superstition. He was branded a revolutionary and first exiled and later shot by a
Spanish firing squad. His death was used by revolutionary leaders to arouse Filipino fury.
Various cults worship him as a “Second Christ” and even look for his return.
SHELDON, CHARLES MONROE [1857-1946] – Congregational minister and writer who studied
at Andover Theological Seminary and was ordained into the Congregational Church in 1886. He
is best known as the author of "In His Steps" published in 1896 which became a religious
bestseller because it poignantly challenged Christians to base their behaviour on the answer to
the question "What would Jesus do". Because Sheldon never copyrighted the work numerous
publishers printed it. He was also editor-in-chief of "Christian Herald" from 1920 to 1925.
SPEER, ROBERT ELLIOTT [1867-1947] – Secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign
Missions, a post he held for 46 years. As one of the early Student Volunteers he travelled for a
year for the movement. After becoming mission secretary he made six extended visits to the
fields, four to Asia and two to Latin America. A prolific writer he authored 67 books mainly on
missions. In 1927 he became the second layman to be elected moderator of the Presbyterian
Church in the USA.
STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT – The movement was dedicated to enlisting Christian
college students for foreign missions. It originated in a summer Bible study conference in 1886 at
Mount Hermon Massachusetts called by the YMCA and presided over by D.L. Moody. Students
like Robert P. Wilder [see 1892] aroused concern for missions and before the conference ended
100 had signified their intent of becoming missionaries. The following school year Wilder and
another toured other schools to stimulate more interest. In 1888 the movement was organised
formally with John R. Mott [see 1948] one of the original hundred, as chairman, a position he
held for 30 years. The movement was at its height in 1920 when nearly 7000 attended the
meeting at Des Moines Iowa. During its lifetime the Student Volunteer Movement saw more than
20,000 of its members become foreign missionaries.
SUNDAY, WILLIAM (Billy) ASHLEY [1862-1935] – American evangelist who was a professional
baseball player and worked between seasons as a fireman on the Chicago and North-western
Railroad. He experienced evangelical conversion through the Pacific Garden Mission in 1886.
He became assistant secretary of the Chicago YMCA and helped J. Wilbur Chapman [see 1882]
in mass evangelism for two years. From 1896 he worked independently combining superb
organisation with sensational preaching. His campaigns was held in many American cities and
conducted in huge wooden tabernacles. Thousands of church members were recruited to assist
in the running of campaigns and the churches were closed for the duration. Sunday developed a
preaching style which combined crude humour with florid rhetoric. Nevertheless he called for a
down-to-earth commitment to Christ and was strongly fundamentalist in theology and opposed
evolution and advocated temperance.
TEMPLE, FREDERICK – Archbishop of Canterbury [1896-1902]. He was born in Santa Maura,
one of the Ionian Islands, the son of Major Octavius Temple, who was subsequently appointed
lieutenant-governor of Sierra Leone. On his retirement, Major Temple settled in Devon and
contemplated a farming life for his son Frederick, giving him a practical training to that end. The
boy was sent to Blundell's School, Tiverton and won a Blundell scholarship at Balliol College,
Oxford, before he was seventeen. In 1842 he took a double first and was elected fellow of Balliol,
and lecturer in mathematics and logic. Four years later he was ordained, and, with the aim of
improving the education of the very poor, he accepted the headship of Kneller Hall, a college
founded by the government for the training of masters of workhouses and penal schools. The
experiment was not successful, and Temple himself advised its abandonment in 1855. He then
accepted a job as a school inspector which he held until he went to teach at Rugby in 1858. In
the meantime he had attracted the admiration of the Prince Albert, and in 1856 he was appointed
chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Victoria. The following year he was selected preacher at his
university.
At Rugby, Temple strengthened the school's academic reputation in the classics, but also
instituted scholarships in natural science, built a laboratory, and recognised the importance of
these subjects. He reformed the sporting activities, in spite of all the traditions of the playing
fields. His own tremendous powers of work and rough manner intimidated the pupils, but he
soon became popular, and raised the school's reputation. His school sermons made a deep
impression on the boys, teaching loyalty, faith and duty. In politics Temple was a follower of
Gladstone, and he approved of the disestablishment of the Irish Church. He also wrote and
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spoke in favour of the Elementary Education Act (1870) of William Edward Forster, and was an
active member of the Endowed Schools Commission. In 1869 Gladstone offered him the
deanery of Durham, but he declined because he wanted to stay at Rugby. When later in the
same year, however Henry Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, died, the prime minister turned again to
Temple, and he accepted the bishopric of the city he knew so well. The appointment caused a
fresh controversy but his real kindness soon made itself felt, and, during the sixteen years of his
tenure, he overcame the prejudices against him, so that when, on the death of Dr John Jackson
in 1885, he was translated to London. Dr Temple's tenancy of the bishopric of London saw him
working harder than ever. His normal working day at this time was one of fourteen or fifteen
hours, though under the strain blindness was rapidly coming on. Many of his clergy and
candidates for ordination thought him a rather terrifying person, enforcing almost impossible
standards of diligence, accuracy and preaching efficiency, but his manifest devotion to his work
and his zeal for the good of the people won him general confidence. In London he continued as
a tireless temperance worker, and the working class instinctively recognised him as their friend.
When, in view of his growing blindness, he offered to resign the bishopric, he was urged to
reconsider his proposal, and on the sudden death of Archbishop Benson in 1896, though now
seventy-six years of age, he accepted the see of Canterbury.
As archbishop he presided in 1897 over the decennial Lambeth Conference. In the same year Dr
Temple and the archbishop of York issued a joint response to an encyclical of the pope which
denied the validity of Anglican orders. In 1900 the archbishops again acted together, when an
appeal was addressed to them by the united episcopate, to decide the questions of the use of
incense in divine service and of the reservation of the elements. After hearing the arguments
they decided against both the practices in question. He was zealous also in the cause of foreign
missions, and in a sermon preached at the opening of the new century he urged that a supreme
obligation rested upon Britain at this epoch in the world's history to seek to evangelise all
nations. In 1900 he presided over the World Temperance Congress in London, and on one
occasion preached in the interests of women's education. In 1902 he discharged the important
duties of his office at the coronation of King Edward VII, but the strain at his advanced age told
upon his health. During a speech which he delivered in the House of Lords on December 2, 1902
on the Education Bill of that year, he was taken ill, and, though he revived sufficiently to finish his
speech, he never fully recovered, and died on December 23 1902. His second son, William
Temple, became archbishop of Canterbury some years later. He succeeded Edward White
Benson [see 1883] and was succeeded by Randall Thomas Davidson [see 1903].
VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA – An evangelical social welfare organisation founded in 1896 in
New York by Barrington Booth son of Salvation Army leader William Booth. It retained the quasi
military character of the Salvation Army. The volunteers hold nondenominational Protestant
services and Bible classes, distribute Christian literature, comfort the aged in hospitals, and
serve prisoners through the Volunteer Prisoners League. By the 1970s they were dispensing
social and material aid to over two million people annually and had a membership of 33,000
WARNECK, GUSTAV [1834-1910] – Founder of the science of the study of missions who was
first a pastor and then an official of the Barmen [Rhine] Mission [1871-1877]. He initiated the
practice of holding regular mission conferences in German churches and was the first professor
of missiology in Germany at Halle [1896-1908]. In 1888 Warneck published a paper calling for
the 10 year general missionary conferences supported by a continuing central committee which
would co-ordinate Protestant missionary activity. This vision which was finally realised with the
Edinburgh Conference of 1910 and the formation of the International Missionary Council in 1921.
1897
BEDERWOLF, WILLIAM [1867-1939] – American Presbyterian evangelist who was director of
Winona Lake Bible School of Theology. He was ordained in 1897.
BRAHMS, JOHANNES [1833-1897] – German composer born in Hamburg but later like
Beethoven settled in Vienna where he was active as a composer and choral conductor. He was
one of the first to seek to perform the cantatas of Bach [see1723] in an authentic manner. His
German Requiem, perhaps the greatest choral work of the 19th century has its words taken from
the German Bible and have no relation to the Roman Catholic Requiem Mass. Brahms died in
1897.
CHERRY, EDITH GILLING [1872 -1897] – English Poetess, Edith Gilling Cherry was stricken
with polio in infancy, and for the rest of her brief life she walked with the aid of crutches. Most of
her poems were written before she was 15 years old. She was a deeply spiritual young woman,
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ever conscious of her spiritual failings. Edith Cherry gave the glory to God for her rich and
insightful poetry. When she lay dying, after suffering a stroke, she said, “It all seems so small, all
I have tried to do, so small to Him.” Her mother answered, “There are your songs, dear, they will
carry on your work.” But Edith quickly replied, “Ah, but they were not mine at all, they were just
given to me all ready, and all I had to do was write them down.” Her beautiful hymn, “We Rest on
Thee our Shield and our Defender”, was sung on January 8th, 1956, by the five missionaries
about to make contact with the Auca Indians of Ecuador. Shortly afterward, they were all
martyred. Elisabeth Elliot, wife of Jim Elliot, one of the five, drew the title for her book, Through
Gates of Splendour, from a line of Edith Cherry’s hymn.
CONSTANTINE V – Patriarch of Constantinople [1897-1901] who succeeded Anthimus VII [see
1895]. His secular name was Constantinos Valiadis and he was born in Vessa, on the island of
Chios. There is no additional information readily available.
CREIGHTON, MANDELL [1843-1901] – Bishop of London and historian. In 1884 he became
Dixie professor of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge. He became bishop of London in 1897. His
writing included his unfinished History of the Papacy.
DAMIANUS – Patriarch of Jerusalem [1897-1931] see 1891 and 1931. In 1918 Britain occupied
Jerusalem.
DENNY, JAMES [1856-1917] – Scottish theologian who was educated at Glasgow University
and was trained in theology at the Free Church College in that city. In 1886 he became minister
of the East Church, Broughty Ferry. During his 11 years there he published commentaries on
Thessalonians and Second Corinthians. In 1897 he took the chair of systematic theology at his
former college transferring to the New Testament department in 1900. Denny was also a strong
supporter of temperance and civic righteousness.
FOSTER, GEORGE BURMAN [1858-1918] – American Baptist scholar who taught at the
McMaster University before becoming one of the early members of the Chicago School of
Theology, where he was named professor of systematic theology in 1897, and of the philosophy
of religion in 1905. For his views on the relationship between Christianity and such subjects as
Darwinian evolution, comparative religion, and relativistic physics, he was excommunicated by
fellow Baptists in the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy of the early 20th century. He even
wrestled with the “death of God” concept despite criticism from conservatives.
HAGUE, DYSON [1857-1935] – Clergyman, educator, and author, who was educated at the
University of Toronto and ordained in 1883. In 1897 he became professor of apologetics and
pastoral theology at Wycliffe College. He wrote a series of books.
MACKINTOSH, HUGH ROSS [1870-1936] – Scottish theologian who was educated at
Edinburgh, Freiburg, Halle, and Marburg and ordained to the ministry of the Free Church of
Scotland in 1897. Professor of systematic theology at New College in Edinburgh [1904-1936] he
was regarded as a liberal evangelical. He was the author of a number of books.
OXYRHYNCHUS PAPYRI – In 1897 and thereafter numerous fragments of Greek papyri were
discovered at Oxyrhynchus, one of the chief cities of ancient Egypt, by two archaeologists B.P.
Grenfell and A.S. Hunt. The most important finds were three collections of the sayings of Jesus.
SMITH, JOHN TAYLOR [1860-1937] – Bishop and chaplain general who was converted at the
age of 11. Smith was educated at St John's Hall Highbury and sailed in 1891 to Sierra Leone as
canon missionary becoming bishop in 1897. An honorary chaplain to Queen Victoria he was
appointed chaplain general in time for World War I. He was called "Everybody's Bishop" and was
jovial, rotund, saintly, and a constant helper of the Children's Special Service Mission and the
Keswick Convention. Early rising for prayer, reading, and physical exercise was his lifelong
custom. He believed in and relied upon God's minute ordering of his life. He died aboard ship in
the Mediterranean and was buried at sea.
WILKES, PAGET [1871-1934] – Missionary to Japan who was a son of an Anglican clergyman
and educated Oxford. Wilkes sailed to serve in Japan under the Church Missionary Society in
1897. He felt unduly restricted by orthodox Anglicanism and founded the interdenominational
Japan Evangelistic Band, pledged to aggressive evangelism and the distinctive holiness
doctrines associated with the Keswick Convention movement. The whole of Wilkes active life
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was spent in Japan but his name became widely known through his books. When he did visit
England he went to Oxford and Cambridge and strongly urged students to offer for missionary
service.
1898
ACTION FRANCAISE is the name of the political league and its journal founded in 1898 as a
result of the Dreyfus affair and with the purpose of restoring the monarchy in France. It attracted
many Roman Catholic students, but public condemnation in 1926 spelled the eventual end of the
group.
BESANT ANNIE [1847-1933] – British theosophist and educator who married Rev Frank Besant
but this ended in divorce six years later. She moved successively from Anglican, atheist,
spiritualist, through to theosophist. She founded a number of educational institutes in India such
as the Central Hindu College of Benares in 1898 and the University of India in 1907. She
returned to India in 1889 and spent most of the rest of her life there. She finally announced that
she had adopted an Indian son as the Messiah and became the president of the Theosophical
Society upon the death of its founder Madam Helena Blavatsky.
CLARKE, WILLIAM NEWTON [1841-1912] – American liberal Baptist whose combination of
Christian theology and evolutionary thinking is best expressed in his major work “An Outline of
Christian Theology” in 1898, the first theology of liberalism in America.
DOUKHOBORS – A group of so-called spiritual rationalist Christians which arose in Russia
some time before the late 18th century when its members first appeared as the objects of
persecution. The name "spirit wrestlers" originally intended by their enemies to suggest strife
against the Holy Spirit, was taken by them to designate striving by means of the spirit. Christian
doctrines were interpreted by them as manifested in the nature of man. The Trinity is ‘light, life,
and peace’ with which each man may be linked by ‘memory, understanding, and will’. The story
of Jesus symbolises a spiritual development which anyone can undergo. Doukhobors were
fiercely persecuted from the start. Tolstoy and English Quakers publicised their plight and
arranged immigration to Canada in 1898. They also conflicted with authority in Canada with rows
over land ownership, and registration of births, deaths, and marriages. In protest extremist
sections of the group resorted to parading naked and to arson and dynamiting. The majority
however have come to compromise with the authorities buying their land in the prairies and in
British Columbia. Many who remained in the Soviet union were liquidated by Stalin.
DWAYNE, JAMES MATA [1848-1916] – South African independent church leader born of
heathen parents he entered the Wesleyan Methodist ministry in 1875 and seceded in 1895 to the
Independent Ethiopian church. In 1896 he visited the United States to arrange a union with the
African Methodist Episcopal Church and was consecrated vicar bishop in 1898. Because of the
difficulties with the American Negro control in the church he was convinced that his orders were
invalid and requested Anglican ordination for his clergy. In 1900 the Anglican bishops agreed to
constitute the Order of Ethiopia within the Church of the Province. He was ordained deacon in
1900, a priest in 1911 and held office as provincial of the order with one break until his death.
GIDEONS INTERNATIONAL – An association of Christian business and professional men that
grew out of a meeting between John Nicholson and Samuel Hill in Central Hotel Boscobel
Wisconsin in 1898. Participating in the evening devotions they discovered they shared a
common Christian faith. The next year, with W.J. Knights, they organised an association of
Christian travelling men, called the Gideons. From this beginning the membership has grown to
more than 42,000 in 90 countries by the mid-70s. The work is supported primarily by voluntary
offerings received in local churches. By 1971 more than 11 million Bibles and 91 million new
Testaments in some 32 languages had been distributed.
KITTEL, RUDOLF [1853-1929] – German Old Testament scholar who studied at Tubingen and
where in 1881 his prize criticism of J. Wellhausen [see 1892] impressed C.F.A. Dillmann of
Berlin whose Old Testament handbook he was later to edit and whose commentary on Isaiah he
revised. He became professor of biblical theology at Leipzig in 1898 until his retirement in 1924.
He was a prolific author.
NESTLE, EBERHARD [1851-1913] – German biblical scholar and textural critic. He held several
professorships and did a considerable amount of work on the text of the Septuagint, but it is for
his edition of the Greek New Testament that he is best known today. First published in 1898 by
the Wurttemberg Bible Society it has gone through numerous editions and is the standard text
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used by the majority of theological students and teachers, especially in Germany.
RASHDALL, HASTINGS [1858-1924] – Anglican moral philosopher and theologian educated at
Oxford where he later taught philosophy. An advanced liberal and moderate High Churchman
Rashdall tried to revive the inspiration of the Cambridge Platonists [see 1640] in the Anglican
Church of his time. He was vice president of the Modern Churchman’s Union from its foundation
in 1898.
SCHLATTER, ADOLF VON [1852-1938] – Swiss New Testament scholar who studied theology
at Basle and Tubingen. After a pastorate in Switzerland he became professor of the New
Testament at a series of universities eventually in 1898 holding that position at Tubingen where
he remained until his retirement in 1922. He was ecumenical in outlook and concerned to
mediate between the liberals and Pietists. In his specific studies on the New Testament books he
was one of the few to break with the trend of his times to continue support for the priority of
Matthew.
1899
BENDER, CARL [1869-1935] – German born American Baptist missionary pioneer who
emigrated to America at the age of 12. He was appointed to the Cameroons in West Africa under
the Berlin based German Baptist Mission serving first at Doula. In Cameroon, which at that time
was German colony, he founded a school, missionary rest station, and twenty four outstations in
the Soppo district. The Benders were the only German missionaries allowed to remain in
Cameroon during the First World War. When he left in 1919 the work was in indigenous hands.
After pastoring in the United States he returned to Soppo where he supervised reconstruction
until his death.
FROST, HENRY WESTERN [1858-1945] – Mission director. Frost as a young man joined his
father in oil production. He was encouraged by his wife into an active Christian life and in the
desire to evangelise and experience missionary outreach. He founded the North American
branch of the China Inland Mission and served as its director for over 40 years. Presbyterian,
pre-Millennial, and active in the Bible Conference Movement, Frost wrote numerous pamphlets
and a dozen volumes on devotional, doctrinal and missionary subjects.
The LIEBENZELL MISSION is a cluster of like-minded Evangelical mission organizations in
Austria, Canada, Germany, Hungary, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the
United States which was founded in 1899. With roots in German Pietism, their missionaries are
involved in Bible translation, church planting, education, evangelism, pastoral ministry, media
outreach, pastoral formation, medical care, and community development in 26 countries. There
are about 220 missionaries. Liebenzell Germany is the largest of the organizations. They have a
seminary, a brother and sisterhood, a fellowship of deaconesses, a large retreat centre, and a
literature distribution ministry headquartered in Bad Liebenzell. Pacific Islands Bible College on
Guam and in Micronesia was founded by and is still staffed by Liebenzell missionaries.
MELETIUS II Patriarch of Antioch [1899-1906] see also 1892 and 1906
JOHANSSON, GUSTAF [1844-1930] – Archbishop of Finland who after a career as a professor
at the University of Helsinki and to two bishoprics became primate of Finland. His literary
production was large and included a volume on dogmatics and publications of justification and
on the Church of Finland. Chairman of the committee for a new translation of the Bible, he
worked also towards a new church hymnal and catechism. As a conservative Johansson
opposed the liberal movement especially the 1925 Stockholm conference chaired by Archbishop
Nathan Soderblom of Sweden. According to Johansson the ecumenical trend was a great
danger to the church because it opened the door to syncretism and co-operation with liberal
theologians. He was a disciple of J.T. Beck [see 1836], whose Biblicism he tried to follow. He
has had a significant effect on Christianity in Finland.
MOORE, GEORGE FOOT [1851-1931] – American Old Testament scholar educated at Yale and
Tubingen in Germany. He became minister of a Presbyterian Church in Ohio in 1878 and then
became professor of Hebrew literature and lectured in the history of religions at Andover
Theological Seminary of which he became president in 1899. He then went to Harvard.
1900
CAVEN, WILLIAM [1830-1904] – Canadian Presbyterian leader, then strongly ecumenical,
president of the Pan Presbyterian Alliance [1900-1904], who was an architect of the future
United Church of Canada. Union with the Church of Scotland forming the Presbyterian Church
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of Canada came about when he was moderator of the general assembly in 1875.
CHINA – By 1900 there were 500,000 Catholic and 75,000 Protestants. In 1900 with the Boxer
Uprising 181 missionaries and 49,000 Chinese Christians were killed. The Uprising was put
down and China now entered into a 25 year period of change for which Christianity had paved
the way with the leaders including the first president Dr Sun Yat-sen being the product of
Christian schools. The period before the First World War was one of unprecedented prosperity
for missions with further expansion in education and health.
The Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1921 after the Chinese government had been
shunned in favour of the Japanese after World War I. In 1927 there were 8,500 missionaries in
China but this dropped to 3,000 due to the war and communists and finally all missionaries
withdrew from the mainland in 1950-51. It is thought however that the Christian underground
church today is very strong in numbers [back see 1866].
FEGAN, JAMES WILLIAM CONDELL [1852-1925] – English philanthropist. Converted at 17 as
he read the epistle to the Romans he was involved in Ragged School work in London. At 21 he
gave up a commercial career to rescue and care of children. His first home for boys was at
Deptford. Boys were trained in farming and encouraged to go to Canada, and by 1980 some
3000 had emigrated. Mr. Fagan's Homes was established at Stoney Stratford in 1900 and
Goudhurst in 1912. The mission still survives today with family homes for boys and girls in south
east England.
GOODSPEED, EDGAR JOHNSON [1871-1962] – New Testament scholar. He taught biblical
and patristic Greek at Chicago University from around 1900 to 1937. He pioneered in collating
New Testament manuscripts and in the study of Greek papyri in America. He wrote over 60
books during his career. He was an original member of the committee that produced the Revised
Standard Version of the New Testament in 1946.
LEPSIUS, JOHANNES [1858-1926] – Founder of the German Orient Mission. Son of a noted
Egyptologist his acquaintance with the East began as a child. A Lutheran pastor, he was deeply
moved by the Armenian massacres of 1894-1895 and in 1895 established a German relief
organisation to Armenia which soon consisted of orphanages, medical clinics, and a carpet
factory to provide employment. In 1900 Lepsius transformed this into the German Orient Mission
and endeavoured to evangelise Muslims but with little success. It lost most of its property in
World War I but eventually was taken over by the Berlin Mission in 1937.
PHOTIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1900-1925] see 1870 and 1926
TORREY, CHARLES CUTLER [1863-1956] – American linguist who specialised in Old
Testament Aramaic, Apocrypha, and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, as well as the
Aramaic background of the New Testament and later Islam. He taught at Andover Seminary and
was professor of Semitic languages at Yale University from 1900. His critical reconstructions of
various Old Testament books and theories regarding alleged Aramaic originals of large portions
of New Testament found little acceptance among scholars.
UNITED FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND – This body was formed in 1900 by the union of the
majority of the Free Church of Scotland and the United Presbyterian Church. In 1929 the United
Free Church united with the Church of Scotland to bring into being a church which had about
80% of the churchgoing population of Scotland.
1901-1910 AD
1901
ASSOCIATIONS, LAW OF – Defined the legal status in France of all voluntary societies
including Catholic religious orders. It formed a part of a new wave of secular anti Catholic
legislation during the Third Republic culminating in the rupture of relations between France and
the Vatican 1904 and the church and state the following year. Application of the law was so
vigorous that its provisions were extended to prohibit teaching by any religious order. By 1904
the government boasted that it had closed down 13,904 schools.
AUSTRALIA which became a Commonwealth in 1901 was first settled by Europeans in 1788
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with the origins of Christian ministry being in New South Wales with the chaplain to the first fleet
Richard Johnson. Until 1830 all education in the colony was in the hands of the Church of
England. In 1836 W G Broughton [see 1836] became the first bishop of the diocese of Australia
thus severing a connection with the diocese of Calcutta. In the early days ministrations by
Roman Catholic priests to convicts were prohibited. Many Irish Catholics entered Australia in the
gold rush of the 1850’s. The first synod of the diocese of Sydney was held in 1866 however it
continued to import bishops from England with the first Australian born archbishop not being
made bishop of Sydney until Marcus Lawrence Loane in 1966. Today the Church of England has
organised itself into twenty seven diocese.
The church has come under strong criticism for allegedly neglecting aboriginal customs and civil
rights on missions over the years. However anthropologists suggested that the full blooded
aborigines would have died out in the 1930 if the missions had not sustained them with food and
medicine at a time when the majority of Australians were expressing very little concern. There
are various Christian ministries to remote areas of the country. Theological training is now
Australian based with few seeking training overseas. The training tends to be conservative with
the evangelical tradition of the Anglican diocese of Sydney and the influence on the Roman
Catholic Church by the Irish.
BIBLE American Standard Version of the Bible published
BIGG, CHARLES [1840-1908] – Classical scholar and theologian who had a varied career from
being a teacher in Oxford, as a minister, and as professor of ecclesiastical history at Oxford
University from 1901. He authored a number of books including commentaries on Peter and
Jude as well as The Origins of Christianity which was published posthumously.
CABLE, MILDRED [1877-1952] – Missionary to China [1901-1952] who with colleagues built up
a flourishing work in Hochow including one of the first girl's schools in China. From 1928 they
moved to the extreme north west city of Suchow, “the City of Criminals” where they made
repeated evangelical journeys through central Asia, preaching and distributing Scriptures.
FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR [1848-1921] – Congregationalist theologian. A postman's son in
Aberdeen he was educated at the university there then studied at Gottingen. After several
pastorates he became in 1901 principal of Hackney College London, a post he retained until his
death. He took part in the Leicester Conference which had aimed for a “better, freer, larger
church” and was suspected in his domination of heterodoxy in 1877. In his later life he was
increasingly respected as a Congregational leader. He developed a high doctrine of the church,
ministry, and sacraments, and was very critical of the tendency to non-doctrinal religion prevalent
in the Free churches.
GAIRDNER, WILLIAM HENRY TEMPLE [1873-1928] – Anglican missionary and scholar. Born in
Scotland and educated at Oxford he was associated with John Raleigh Mott [see 1888] in work
among British students. He went with the Church Missionary Society to Cairo in 1898, with a
special view to work among students and others of the educated classes of Muslims. He was
ordained in 1901 and was a gifted linguist. He broke new ground by teaching missionaries and
native teachers colloquial Arabic, produced a handbook on phonetics and two textbooks on the
subject, and wrote hymns, poems, plays, and popular biblical literature in Arabic. He worked to
make the Arabic Anglican Church into a welded group of believers, to train indigenous leaders,
and to improve relationship with the Coptic Church [see 1517]. He believed that Islam could be
won by a living exemplification of Christian brotherhood. Zest characterised his life and his faith;
he seemed to have the ability to enjoy everything intensely.
GORDON, SAMUEL DICKEY [1859-1936] – American devotional writer. Born and educated in
Philadelphia, he became state secretary of the Ohio YMCA. He began to preach and lecture on
religious subjects in America, and travelled for four years in the Orient and Europe holding Bible
conferences and missionary conventions. He wrote more than 20 devotional books under the
title “Quiet Talks” such as Quiet Talks on Power in 1901 and …on Prayer in 1904.
HABERSHON ADA RUTH [1861-1918] English Author and Hymn Writer. Ada was the youngest
daughter of Dr. Samuel Osborne Habershon. She was brought up in a Christian home by
believing, praying parents, and her whole life was devoted to God’s service. She was a prolific
author specialising in types. In 1901, she began writing poetry while ill and wrote “Apart with
Him.” She met Dwight Moody and Ira Sankey when they visited London in 1884, and visited
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America at their invitation to deliver lectures on the Old Testament, which were later published.
During the 1905 Torrey Alexander Mission, Charles Alexander asked her to write some Gospel
songs; with in a year, she supplied him with 200 including “When I fear my faith will fail”.
MOULE, HANDLEY CARR GLYN [1841-1920] – Bishop of Durham who was educated at home
and after a brilliant career at Cambridge taught at Marlborough in 1865 and was ordained in
1867. He became the first principal of Ridley Hall Theological College at Cambridge and
professor of divinity in 1899. In 1901 he succeeded Wescott as bishop of Durham. Moule was a
convinced evangelical who was able to understand other views and in 1908 chaired the
missionary section of the Pan-Anglican Congress. He was closely associated with the Keswick
Convention and wrote many hymns, poems, and commentaries on nearly all the epistles, as well
as a down-to-earth work called Outlines of Christian Doctrine.
1902
AGGREY, JAMES [1875-1927] – Ghanian born Christian orator and educator completed his
training in the U.S.A. He was an advocate of cooperation between the races and a mediator
between African and Western cultures.
AGLIPAY, GREGORIO [1860-1940] – Bishop of Philippines Independent Church who was a
Catholic priest in Manila accepting a military chaplaincy in 1898 in the revolutionary army of
General Aguinaldo. The lack of response from Rome for the naming of a native Philippine bishop
caused the founding of the Philippine Independent Church with him as bishop, a position he held
until his death.
ALEXANDER, CHARLES [1867-1920] – American evangelist song leader. Educated at the
Moody Bible Institute he started conducting evangelistic meetings with R Torrey [see 1900] and J
Chapman [see 1893] in Europe, America and Australasia. Alexander was noted for “warming up”
the audience with jovial humour and lively singing before the evangelical appeal.
HALLESBY, OLE KRISTIAN [1879-1961] – Norwegian theologian brought up in Lutheran piety,
he studied theology and adopted the outlook of the liberal school. In 1902 he experienced a
conversion and reverted back to biblical faith and the piety of his fathers. For some years he
worked as an itinerant lay preacher causing revivals in several places. He was called to the chair
of dogmatics at the Free Faculty of Theology and took the post after acquiring his doctorate in
Berlin. From 1909 to 1952 he lectured on dogmatics and in a sense became the teacher of a
whole generation of Norwegian ministers. He was a leading light in the opposition of
conservative pastors to the liberal theology. During the Second World War he was one of the
nation's leaders in resistance of the Nazis. He was arrested in 1943 and lived in a concentration
camp until liberation came in 1945.
JAMES, WILLIAM [1842-1910] – American psychologist and philosopher. After a career, first as
an artist, then as a medical student, James developed an interest in experimental psychology
and taught at Harvard. Even though he was plagued by ill health from 1865, he was very active
in lecturing both in America and Europe, and in writing what were to become classics of
American philosophy. Among his most important books are “The Varieties of Religious
Experience” published in 1902. He stressed the richness, the “pluralism” of experience, including
religious experience, against what he took to be the rigidity of scientific or religious orthodoxy.
Religious experience is universal, it endures; there must therefore be truth in religion. He was the
brother of Henry James and novelist.
KENSIT, JOHN [1853-1902] – Protestant preacher and controversialist, born of working-class
parents, and was successively draper's assistant, stationer, and sub-postmaster. From his youth
an ardent Protestant, he was deeply incensed by the Romanising trend within the Anglican
Church. He fought against the consecration of liberal and ritualistic bishops, and was charged by
his enemies, especially Bishop Creighton of London with fanaticism. While conducting a
Protestant crusade in Liverpool in 1902 he was assaulted by a Catholic mob and died in hospital
a few days later. He is generally regarded as the founder what is known in Britain as Political
Protestantism.
MCNICOL, JOHN [1869-1956] – Bible College principal who was born in Canada and educated
at Toronto University and Knox College. He was a leader in the Student Volunteer Movement
[see 1886]. He began lecturing in Toronto Bible College where he was principal from 1906 to
1946. His writings contained much on the Holy Spirit.
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MEYER, EDUARD [1855-1930] – German historian and one of the greatest authorities on the
ancient world. He was professor of ancient history at the University of Berlin from 1902 to 1923.
Meyer wrote a number of works in the area of Jewish and early Christian studies. In one of his
last works he argued for the historical value of Luke-Acts and for its early date.
POLLARD, ADELAIDE ADDISON [1862-1934] – Adelaide Pollard was a Bible teacher and
missionary, and the author of over 100 hymns and gospel songs. Only one of her hymns is in
common use today, and the incident that led to its composition is interesting. She believed the
Lord wanted her to go to Africa as a missionary. It was a noble cause, but for some reason the
funds for the trip did not come in. As she waited on the Lord to provide, her discouragement
grew. Then, one evening in 1902 she attended a small prayer meeting. In the group was an
elderly woman whose prayer pricked Adelaide’s doubting, troubled heart. The woman said, “It’s
all right, Lord. It doesn’t matter what you bring into our lives. Just have Your own way with us.”
Letting God have His way, the would-be missionary pondered that. Could it be she was insisting
the Lord accept her way instead of submitting to His? Adelaide Pollard considered what she had
heard that evening, and before retiring to bed she composed a hymn of dedication called “Have
Thine Own Way, Lord”. She went on to become an itinerant Bible teacher, and she taught for
eight years at the Missionary Training School in New York City. Ironically, she did get to serve in
Africa for a short time, just before the outbreak of the First World War.
SMITH, EDWIN WILLIAM [1876-1957] – Missionary, writer and anthropologist. Born of
missionary parents in South Africa he entered the Primitive Methodist ministry. Between 1902
and 1915 he worked among the Ila people of Zambia producing a grammar, dictionary, and New
Testament translation. He served the British and Foreign Bible Society from 1916 to 1939 and
also taught in various American Negro colleges. Although he had little academic training he
achieved international recognition as an anthropologist and became president of the Royal
Anthropological Institute [1933-1935]. Smith published numerous books on topics related to
African religion and missions.
1903
CARMICHAEL, AMY WILSON [1867-1951] – Missionary to India. She served for a while in
Japan before moving to South India with the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society
where she was a colleague of Thomas Walker [see 1885]. In 1903 Amy wrote the book “Things
as they Are” which influenced many towards missionary work. Two years earlier the Dohnavur
Fellowship was founded with the purpose of rescuing children devoted to temple service with its
attendant corruption. She remained the centre of the life of the Fellowship for the next 50 years.
DAVIDSON, RANDALL THOMAS – Archbishop of Canterbury [1903-1928]. He studied at
Harrow and Oxford, and served as chaplain to Archibald Campbell Tait when Tait was
archbishop of Canterbury. He married Tait's daughter. After Tait's death he remained at Lambeth
Palace as chaplain to Edward White Benson when he became archbishop of Canterbury. A
favourite of Queen Victoria, Davidson was appointed dean of Windsor at a very young age. He
was subsequently bishop of Rochester and bishop of Winchester before becoming archbishop of
Canterbury in 1903. He played a major part in the funeral ceremonies for Queen Victoria in 1901,
taking care, along with Dr. James Reid, of the wake at Osborne House, Isle of Wight. Rodger
Lloyd, Church of England historian, thought that Davidson was one of the two or three greatest
archbishops of Canterbury. He was the first archbishop of Canterbury to retire, all his
predecessors having died in office. Davidson reacted to the papal bull Apostolicae Curae by
stressing “the strength and depth of the Protestantism of England” and regarded other
differences with Rome as much more important than its views on Anglican orders. This view
seems to have been widely held at the time, judging from the reaction of Herbert Cardinal
Vaughan, Roman Catholic archbishop of Westminster. Davidson succeeded Frederick Temple
[see 1896] and was succeeded by William Cosmo Gordon Lang [see 1928].
KNOX, EDMUND ARBUTHNOTT [1847-1937] – Bishop of Manchester who was educated at
Oxford and made bishop of Manchester in 1903. He was a prominent evangelical who strove
vigorously against liberal and High Church tendencies in the Anglican Church.
PIUS X – Pope [1903-1914]. He became bishop of Mantua in 1884 and patriarch of Venice nine
years later. He continued reforming the Catholic Church and fighting against modernism which
eventually resulted in the clergy in 1910 taking an oath against modernism. He followed Leo XIII
in recommending Thomism as the Catholic philosophy and founded the Pontifical Bible Institute
in Rome in 1909. To strengthen the faith of the ordinary believer he promoted renewal in worship
and personal devotion. He improved church music including the revival of Gregorian chant and a
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new devotion to Mary, more frequent Mass for the faithful, an earlier first communion for children
and better religious instruction as well as commencing the codification of Canon Law. The
Catholic struggle with the secularist Third Republic of France reached a new stage with the
break in diplomatic relations in 1904. The French law of Separation of 1905 terminated the
Concordat of 1801 and resulted in the confiscation of church property and transformed its semi
favourable legal stance towards the church into legal active antagonism. He succeeded Leo XIII
[see 1878] and was succeeded by Benedict XV [see 1914].
RYLE, HERBERT EDWARD [1856-1925] – Anglican bishop and preacher who was son of
bishop J.C. Ryle [see 1880] which gave him a strong evangelical home background and outlook.
Educated at Cambridge he won distinction as a moderate and cautious Old Testament higher
critic. He held a number of positions including professor of divinity at Cambridge in 1888. He was
successively bishop of Exeter in 1900 and Winchester in 1903. Ryle’s fame rests on his
preaching and leadership at Westminster during World War I after he had retired from the faculty
and accepted the deanery of Winchester due to ill health in 1911.
TOMLINSON, AMBROSE JESSUP [1865-1943] – Church of God leader and revivalist who was
converted in 1892 and served as an American Bible Society colporteur in North Carolina. He
joined the Pentecostal Church of God movement in Tennessee in 1896 and rapidly rose to
leadership. He assumed the title of general overseer in 1903 and maintained that position for 20
years. His authoritarian rule however created friction, and factions developed by 1917. Some
forty religious groups can be traced to his movement nowadays.
TRUMBULL, CHARLES GALLAUDET [1872-1941] – Evangelical writer and journalist who
graduated from Yale and joined “The Sunday School Times” founded by his father in 1893. He
became editor in 1903 and later director. He was for a long time staff writer for the Toronto
“Globe” and also wrote the weekly Sunday school lesson for several daily newspapers. His main
interests included membership of the Victoria Institute, the Palestine Exploration Fund, and the
Archaeological Institute of America. A supporter of missions, he wrote books that were
evangelical and prophetic.
WACE, HENRY [1836-1924] – Dean of Canterbury who was educated at Oxford and ordained in
1861. He held a variety of positions in London from 1863 to 1903 some of which overlapped:
chaplain and preacher at Lincoln's Inn; professor of ecclesiastical history and principal, King's
College; rector of St Michael's Cornhill; and royal chaplain. In 1903 he was appointed dean of
Canterbury and held that post until his death. Wace was a strong exponent of Reformation
principles. He wrote a number of books.
WEYMOUTH NEW TESTAMENT – The New Testament in Modern Speech, translated into
everyday English, it was the work of Richard Francis Weymouth [1822-1902]. Weymouth, a
classical scholar said that his translation was not intended to supplant the versions then in
general use but to act as a compressed running commentary on them. His own intention was to
be free from doctrinal and ecclesiastical bias.
1904
ANDREWS, CHARLES [1871-1940] – Missionary to India. In 1904 he went to the Cambridge
Mission in Delhi. He met Sadhu Sundah Singh [see 1905] whose biography he wrote. Andrews
became unhappy about the Anglican creed and was greatly influenced by the writings of Albert
Schweitzer [see 1913]. He spent time in South Africa helping the Indian indentured labourers
and while there he met Ghandi. Andrews returned to India where he left the Anglican mission
and joined the Indian poet Tagore in his ashram.
BASHFORD, JAMES [1849-1919] – American Methodist missionary to China who was the first
resident bishop of the American Episcopal Church in that country. When he was elected bishop
he asked to be sent to China. He mainly used interpreters but had a major effect on the Christian
church in that country [1904-1918] as well as assisting organising relief measures for famine
sufferers.
CAIRD, EDWARD [1835-1908] – Scottish philosopher and one of the leading representatives of
the Neo Hegelian movement in British philosophy during the latter part of the 19th century. Caird
who succeeded Jowett [see 1860] as master of Balliol College Oxford accepted the prevailing
concept of the progressive evolution of thought and produced two major works on Kant [see
1770] and a monograph of Hegel [see1818].
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CRAWFORD, DANIEL [1870-1926] – Missionary to central Africa who joined the Plymouth
Brethren in 1877 and in 1879 went to central Africa with F Arnot [see 1881]. He journeyed alone
reaching Katanga in 1890 and undertook much travel in the next five years eventually settling in
Luanza on Lake Mweru where apart from a visit overseas he remained for the rest of his life. He
was a strong individual who preferred to rely on unsolicited gifts and working alone. Education in
his village schools concentrated on the Scriptures which, by 1904, he had translated the New
Testament into Luba, finishing the Old Testament in the year of his death. His converts were
encouraged to participate in teaching, preaching and church affairs.
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND – This group represents a minority of the former Free Church
of Scotland who in 1900 refused to enter in the union with the United Presbyterian Church to
form the United Free Church of Scotland. The present Free Church is conservative in theology
and affirms its loyalty to the whole of the Westminster Confession of Faith. It has no instrumental
music and uses only the metrical psalms in congregational praise.
MEYER, FREDERICK BROTHERTON [1847-1929] – Born in London to a wealthy family of
German ancestry he was educated at London University and completed his theological training
at Regents Park Baptist College. He helped launch the then unknown D.L. Moody [see 1886].
Meyer moved from Liverpool to Leicester and in 1881 opened Melbourne Hall, a centre of social
and evangelistic activity which was Meyer’s abiding memorial. He was president at the Free
Church Council in 1904 and retired in 1921. His devotional studies on biblical characters are still
widely read.
ROBERTS, EVAN JOHN [1878-1951] – Welsh revivalist who was the ninth of fourteen children
of a pitman. Roberts was educated at the parish school and at 12 years of age he accompanied
his father to the coal mine. In 1902 he was apprenticed as a blacksmith but two years later was
accepted as a candidate for the ministry by the Calvinistic Methodist Church. He had a
remarkable prayer life for 11 years devoting himself to intense intercession for an outpouring of
the Holy Spirit. He also had visions and vivid experiences of the divine presence. By 1904 in
many parts of Wales there was an indication that revival was about to happen and in that year
Roberts received a profound spiritual experience. He returned to his home church of Moriah and
held prayer meetings where on successive nights the meetings drew ever larger crowds and
within a matter weeks the revival had swept across Glamorganshire with tremendous power.
Soon Roberts and a group of young friends began to make revival tours throughout Wales
between November 1904 and January 1906. It was a national revival not just limited to the
places visited by Roberts. It is calculated that there were 100,000 conversions during the revival
and it had worldwide publicity. Physically the revival broke Evan Roberts and he retired from
public life.
TILAK, NARAYAN VAMAN [c.1862-1919] – Marathi hymn writer and poet. He was born a high
caste Brahman and even before his break from Hinduism, due to his poetic gift and strong
religious spirit made him almost a “sadhu”. On a train journey a foreigner gave him a New
Testament and thus began the road to Christianity. Tilak was baptised in Bombay and ordained
in 1904 after which he worked as a preacher at Ahmadnagar. Writing was his great ministry and
he composed many hymns for the Marathi Church. His greatest work was to be a life of Christ in
verse but only the first part had been completed by his death. In 1917 he left the mission service
in order to form a brotherhood of “the baptised unbaptised disciples of Christ” with an ashram at
Satara.
1905
BAPTIST WORLD ALLIANCE which is a world wide fellowship of Baptist churches founded in
1905 to show according to its constitution “the essential oneness of the Baptist people in the
Lord Jesus Christ, to impart inspiration to the brotherhood and to promote the spirit of fellowship
service and co-operation among its members.” The women’s department organises an annual
Baptist Women’s day of prayer.
BURKITT, FRANCIS CRAWFORD [1864-1935] – Biblical scholar, educated at Cambridge and
professor of divinity at Cambridge [1905-1935]. Burkitt did important work on the Syriac text of
the New Testament and published a two volume edition of the Old Syriac Gospels. His most
famous work was "The Gospel History and its Transmission" [1906]. He followed Johannes
Weiss [see 1914] in rejecting the views of liberal Protestantism and was a person of great range
of academic interests.
FRANCE [see also 1793] – A phenomenon known as Catholic atheism made its appearance
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among those who remained within the church, but who had lost their faith. Leo XIII tried to
accommodate Catholicism to the increasingly liberal and secular mood of the nation without
much success. The anticlericalism of the period climaxed with the legislation of the early part of
the 20th century, including the Law of 1905 which decreed complete separation of church and
state. France today is deeply secular, but no longer is it as hostile to Christianity as it was
previously.
LIETZMANN, HANS [1875-1942] – German church historian who trained at Jena and Bonn and
became professor at Jena from 1905 to 1924 and then at Berlin until 1942. His academic
interests bridged all the disciplines related to early church history, New Testament exegesis,
classical archaeology, Hellenistic religion, canon law, and the like.
NIELSEN, FREDRIK KRISTIAN [1846-1907] – Danish bishop and theologian who found his
permanent position in the conservative and ecumenically minded tradition of N.F.S. Grundtvig
[see 1825]. In 1877 he became professor of church history at Copenhagen University and there
was characterised more by a staggering amount of knowledge and great narrative skill than by a
sense of historical and doctrinal coherence and development. He became bishop of Aalborg in
1900 and was transferred to the see of Aarhus in 1905.
SUNDAR SINGH, SADHU [1889-1929] – Indian Christian and mystic who was the youngest of
four children of the wealthy Sikh family from the North Punjab who was very distressed when his
mother died in 1902. For a time he attended the American Presbyterian Mission School but was
bitterly opposed to Christianity and publicly burned a copy of the Gospels. Two days later he had
a vision of Christ and was converted. Driven from home by his father he became a preacher
wearing the saffron robe of a holy man and endeavoured to evangelise the Hindus. In 1905 he
was baptised into the Church of England but later refused to be restricted to a particular
denomination. He travelled widely in Asia and visited the West but was saddened by the love of
comfort and luxury evident there. Despite ill health he persisted in evangelising Tibet and
disappeared there in 1929.
WALMSLEY, ROBERT [1831-1905]. – English jeweller and Hymn Writer. Robert Walmsley was
an English jeweller by profession, but he also wrote some hymns. As a Christian layman he was
connected for 28 years with the Manchester Sunday School Union, and many of his hymns were
written for the annual Whitsuntide Festival. The one hymn that remains of Walmsley’s is “Come,
Let Us Sing of a Wonderful Love”.
1906
BERKHOF, LOUIS [1873-1957] – Dutch born American Calvinist theologian and teacher who
specialised in systematic theology. He was called to teach at the Calvin Seminary in Michigan in
1906 and was there for three decades. He wrote the influential "Manual of Reformed Doctrine"
in 1933 which was used extensively in Reformed Christian schools while his last book was “The
Second Coming of Christ” in 1953 when he was eighty.
BOHMER, HEINRICH [1869-1927] – German church historian who was successively professor
at Bonn in 1906, Marburg, and Leipzig, establishing himself as an authority on Luther and the
Reformation. He wrote a number of books including two on Luther, studies on Loyola and the
Jesuits, and the mediaeval church.
BROWN, WILLIAM [1865-1943] – American liberal theologian who was educated at Yale and the
University of Berlin. He taught theology at Union Seminary from 1892 to 1930 when he became
research professor in applied theology until 1936. He published his widely used book "Christian
Theology Outline" in 1906. Brown declared that the centre of ones faith should be the life and
teaching of the historical Jesus rather than the orthodox teaching of the incarnation, atonement
and resurrection.
CARPENTER, JOSEPH ESTLIN [1844-1927] – Unitarian minister who became principal at
Manchester College Oxford until 1915. He had a wide knowledge of near eastern studies and
translated Ewald’s major work [see 1827] into English.
ETHICAL MOVEMENT – A quasi religious movement having the motto "Need, not Creed", and
its goal was a society embracing the ideas of love, loyalty, brotherhood, and peace. Instigated in
1876 by Felix Adler as the New York Society for Ethical Culture, its central purpose was stated in
the constitution, adopted in 1906 at the international conference at Eisner: to assert the supreme
importance of the ethical factor in all relations of life, personal, social, national, and international,
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apart from theological considerations. From this came the International Humanist and Ethical
Union formed in 1952 which was to promote an alternative to the religions which claim to be
based on revelation.
GREGORY IV Patriarch of Antioch [1906-1928] see also 1899 and 1928
HOLL, KARL [1866-1926] – German scholar who was born in Tubingen and was made professor
of church history there in 1901 and from 1906-1926 he held a similar chair in Berlin. One of
Germany's most influential church historians of both Eastern and Western churches whose
studies on Luther created a revival in the Evangelical Church.
MARIAVITES – A Polish sect founded in Warsaw in 1906 by Jan Kowalski and Maria Felicja
Kozlowska who both founded communities under the Franciscan rule but because of their
suspected mysticism had been excommunicated from the Roman Church. The new union took
its name from devotion to the Virgin Mary and was recognised by St Petersburg and the Duma.
They eventually joined the OId Catholics in 1909. With Kowalski’s death, fanaticism within the
sect increased noticeably and took the form of mystic marriages between priests and nuns
whose children were considered to be without original sin, destined to found a new sinless race.
In 1924 the Old Catholics renounced them.
MARITAIN, JACQUES [1882-1973] – French philosopher who is noteworthy both as an
interpreter of Thomas Aquinas and as an independent thinker. Reared in liberal Protestantism he
was converted to the Roman Catholic Church in 1906, and in 1914 was appointed to the chair of
modern philosophy at the Institute Catholique in Paris. From 1945 until 1948 he was French
ambassador to the Vatican, and followed this by teaching at Princeton until his retirement in
1956. In his philosophy Maritain used not only Aristotle and Aquinas but insights from other
philosophical sources. He refashioned the “Five Ways” of Thomas Aquinas and added his own
sixth way.
NAZARENE, CHURCH OF THE – An international denomination which was formed largely as
the result of the merger of approximately 15 religious groups originating from the 19th century
Wesleyan Holiness Movement and whose organisation, within the USA, took place at Pilot Point
Texas in 1908. Originally known as the Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene, the term
Pentecostal was dropped from the title in 1919 due to its association with “speaking in tongues”
a practice not in favour with the church’s members. The Church of the Nazarene began in Britain
in 1906 through the ministry in Glasgow of George Sharpe who had been profoundly influenced
by the Holiness movement while in the United States. The Church of the Nazarene combines
congregational autonomy with superintendence in a representative system. Its major emphasis is
of entire sanctification as a work of grace following conversion and stands firmly in the Wesleyan
tradition.
VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH [1872-1958] – English composer who was the son of a
clergyman and was educated at the Royal College of Music, and at Berlin. For a time he was
church organist but soon gave it up and devoted himself primarily to composition. Although his
personal views bordered on agnosticism he was the only major 20th-century composer for whom
religious music was a highly significant part of his total output throughout his career, from the
earlier and unconventional oratorio “The Holy City”, to his large Christmas cantata “Hodie” which
he wrote at the age of 82. He was musical editor of “The English Hymnal” in 1906 and shared in
editing “Songs of Praise” and the “Oxford Book of Carols”. A festival setting for congregation,
choir, organ and full orchestra of “All hail the power of Jesus name” is the most ambitious of all
his pieces based on hymns. There were several compositions based on Pilgrim's Progress,
culminating in the full scale opera of 1951 which he called “A Morality”.
1907
AMERICAN BAPTIST CHURCHES is a group who were known as the Northern Baptist
Convention and is the 4th largest denomination with 6000 congregations in the USA. Before that
time the churches were joined in a local or state association. Northern Baptist Convention in the
1920’s shared in the fundamentalist-modernist controversy. The group has a greater diversity of
theologies than any other American denomination with main areas of difference being the deity
of Christ and His Second Coming. In the mid west and west they are outnumbered by the
Southern Baptists. They have numbers of overseas missionaries who have encouraged
Protestantism and many have participated in the ecumenical movement.
ARGUE, ANDREW [1868-1959] – Canadian pioneer of Pentecostalism received an ecstatic
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experience in Chicago in 1907 including “speaking in tongues” which he interpreted as “baptism
of the Holy Spirit”. He became an apostle of this experience and had a large evangelistic ministry
in his home country and in the United States which included the establishment of a number of
churches.
DIVINE, MAJOR J. (‘Father Divine’) [1865?-1965] – He founded the Peace Mission movement.
He was born into a poor Negro family in Georgia and was a former Baptist but in 1907 claimed to
be ‘God in the sonship degree’. He travelled for a while and then settled in New York City. The
movement grew rapidly in the 1930s and 1940s. He spoke across the country and published his
magazine The New Day. As Father Divine he ran a massive co-operative agency and
employment service providing low-cost meals and lodgings in his ‘heavens’. The interracial
movement regard him as a god and by the 1960's had over 1 million members in several states
and foreign countries. On his demise the work was continued by his widow "Mother Divine".
OMAN, JOHN WOOD [1860-1939] – Presbyterian theologian educated at Edinburgh and
Heidelberg and in 1907 joined the staff at Westminster College Cambridge where he was later
the principal [1925-1935]. Oman developed an early interest in Schleiermacher [see 1804] who
held that religious experience is self authenticating and that it was the direct feeling of the
supernatural.
1908
DEISSMANN, ADOLF [1866-1937] – German New Testament scholar who taught at Heidelberg
[1895-1908] and Berlin [1908-34]. In the light of secular Greek inscriptions and papyri, first
intensively studied in the late 19th century, Deissmann showed the New Testament language to
be popular rather classical. He gave a picture of primitive Christianity as a popular cult, growing
from mystical personal reaction to Jesus; it was not therefore to be explained in terms of the
coherence of the development of doctrine. For him, Paul was not a theologian but a man of the
people responding to the impact of the Damascus Road encounter. He was active in the early
ecumenical movement.
FOSDICK, HARRY EMERSON [1878-1969] – American Baptist minister. He was a pastor from
1904 to 1915, and taught practical theology at Union Theological Seminary from 1908 to 1946.
He promoted evangelical liberalism, biblical criticism, psychology of religion, and psychologically
orientated “personal religion”. Fosdick greatly influenced American preaching through his
“problem-centred” homiletical style. He authored over 30 books which were widely read.
FULLERTON, WILLIAM YOUNG [1857-1932] – Fullerton was a Baptist preacher, administrator
and writer. He was born in Belfast, Ireland and as a young man he was influenced by the
preaching of Charles Spurgeon, who became his friend and mentor. Fullerton served as
President of the Baptist Union and Home Secretary of the Baptist Missionary Society. He was a
frequent speaker at Keswick Conventions starting in 1908. His published works include
biographies of John Bunyan, Charles Spurgeon, James William Condell Fegan and Frederick
Brotherton Meyer; missionary histories and devotional writings. He also compiled several
hymnals. He is remembered for his hymn entitled "I cannot tell why He, Whom angels worship”,
which he set to the traditional Irish melody "Londonderry".
LOISY, ALFRED FIRMIN [1857-1940] – Founder of Roman Catholic modernism in France. He
studied in Paris and remained there as professor of Hebrew and exegesis from 1884 to 1893
until dismissed because of his liberal views on biblical inerrancy. Much shaken his faith by 1886
he had rejected all traditional dogma and turned to pantheism. Excommunication came in 1908
when he publicly renounced his faith as he had done his priestly functions in 1906. A student of
biblical criticism with some extraordinary insights, he shifted too often in his views to have any
permanently solid conclusions.
MOULTON, JAMES HOPE [1863-1917] – Greek and Iranian scholar, the elder son of William
Moulton [see 1872]. He entered the Methodist ministry in 1886 and in 1902 was appointed New
Testament tutor at the Wesleyan College in Manchester. In 1908 he became professor of Greek
and Indo-European philology at the University of Manchester. His work was especially important
to showing the kinship between the Greek of the New Testament and that of the recently
discovered papyri. Moulton died from exhaustion after the ship on which he was travelling was
torpedoed in the Mediterranean.
NUELSEN, JOHN LOUIS [1867-1946] – Methodist bishop, born of American parents in Zurich
and educated at Halle and Berlin. He was ordained as a Methodist and held pastorates in
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Missouri and Minnesota, lectured in ancient languages and exegetical theology, and was made a
bishop in 1908. From 1912 he was in charge of the Methodist Church’s work in Europe with
Zurich as his headquarters. In 1936 he organised the first Methodist Central Conference of
Germany at Frankfurt. He wrote widely on Methodism and biblical criticism and was an editor of
major theological works.
WESTON, FRANK [1871-1924] – Bishop of Zanzibar. Weston had been brought up as an
evangelical but during university he became an extreme Anglo-Catholic. He served in various
churches in London before going to Africa under the auspices of the Universities Mission to
Central Africa. In 1908 he was made bishop of Zanzibar in which country he served until his
death. Weston is best remembered for his opposition to the tentative scheme of reunion,
proposed at Kikuyu for the Protestant churches in East Africa.
1909
BIEDERWOLF, WILLIAM EDWARD [1867-1939] – American Presbyterian evangelist and
educator who was probably the best educated evangelist of his time. Ordained in 1897 he was a
chaplain in the Spanish American War. The rest of his life he spent in evangelism and direction
of the Winona Lake Bible School of Theology. In 1909 he organised the Family Altar League. He
authored “The Millennium Bible” and “The New Paganism”.
BILLING, EINAR MAGNUS [1871-1939] – Swedish theologian who was born in Lund and was a
professor in dogmatic and moral theology from 1909. He was a leader of the "Luther
Renaissance" in Sweden laying down the lines for the distinctively Scandinavian method of
Luther study in the form of a historical systematic approach .
BUCK, DUDLEY [1839-1909] – American composer, the first American born church musician to
be trained in Europe. A distinguished organist he wrote many cantatas, anthems and secular
music. He contributed significantly to church music in the period in which he lived and as an
organist increased the popularity of that instrument in his recitals.
CONYBEARE, FREDERICK CORNWALLIS [1856-1924] – Armenian scholar who became
interested in church history in the textural criticism of the Septuagint. He discovered a
manuscript with the last 12 verses of Mark [16:9-20]. He was generally sceptical about
Christianity as shown in his “Myth, Magic and Morals a Study of Christian Origins” published in
1909 though he refuted those who denied the historicity of Christ.
DISPENSATIONALISM – A dispensation is defined as "a period of time during which man is
tested in respect of obedience to some specific revelation of the will of God" according to CI
Scofield [see below]. Some variety exists among dispensationalists but a scheme of seven
dispensations is widely accepted. They are Innocence, Conscience, Human Government,
Promise, Law, Grace, and the Kingdom. The close of the Millennium ushers in the eternal state.
J. N. Darby [see 1845] is usually regarded as the founder of Dispensationalism, although some
of the elements are found in Augustine. Its fullest theological expression, while popularised in the
Scofield Bible, are in the works of Lewis Sperry Chafer [see 1924] with the hyper dispensational
form of it due to the work of E W Bullinger.
HAUSRATH, ADOLF [1837-1909] – German Lutheran theologian who was a leading liberal
scholar and served as a pastor and later professor at Heidelberg and belonged to the Baden
state church. Stimulated by the ideas of the Tubingen School [see 1826] he transformed and
popularised its historical picture of primitive Christianity.
MADSEN, PEDER [1843-1911] – Danish bishop and theologian who in his youth studied
theology and was strongly influenced by F.H.R. Frank [see 1857] and the theology of
experience. In 1874 he became lecturer and in the following year professor of Christian
dogmatics and New Testament exegesis at Copenhagen University. In 1909 he was appointed
bishop of Zealand. The theology he taught was a mixture of biblical conservative and orthodox
Lutheran with tendencies of the subjective including some unnecessary concessions to biblical
criticism. However he was the most influential Danish theologian of his time.
PIDGEON, GEORGE CAMPBELL [1872-1971] – First moderator of the United Church of
Canada [see 1925]. He was educated at McGill University and Presbyterian College, and served
as pastor of influential churches in Ontario for over 50 years except for the time teaching
practical theology from 1909 to 1915. He was a scholar, preacher, and writer, vitally concerned
with the application of the Social Gospel to the poor of the cities.
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SCOFIELD, CYRUS INGERSON [1843-1921] – American biblical scholar who won the
Confederate Cross of Honour while serving with Lee's army. After the Civil War he turned to law
and was admitted to the Kansas bar in 1869. After his conversion he was ordained to serve a
small Congregational church in Dallas [1882-1895]. At Moody's request he took over Moody
Church in Massachusetts from 1895 to 1902 and returned to the Dallas church 1902-1907 before
taking on Bible conference work at home and in the British Isles, and founding the Central
American Mission. In 1909 his dispensational premillennial Bible was published which he edited
with the financial assistance of prominent businessmen.
STONE, JOHN TIMOTHY [1868-1954] – Presbyterian minister who held Presbyterian pastorates
in New York State, Baltimore, and Chicago [1909-1930]. His work in Chicago became the basis
of the New Life Movement in the Presbyterian Church nationally while his own congregation
showed remarkable growth. He served as a chaplain of World War I.
Alexander WHYTE [1836 – 1921]. Scottish Minister who is often described as the last the
Puritans. Whyte was educated at Aberdeen and the Free Church of Scotland's New College
Edinburgh. Most of his ministry was set in Edinburgh were over a 40 year period he established
a reputation as a graphic and compelling preacher to an extent probably unparalleled even a
nation of preachers. In 1909 Whyte became principal of New College and taught New Testament
literature there. He wrote a number of books.
ZAMORA, NICOLAS [1875-1914] – Filipino Methodist pastor who was the grand nephew of the
martyred priest Jacinto Zamora [see 1872 Mariano Gomez]. He was born into a Christian family
and his father was exiled for smuggling a Bible and Nicolas continued Bible study secretly as a
student of arts and then law. As a soldier in the Revolutionary Army, he translated the Spanish
Bible into his dialect and read it to the men. When the Methodists began evangelistic meetings in
Manila in 1899, he was invited to speak because the Spanish interpreter failed to arrive. He
became the first Protestant Filipino clergyman being ordained as a deacon in the Methodist
Episcopal Church in 1900. From 1904 he became the pastor of the largest Protestant church in
Manila where he preached in the local dialect. Zamora eventually came to agree with those who
wished to have an independent church and set up the Evangelical Methodist Church of the
Philippines. He died in a cholera outbreak in 1914.
1910
ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT – The ecumenical movement itself is normally dated from the
Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910. This was the first really international conference of a
multi-denominational character, and although its theme was mission, it was inevitable that the
degree to which the various bodies represented could cooperate, converge, or even merge was
always part of the agenda. From this conference sprang further international organisations,
which eventually merged into the World Council of Churches in 1948. The whole concept of
ecumenism has been a source of theological division, some of which remains. Those bodies
which have made exclusive claims to truth have been unable to meet with others in any such
way as to suggest that they recognise others as holding the truth. This meant that the Eastern
Orthodox, the Roman Catholics and a large part of the Evangelicals initially stood aside from the
movement. In more recent time however the Orthodox have become fully involved, the Catholics
participate in various ways and the Evangelicals remain divided on the issue.
EDINBURGH MISSIONARY CONFERENCE – This 10 day gathering for discussion was
significant for its representative character, its leadership, the range of its discussions, and its
outcome. Previous conferences on the missionary task of the church had been undenominational in character; this was interdenominational. All churches, with the exception of the
Roman Catholics, were represented. There were 1355 delegates, places being allocated on the
basis of the missionary society incomes. Less than a score of the representatives were from the
younger churches. During the discussions the need became apparent for a permanent
representative body, able to coordinate missionary cooperation and to speak to governments.
This conference is regarded as the beginning of the modern ecumenical movement.
FUNDAMENTALS, THE – These were a series of twelve small books published from 1910-1915
containing articles and essays designed to defend fundamental Christian truths. Three million
copies were sent out free of charge to every theological student and Christian worker whose
address was obtainable. Convinced that something was needed to reaffirm Christian truths in the
face of biblical criticism and modern theology, the project was conceived by Lyman Stewart in
California. Sixty four authors were chosen to contribute. [See also Fundamentalism 1920]
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JOWETT, JOHN HENRY [1864-1923] – English Congregationalist preacher who studied at
Oxford and held a number of pastorates in northern England. He became chairman of the
Congregational Union in 1906 and president of the National Free Church Council in 1910. He
delivered the Yale lectures on preaching in 1912 and wrote many devotional books. He was
made a Companion of Honour in 1922.
THOMAS, WILLIAM HENRY GRIFFITH [1861-1924] – Anglican scholar and teacher who was
educated at Oxford and ordained in 1886. After appointments in England he became principal of
Wycliffe Hall Oxford before emigrating to Canada where he was professor of Old Testament at
Wycliffe College Toronto from 1910 onwards. Thomas was a Dispensationalist and was a
founder of Dallas Theological Seminary and would have lectured there but for his sudden death.
He was a supporter of the Keswick movement, and assisted the Victorious Life Testimony in
America.
BOOK 6 INDEX 1731 – 1910
ITEM
DATE
ABBOT L – Congregational Minister
ABOLITIONISM
ABOTT E – Educationalist and Writer
ABRAHAM II Patriarch of Jerusalem
ACRELIUS I – Swedish Lutheran and Author
ACTION FRANCAISE – Political Pro Monarchy Group
ADDAMS J – American Social Reformer
AFFIRMATION – THE Oaths Act
AGAPEMONISM – Perfectionist Sect
AGATHANGELUS I – Constantinople Patriarch
AGGREY J African Mediator Between Races
AGLIPAY G – Bishop, Philippines Independent Church
ALBRIGHT J – Founder US Evangelical Church
ALEXANDER A – Professor at Princeton
ALEXANDER C – Irish Hymn Writer
ALEXANDER C – Evangelist Song Leader
ALEXANDER J – American Author
ALEXANDER M – Anglican Archbishop of Jerusalem
ALFORD H – Author and Hymn writer
ALISON F – Founder of Society for Relief of Ministers
ALLEN E – American Soldier and Deist
ALLEN R – Found African Episcopal Methodist Church
ALLEN Y American Methodist Missionary to China
ALLINE H – Canadian Great Awakening Leader
AMENT W American Missionary to China
AMERICAN ANTI SLAVERY SOCIETY
AMERICAN BAPTIST CHURCHES
AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION
AMERICAN BOARD FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS
AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY
AMERICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
AMERICAN NEGRO CHURCHES
AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION
AMERICAN PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL MISSION
AMERICAN SOUTHERN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION
ANDERSON R – Irish Author and Teacher
ANDOVER CONTROVERSY
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1888
1831
1865
1775
1743
1898
1889
1888
1843
1826
1902
1902
1807
1812
1895
1902
1834
1841
1849
1755
1784
1787
1860
1775
1877
1833
1907
1814
1810
1816
1819
1846
1775
1836
1835
1862
1882
1886
193
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
ANDREWS C – Missionary to India
ANDREWS L American Missionary to Hawaii
ANGLICAN COMMUNION
ANTHIMOS Patriarch of Jerusalem
ANTHIMUS III – Constantinople Patriarch
ANTHIMUS IV – Constantinople Patriarch
ANTHIMUS V – Constantinople Patriarch
ANTHIMUS VI – Constantinople Patriarch
ANTHIMUS VII – Constantinople Patriarch
ANTONELLI G Cardinal and Secretary of State
ARGUE A – Canadian Pentecostal
ARNDT E M – German Historian and Hymn Writer
ARNOLD M – English Poet
ARNOLD T – Anglican Teacher
ARNOT F – Missionary to Africa
ARNOT W - Preacher and Author
ARTEMIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
ARTICLES OF RELIGION
ASBURY F – American Methodist Bishop
ASSOCIATIONS, LAW OF
ASSUMPTIONISTS – Catholic Social Ministry
ATHANASIUS V Patriarch of Jerusalem
ATTWOOD T – English Composer
AUBER H Hymn Writer and Poet
AUBURN DECLARATION
AUSTRALIA
BACKUS I – Baptist Minister
BACON L – Pastor and Evangelist
BAEDEKER F – Missionary to Russia
BAEUR B – German Radical Scholar
BAKER H – Hymn Writer
BALA TRAINING COLLEGE
BALLOU H – Founder Universalist Church
BALTIMORE CONFERENCE
BAMPTON LECTURES – Apologetic Lectures
BAPTIST WORLD ALLIANCE
BARCLAY J – Founder of the Bereans
BARING-GOULD S – Hymn Writer and Author
BARKER F – Bishop of Sydney
BARNADO T – Founder of Home for Destitute Boys
BARNBY J – English Composer
BARNES A – Presbyterian Minister and Commentator
BARNETT S – Anglican Social Reformer
BASEL MISSION
BATIFFOL P – French Catholic Scholar
BASHFORD J – Missionary to China
BAUR F – Radical Bible Critic
BEACH H – Missionary to China
BECK J – German Theologian
BEDERWOLF W – Evangelist & College Director
BEECHER L – American Liberal Professor
BEECHER H – American Congregational Liberal
BEETHOVEN L – German Composer
BELLAMY J – Congregational Preacher
BENDER C – Missionary to Cameroon
BENEDICT XIV – Pope
BENGEL J – Lutheran Theologian
BENSON E – Archbishop of Canterbury
BERCIER E – French Free Reformed Church
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1904
1827
1867
1788
1822
1840
1841
1845
1895
1859
1907
1817
1857
1828
1881
1850
1845
1784
1784
1901
1843
1827
1838
1829
1837
1901
1751
1824
1877
1842
1861
1837
1794
1785
1780
1905
1773
1865
1854
1870
1885
1830
1872
1815
1888
1904
1845
1883
1836
1897
1832
1847
1827
1750
1899
1740
1734
1883
1855
194
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
BEREANS
BERKHOF L – Dutch Reformed Theologian
BERKELEY G – Bishop of Cloyne
BERNADETTE – Founder of Lourdes
BESANT A – Theosophist
BETHEL INSTITUTIONS – Housing For Disadvantaged
BEVAN F – Hymn Writer
BEYSCHLAG W – German Evangelical Church Leader
BIBLE – American Standard Version
BIBLE VERSIONS – Revised section
BIBLE – Revised Version
BIBLE – WELSH
BIBLE CHRISTIANS – Founded
BIBLE SOCIETY – American
BIBLE SOCIETY – British and Foreign
BIBLE SOCIETY – Russian
BICKERSTETH E – Evangelical Alliance Author
BIEDERWOLF W – American Evangelist & Educator
BIGG C – Classical Scholar and Theologian
BILDERDIJK W – Dutch poet
BILLING E – Swedish Lutheran Theologian
BILLINGS W – American Composer
BINGHAM H – American Missionary to Hawaii
BINGHAM H – American Missionary to Gilbert Islands
BINNEY T – Congregational Minister and Author
BIRCH J American Baptist Missionary in China
BLACKSTONE W – Founder Chicago Hebrew Mission
BLANCHARD C – Conservative College President
BLACKWELL A – Reformer and Women’s Rights
BLASS F – German NT Grammarian
BLEEK F – German Conservative Author
BLISS P – Hymn Writer
BLUMHARDT C – German Evangelical Leader
BLUMHARDT J – German Carer for the Sick
BMS [Baptist Missionary Society] WORLD MISSION
BOBERG C Swedish poet, author and hymn writer
BODE J Anglican minister and Hymn Writer.
BODELSCHWINGH F – German Social Reformer
BOEHLER P – Moravian missionary
BOEHM M – Founder of United Brethren in Christ
BOHMER H – German Church Historian
BOMPAS W – Missionary to North Canada
BONAR A Scottish Preacher and Author
BONAR H Pastor, Author and Hymn Writer
BONN CONFERENCES – Ecumenical
BOOS M German Preacher
BOOTH B Founder of Volunteers of America
BOOTH C Mother of the Salvation Army
BOOTH W Founder of Salvation Army
BORNHOLMERS – Founded in Denmark
BORROW G – Missionary and Author
BORTHWICK J – Scottish Hymn Writer and Publisher
BOSCO J – Catholic Founder Silesian Order
BOUNDS E – Author
BOURNE H – Founder Primitive Methodist Church
BOWEN G – Missionary to India
BOWERING J – Linguist and Hymn Writer
BOYCE W – English Composer and Organist
BOYS BRIGADE
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1773
1906
1732
1858
1898
1867
1858
1886
1901
1881
1885
1770
1815
1816
1804
1819
1830
1909
1901
1795
1909
1794
1839
1890
1829
1940
1887
1882
1850
1896
1829
1860
1869
1852
1792
1886
1841
1872
1748
1768
1906
1865
1856
1883
1874
1797
1896
1865
1878
1868
1827
1854
1859
1893
1811
1848
1825
1758
1883
195
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
BRADBURY W – Hymn Writer
BRAHMS J – Composer
BRAINERD D – American Missionary
BRAMWELL W – Wesleyan Evangelist & Preacher
BRAND P – Medical Missionary to the Lepers
BRANT J – Church Builder Canada
BRAY W – Cornish Itinerant Preacher
BRETHREN IN CHRIST
BRIAND J – Catholic Bishop of Canada
BRIDAINE J – French Roman Catholic Preacher
BRIDGEMAN E – American Missionary to China
BRIDGES M Hymn Writer
BRIDGES R – Poet and Author
BRIGGS C – Liberal Minister
BRIGHT W – Ecclesiastical Historian
BRITISH ISRAELITES
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT
BROOKS P – Episcopal Hymn Writer and Preacher
BROTHERS R – British Israelite and Prophet
BROUGHTON W – First Australian Bishop
BROWN J – American Radical Abolitionist
BROWN J – Scottish Author
BROWN J – Scottish Professor of Theology
BROWN W – American Liberal Theologian
BRUCE A – Scottish Theologian
BRUCKNER A – Austrian Composer
BRYENNIOS P – Greek Orthodox Theologian
BUCHAN E – Founder of Scottish Sect
BUCHANAN C – Missionary and Translator
BUCHANAN J – Scottish Theologian
BUCHANITES A – Bizarre Scottish Sect
BUCK D – Church Musician and Composer
BUDDE K – German Higher Critic
BUDRY E Pastor and Hymn Writer
BULL G – Evangelical Social Reformer
BULLINGER E Anglican Author and Theologian.
BUNTING J – English Wesleyan Methodist
BUNTON H Missionary in China
BUNSEN C – Prussian Theologian & Diplomat
BURGHERS – Scottish Presbyterian Secessionists
BURGON J – Anglican Author
BURGOS J – Philippine Theologian Activist
BURKITT F – Biblical Scholar and Author
BURMA
BURNS F - American missionary in Liberia.
BURNS J – Presbyterian Minister and Hymn Writer
BURNS W – Missionary to China
BURTON E – Scholar and Church Historian
BUSHNELL H – American Congregational Theologian
BUTLER A – Catholic Professor
BUTLER J – Bishop of Durham
BUTLER J – Social Reformer
BYROM J – Poet and Hymn Writer
CABLE M – Missionary to China
CABRINI F – Founder Sisters of Sacred Heart
CAIRD E – Scottish Philosopher
CAIRD J – Scottish Theologian and Preacher
CAIRNS J – Professor of Theology
CALLINICUS III – Constantinople Patriarch
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1847
1897
1745
1785
1946
1790
1830
1778
1766
1748
1830
1848
1895
1890
1868
1879
1867
1891
1794
1836
1856
1751
1822
1906
1875
1896
1883
1846
1811
1845
1820
1909
1883
1889
1834
1867
1799
1933
1841
1733
1888
1863
1905
1814
1858
1855
1846
1829
1866
1735
1736
1885
1750
1901
1880
1904
1862
1845
1757
196
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
CALLINICUS IV – Constantinople Patriarch
CALLINICUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
CALVERT J – Missionary to Fiji
CALVINISTIC METHODISM
CALVINISTIC METHODIST CONNEXION
CAMPBELL A – Founder USA Church of Christ
CAMPBELL J – Scottish Heretical Minister
CAMPBELL T – Founder Disciples of Christ
CAMP MEETINGS
CANADA – The Churches under British Rule
CANADA – The Churches Since 1867
CANDLISH R – Founder Free Church of Scotland
CAREY W – Missionary to India
CARLILE W – Founder Church Army
CARLYLE A – Scottish Moderator and Pastor
CARLYLE T – Scottish Writer
CARMAN A – Canadian Head of United Methodists
CARMICHAEL A – Missionary to India
CARPENTER J – Unitarian Educator &Translator
CARROL J – 1ST American Catholic Bishop
CARTWRIGHT P – Methodist Leader
CASSELS W – Missionary to China
CASWELL E – Poet and Hymn Writer
CAVEN W – Canadian Presbyterian Ecumenist
CHALLONER R – Catholic writer
CHALMERS J – Missionary to New Guinea
CHALMERS T – Pastor and Church Builder
CHAMBERLAIN J – Missionary to India
CHANNING W – Unitarian Leader
CHAPMAN J – American Evangelist
CHARLES T – Welsh Methodist Educator
CHARTERIS A – Scottish Church Leader
CHATEAUBRIAND F – French Aristocrat Author
CHAUNCY C – American Old Light Leader
CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT
CHINA – 20th Century
CHENEY C – Founder Reformed Episcopal Church
CHERRY E English Poetess and Hymn Writer
CHEYNE T – O.T. Revised Version Scholar
CHICAGO LAMBETH ARTICLES
CHINA – Evangelical Missionaries
CHINA INLAND MISSION
CHRISTADELPHIANS
CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR SOCIETY
CHRISTIAN FAITH SOCIETY for the WEST INDIES
CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE
CHRISTIAN SCIENCE CHURCH
CHRISTLIEB T – German Preacher & Theologian
CHRYSANTHUS I – Constantinople Patriarch
CHURCH R – Dean of St Paul’s
CHURCHES OF CHRIST
CHURCH OF ENGLAND ZENANA MISSION
CHURCHES OF GOD
CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY
CHURCH'S MINISTRY AMONG JEWISH PEOPLE
CLAPHAM SECT – Evangelical Group
CLARK W – American Agriculturist Missionary
CLARKE A – Irish Methodist Theologian
CLARKE W – American Liberal Baptist
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1801
1858
1840
1742
1811
1832
1830
1807
1801
1763
1867
1845
1793
1882
1770
1845
1884
1903
1906
1790
1824
1895
1863
1900
1741
1867
1815
1873
1825
1893
1784
1868
1802
1742
1874
1900
1873
1897
1885
1886
1866
1865
1869
1881
1691
1881
1866
1868
1826
1871
1832
1880
1825
1799
1809
1790
1876
1810
1898
197
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
CLARKSON T – Author and Abolitionist
CLAUDIUS M – German Poet and Editor
CLEMENT XIII – Pope
CLEMENT XIV – Pope
CLEPHANE E Hymn Writer
CLERGY RESERVES – Canada
CLOSE F – Dean of Carlisle
CLOUGH J – American Baptist Missionary
CLOWES W – Primitive Methodist Connexion
COILLARD F – French Missionary
COKE T – Methodist Preacher and Missionary
COLENSO J – Bishop of Natal
COLONIAL MISSION SOCIETY
COMBA E – Waldensian Historian & Theologian
COMBER T – Baptist Pioneer Missionary
COMMUNITY OF THE RESURRECTION
CONSTANTINE V – Constantinople Patriarch
CONSTANTIUS I – Constantinople Patriarch
CONSTANTIUS II – Constantinople Patriarch
CONSTITUIONAL CHURCH – French
CONYBEARE F – Armenian Historian & Author
CONYBEARE W – Biblical Scholar and Author
COOK D – Publisher of Sunday School Material
CORNWALLIS F – Archbishop of Canterbury
COSMAS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
COUGHLAN L – Pioneer Preacher Newfoundland
COUNTESS OF HUNTINGDON CONNECTION
COWPER W – Hymn Writer and Poet
COX F – Translator of German Hymns
CRABBE G – English Poet
CRAMP J – Baptist Pastor and Scholar
CRAWFORD D – Plymouth Brethren Missionary
CREIGHTON M – Bishop of London
CREMER H – German Protestant Theologian
CROSBY F – American Hymn Writer
CROSBY H – Revised Version Scholar
CROWTHER S – Nigerian Bishop & Missionary
CRUDEN A – Scottish Author
CRUSIUS C – German Theologian & Prophetic Author
CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH
CUMMINS G – Founder Reformed Episcopal Church
CUNNINGHAM W – Scottish Disruption Theologian
CURE D’ARS – The French Catholic Confessor
CUSHING W American minister and hymn writer.
CYPRIAN - Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
CYRIL V – Constantinople Patriarch
CYRIL VI – Constantinople Patriarch
CYRIL VII – Constantinople Patriarch
CYRIL II - Patriarch of Jerusalem
DABNEY R – Presbyterian Theologian
DA COSTA I – Dutch Poet and Theologian
DALE R – Congregational Theologian
DAMIANUS Patriarch of Jerusalem
DAMIEN F – Roman Catholic Missionary
DANIEL Patriarch of Antioch
DARBOY G – Archbishop of Paris
DARBY J – Plymouth Brethren Leader
DARWIN C – English Naturalist
D’ÁUBIGNE J – Swiss Protestant Historian
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1787
1771
1758
1769
1872
1791
1856
1864
1805
1857
1777
1853
1836
1872
1876
1892
1897
1830
1834
1791
1909
1852
1882
1768
1737
1765
1768
1779
1855
1783
1783
1904
1897
1870
1864
1873
1857
1737
1750
1810
1873
1843
1818
1856
1766
1748
1813
1855
1845
1846
1851
1853
1897
1873
1767
1863
1845
1859
1817
198
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
DAVID C – Moravian Brethren Leader
DAVIDSON A – Scottish Old Testament Scholar
DAVIES S – Founder of Southern Presbyterians
DE FOUCAULD C – Roman Catholic Missionary
DE LA CRUZ A – Filipino Religious Leader & Martyr
DE LAGARDE P – German Oriental & O.T. Scholar
DELITZSCH F – Lutheran Old Testament Scholar
DE MAISTRE J – Catholic Philosopher
DENMARK [see 1536]
DENNY J – Scottish Theologian
DESANCTIS L – Italian Protestant Pastor
DES BRISAY T – First Anglican Prince Edward Island
DE WETTE W – German Biblical Scholar
DIDEROT D – French Encyclopaedist
DILLMAN C – Lutheran Biblical Scholar & Orientalist
DIMITRIOS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria
DIONYSIUS V – Constantinople Patriarch
DISRUPTION, THE
DIX W Hymn Writer
DIXON A – Baptist Pastor and Author
DOBER J – Moravian Brethren Leader
DODS M – Scottish Biblical Scholar
DOLLINGER J VON – Roman Catholic Historian
DORNER I – German Lutheran Theologian
DOSTOEVSKY F – Russian Writer
DOUKHOBORS – Russian Sect
DOWIE J – Founder of the Christian Catholic Church.
DRIVER S – Old Testament Scholar
DROSTE-VISCHERING C – Archbishop of Cologne
DRUMMOND H – Catholic Apostolic Church Founder
DRUMMOND H – Scottish Writer and Evangelist
DUCHESNE L – Archaeologist and Church Historian
DUFF A – Scottish Missionary to India
DUFFIELD G American Pastor and Hymn Writer
DUPANLOUP F – Bishop of Orleans
DWAYNE J S – African Independent Church Leader
DWIGHT T – Congregational Theologian & Educator
DYER S English Congregational Missionary to Malaysia
DYKES J – English Composer
EADIE J Scottish secessionist
EAST AFRICA KENYA.
EAST AFRICA TANZANIA
EAST AFRICA UGANDA
EBERHARD J German Philosopher and Theologian
ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT
EDINBURGH MISSIONARY CONFERENCE
EDDY M Founder of Christian Science
EDERSHEIM A Biblical scholar and Author
EDISON T Inventor
EDKINS J Missionary to China.
EDMESTON J Hymn Writer
EDWARDS J Great Awakening Preacher
EDWARDS L Welsh Calvinistic Methodist
EICHHORN J German Biblical Scholar
ELIAS J Welsh Preacher
ELLERTON J English hymn writer
ELLICOTT C Bishop of Gloucester
ELLIOT C Hymn Writer
ELLIOT E Anglican Hymn Writer
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1733
1863
1747
1890
1841
1869
1877
1802
1752
1897
1847
1775
1822
1773
1848
1862
1887
1843
1866
1875
1732
1864
1826
1838
1885
1898
1896
1883
1835
1825
1884
1895
1830
1854
1850
1898
1795
1827
1862
1857
1844
1864
1876
1766
1910
1910
1877
1875
1868
1848
1816
1740
1837
1780
1811
1850
1861
1823
1880
199
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
ELLIS W Missionary and Author
EMBURY P First Methodist Minister in America
EMERSON R US “Transcendentalists” Minister
EMMONS N Congregational Theologian
EMS Congress of
ENGLAND Church of [see 1532 and 1919]
ENLIGHTENEMENT
ENGLISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION
ENGLISH WESLEYAN MISSION
EPHRAIM II Patriarch of Jerusalem
EPHRATA Society Cloistered Protestant Commune
ERNESTI J German Lutheran Theologian
ERSKINE E Founder of the Secessionist Church
ERSKINE T Scottish Theologian
ETHICAL MOVEMENT
EUGENIUS II – Constantinople Patriarch
EUTHYMIUS V Patriarch of Antioch
EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE
EVANGELICAL CHURCH. [Albright Brethren].
EVANGELICAL COVENANT CHURCH
EVANGELICAL FREE CHURCH OF AMERICA
EVANS C Welsh Baptist Preacher
EVANS J Missionary and Linguist
EVANS O Welsh Minister and Author
EWALD G von German Biblical Scholar
FABER F English Hymn Writer
FABRI F German Mission Executive
FAIRBAIRN A Congregational Minister
FAIRBAIRN P Scottish theologian
FARADAY M English Scientist
FARRAR F Dean of Canterbury
FAUNCE W Baptist minister and educator
FAUSSET A Anglican Scholar and Author
FAWCETT J English Baptist Theologian
FEGAN J English Philanthropist
FELLER H Swiss Missionary and Educator
FERRETTI S Organiser Evangelical Italian Church
FIELD F Anglican Scholar
FIGGIS J Anglican Historian
FINDLAY G Methodist Biblical scholar
FINLAND [see also 1249]
FINLEY S Itinerant Great Awakening Preacher
FINNEY C American Revivalist
FISHER G Church historian
FISK J American Philosopher, Historian & Lecturer
FISKE F First single woman Missionary to Persia
FLAD J German missionary to Ethiopia
FLEIDNER T Founder Deaconess’ Organisation
FLETCHER J Methodist Evangelical Arminian
FORBES A Bishop of Brechin
FORSYTH P Congregationalist theologian
FOSDICK H American Baptist minister
FOSTER G American Baptist Scholar
FRANCE [see 1598 and 1905]
FRANCE [see 1793]
FRANKLIN B Inventor, Author, and Diplomat
FRANSON F Founder Evangelical Alliance Mission
FRANZELIN J Roman Catholic Scholar
FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1816
1752
1838
1773
1768
1750
1790
1847
1813
1766
1750
1742
1740
1870
1906
1821
1792
1846
1803
1885
1891
1789
1840
1887
1827
1849
1860
1886
1853
1827
1878
1884
1859
1811
1900
1837
1846
1870
1892
1870
1889
1761
1821
1854
1874
1843
1868
1833
1757
1848
1901
1908
1897
1793
1905
1732
1881
1849
1844
200
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
FREEMAN T Wesleyan Methodist Missionary
FREETHINKERS
FRELINGHUYSEN T Dutch Calvinist and Pietist
FRIEDRICH J Church historian
FRONTIER RELIGION
FROST H Mission Director
FROUDE R Oxford Movement Associate
FRY E Quaker Prison Reformer
FULLER A Baptist Missionary Society Secretary
FULLERTON W Baptist preacher and hymn writer
FUNDAMENTALS [see also Fundamentalism 1920]
FUX J Catholic Composer Church Music
GABRIEL IV – Constantinople Patriarch
GAEBELEIN A Writer on Prophecy.
GAIRDNER J Scottish Historian and Author
GAIRDNER W Anglican Missionary and Scholar
GALESBURG RULE American Lutheran Rule
GALLITZIN D Catholic Missionary in America
GATRY A French Roman Catholic Scholar
GAUSSEN F Swiss Reformed Pastor
GAVAZZI A Italian Patriot and Religious Reformer
GEDDIE J. Missionary to the New Hebrides
GEISELER J German Protestant Church Historian
GELASIUS II - Pope
GELLERT C German poet and Hymn Writer
GERASIMOS Patriarch of Antioch
GERASIMUS III– Constantinople Patriarch
GERASIMUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
GERASIMUS Patriarch of Jerusalem
GERHART E American Reformed Theologian.
GERMANUS IV – Constantinople Patriarch
GESENIUS H German Biblical Scholar
GESS W German Theologian
GEYMONAT P Waldensian Evangelist
GIBBON E English Historian
GIBBONS J Catholic Archbishop of Baltimore.
GIDEONS INTERNATIONAL
GILLESPIE T Scottish Separist Minister
GILMORE J Scottish missionary to Mongolia
GIOBERTI V Italian Philosopher and Statesman
GLADDEN W Liberal theologian
GLADSTONE W British Prime Minister
GOBAT S Bishop of Jerusalem.
GODET F Swiss Reformed Theologian and Exegete
GOETHE J von German Poet, Novelist & Scientist
GOFORTH J Canadian Missionary to China
GOMEZ M Filipino Priest and Martyr
GOODELL W American Near East Missionary
GOODRICH C American Minister & Lexicographer.
GOODSPEED J New Testament Scholar
GORDON A Baptist Minister, Educator, and Author
GORDON C Canadian Presbyterian Minister
GORDON G Scottish Minister and Writer
GORDON RIOTS
GORDON S American Devotional Writer
GORRES J von German Roman Catholic Publicist
GOSSE P Brethren Author
GOSSNER J Founder Gossner Missionary Society.
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1904
1837
1825
1747
1871
1790
1899
1831
1813
1775
1908
1910
1741
1780
1894
1846
1901
1875
1792
1863
1831
1863
1847
1819
1118
1751
1885
1794
1783
1891
1842
1842
1811
1864
1850
1766
1877
1898
1752
1870
1833
1882
1832
1845
1851
1775
1887
1872
1823
1838
1900
1869
1890
1884
1780
1901
1817
1857
1829
201
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
GOUNOD C French composer
GOVETT R English Theological Writer
GRANT G Canadian Minister and Educator
GRANT R Hymn Writer.
GRAY R First Anglican Bishop of Cape Town
GRAY G English Old Testament Scholar
GREAT AWAKENING
GREEK EVANGELICAL CHURCH
GREENWELL D Hymn Writer
GREGORY IV Patriarch of Antioch
GREGORY V – Constantinople Patriarch
GREGORY VI – Constantinople Patriarch
GREGORY XVI - Pope
GREGOIRE H Bishop of Blois
GREISBACH J German New Testament Scholar
GRELLET S Quaker Missionary
GRENFELL G Baptist missionary to Congo
GRENFELL W Medical Missionary to Labrador
GREY NUNS Sisters of Charity
GRIFFITHS A Welsh Hymn Writer
GRIMSHAW W Anglican Minister
GRONINGEN SCHOOL
GROVES A Plymouth Brethren Missionary
GRUNDTVIG N Danish Bishop and Hymn Writer
GUARANTEES Law of
GUICCIARDNI P Italian Protestant Leader
GUINNESS H Evangelist and Writer
GUNTHER A German Religious Philosopher
GURNEY D Anglican Poetess
GURNEY J Philanthropist Founder of Gurneyites
GUTHRIE T Scottish Minister and Social Reformer
GUTZLAFF K Missionary to China
HABERSHON A English Author and Hymn Writer
HAGUE D Professor at Wycliffe College
HALDANE J Scottish evangelist
HALDANE R Scottish Evangelist and Philanthropist
HALL R English Baptist Minister
HALLBECK H Moravian Missionary to South Africa
HALLESBY O Norwegian Theologian.
HAMANN J German Religious Thinker
HAMLIN C American Congregational Missionary
HANBY B American composer and Hymn Writer
HANDEL G Composer
HANKEY A English hymn writer
HANNINGTON J Anglican missionary to East Africa
HARLESS G von German Lutheran theologian
HARMONY SOCIETY
HARMS L German Mission Organiser
HARNACK A German theologian
HARPER W Semitics scholar
HARRIS H Welsh Methodist Calvinist Founder
HARRIS J Quaker scholar and Orientalist
HART J Calvinist Minister and Hymn Writer
HARTZELL J Missionary Bishop for Africa.
HASTINGS J Scottish minister and editor
HATCH E Early Christian Church Historian
HAUGE H. Norwegian Lay Preacher Pioneer
HAUSRATH A German Liberal Lutheran Theologian
HAVERGAL F Hymn writer
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1893
1844
1877
1834
1847
1893
1740
1858
1873
1906
1797
1835
1831
1790
1775
1813
1884
1892
1737
1797
1742
1835
1833
1825
1871
1853
1866
1857
1889
1827
1837
1823
1901
1897
1797
1795
1785
1817
1902
1758
1840
1865
1742
1864
1882
1829
1805
1849
1889
1891
1735
1880
1757
1896
1884
1859
1796
1909
1879
202
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
HAWEIS T Co-founder London Missionary Society
HAWKER R Celtic Lore Anglican
HAWKS A Poet and Hymn Writer.
HAYDN F Musical composer
HEBER R Bishop of Calcutta and Hymn writer.
HEBICH S Founder Basel Mission Work in India
HECK B Mother of American Methodism.
HECKER I Founder of the Paulist Order.
HEDBERG F Founder of Evangelical Movement.
HEFELE K Roman Catholic bishop and historian.
HEGEL G Anti Christian Philosopher
HENGSTENBERG E Lutheran scholar
HEPBURN J Missionary to Japan
HERDER J von Lutheran Scholar
HERGENROTHER J Scholar and Cardinal
HERRING T Archbishop of Canterbury
HERZOG J Swiss German Reformed Theologian
HEUMANN C German Protestant theologian.
HICKSITES. American Quakers Group
HIEROTHEOS Patriarch of Antioch
HIEROTHEUS Patriarch of Jerusalem
HIEROTHEUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
HIEROTHEUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
HIGHER CRITICISM.
HILL R Founder of Missions and Bible Society
HODGE A Princeton Presbyterian Theologian
HODGE C Princeton Presbyterian Theologian
HOFBAUER C Redemptionist Priest
HOFMANN J von German Lutheran Theologian
HOLINESS MOVEMENT American
HOLL K German Church Historian
HOLLAND H Anglican Preacher and Theologian
HOLTZMANN H German New Testaments Scholar
HOLY ALLIANCE
HOLY CLUB
HONTHEIM J von Founder of Febronianism.
HOOK W Dean of Chichester
HOPKINS G English poet
HOPKINS S New England Theology Minister
HOPKINSON F American composer
HORNE G Bishop of Norwich
HORNE T Librarian and Protestant Commentator.
HORNER R Founder Holiness Movement Church
HORSLEY S Anglican Bishop
HORT F New Testament critic and biblical scholar.
HOW W Bishop and hymn writer
HOWARD J Prison reformer
HOWE J . Writer and Reformer
HOWLEY W Archbishop of Canterbury
HOWSON J New Testament Scholar
HUC A Catholic Missionary to China.
HUGHES H Welsh Wesleyan Forward Movement
HUGHES J Catholic Archbishop of New York
HUME D Scottish Philosopher and Historian
HUNG H Leader of the Taiping Rebellion.
HUNGARY [see also 1525]
HUNT J English missionary to Fiji
HUNT W English Pre-Raphaelite Painter
HUPFELD H German Old Testament Scholar
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1764
1875
1849
1809
1822
1834
1760
1858
1834
1833
1818
1840
1859
1764
1879
1747
1853
1758
1827
1860
1875
1825
1847
1787
1764
1877
1841
1785
1845
1840
1906
1884
1874
1815
1735
1764
1837
1866
1770
1791
1780
1819
1895
1788
1881
1888
1773
1876
1828
1867
1844
1890
1850
1739
1851
1787
1845
1854
1838
203
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
HUTTON M Archbishop of Canterbury
ICELAND [see 1514]
INDIA [see also 1542 and 1919].
INDONESIA [also see 1522 and 1934]
INDRE MISSION Danish State Mission
INFALLIBILITY
INGERSOLL R American Politician and Agnostic
INGLIS C First Anglican Bishop of Nova Scotia
INTERCONTINENTAL CHURCH SOCIETY
INTERNATIONAL BIBLE READING Association.
INTERNATIONAL CONGREGATIONAL Council
IRELAND [ also see 1642]
IRISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION
IRONSIDE H Canadian Bible Teacher and Author
IRVING E Scottish minister
JACOB Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
JACKSON S Historian, Educator and Philanthropist.
JACKSON S Missionary to the West and Alaska.
JAMES W American Psychologist and Philosopher.
JANICKE J German missionary training leader
JAPAN [see also 1549 and 1925].
JASPER J American Negro Baptist preacher.
JEFFERSON T Third President of the United States
JEREMIAS IV – Constantinople Patriarch
JEWS – MISSIONS
JOACHIM II – Constantinople Patriarch
JOACHIM III – Constantinople Patriarch
JOACHIM IV – Constantinople Patriarch
JOANNICUS III – Constantinople Patriarch
JOHANSSON G Archbishop of Finland
JOHN G Protestant Missionary in inland China.
JOHNSON R First Anglican Australian Chaplain
JOHNSON S Moralist, Essayist, and Lexicographer
JONES G. Welsh preacher and Educator
JONES J Welsh Expositor and Theologian
JONES S Evangelist and Prohibitionist
JONES T Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Theologian
JOSEPHISM. Austrian State Control Policy
JOWETT B English Classicist and Theologian
JOWETT J English Congregationalist Leader
JUDSON A Missionary, and Bible Translator
JULICHER A German New Testament Scholar
KAEHLER M German Protestant Theologian
KAFTAN J German Protestant Theologian
KAFTAN T German Lutheran Churchman
KAISERSWERTH Nursing Training Centre
KANT I German Philosopher
KEBLE J Anglican Hymn Writer and Tractarian
KEIL J Lutheran Professor and Exegete
KEIM K German Theologian and Church Historian
KEITH-FALCONER I Missionary and Arabic scholar
KELLY T Irish Hymn Writer
KELLY W Plymouth Brethren Critic and Editor
KENRICK F Catholic Archbishop and Educator
KENSIT J Protestant Preacher and Controversialist
KENYON Sir F Greek Manuscript Scholar
KESWICK CONVENTION
KGAMA III African Christian Chief
KHOMYAKOV A Russian Theologian
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1757
1801
1793
1811
1861
1854
1854
1787
1823
1882
1891
1859
1840
1896
1822
1861
1895
1884
1902
1800
1862
1837
1801
1809
1842
1860
1878
1884
1761
1899
1855
1786
1765
1731
1867
1885
1783
1767
1860
1910
1812
1889
1860
1883
1886
1836
1770
1833
1833
1860
1885
1792
1841
1821
1902
1889
1875
1862
1830
204
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
KIDD B Church Historian
KIERKEGAARD S Danish Philosopher
KILHAM A Founder of Methodist New Connexion
KING E Archaeologist and Writer
KING J Author and Missionary to Greece
KINGSLEY C Novelist and Christian Socialist
KIRELLOS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria
KIRELLOS V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria
KIRKLAND S Missionary to American Indians
KITTEL R German Old Testament Scholar
KITTO J English Biblical scholar and Author
KLOPSTOCK F German Poet
KNIBB W Early Baptist Missionary in Jamaica
KNOX E Bishop of Manchester
KOHLER C&H Swiss Heretics
KOREA [see also 1950]
KRAPF J Pioneer missionary to Kenya
KRUDENER B von Russian born Pietist
KRUMMACHER F German Reformed Pastor
KUENEN A Netherlands Protestant Theologian
KUYPER A Dutch Calvinist Leader
LACHMANN K Modern Textural Criticism Founder
LACORDAIRE J French Roman Catholic Orator
LAGRANGE M French Roman Catholic Scholar
LAMBETH CONFERENCES
LAMBRUSCHINI R Social, and Religious Reformer
LAMBUTH W Missionary in China, Korea and Japan
LAMENNAIS F French Roman Catholic Writer
LANGLEY C Archbishop of Canterbury
LATHBURY M Teacher and Hymn Writer
LATIN AMERICA [see also 1510 and 1844]
LATIN AMERICA [see also 1735 and 1916]
LAWS R Scottish Medical Missionary
LEE A Founder of the Shakers
LEE J The apostle of Methodism in New England
LEGGE J Missionary and Chinese Scholar
LEO XII Pope
LEO XIII Pope
LEPSIUS J Founder of the German Orient Mission
LIANG-A-FAH Chinese Protestant Evangelist
LIDDON H Anglican Tractarian Preacher
LIEBENZELL MISSION
LIGHTFOOT J Bishop of Durham
LINCOLN A 16th President of the United States
LINCOLN W English Preacher
LINDLEY D American Missionary to South Africa
LINDSAY T Scottish Church Historian
LINGARD J English Roman Catholic Historian
LIPSIUS R German Protestant Theologian
LISZT F Hungarian Composer and Pianist
LIVINGSTONE D Scottish Missionary and Explorer
LOBSTEIN P French Protestant Theologian
LOEHE J Lutheran Missions Pastor
LOISY A Founder of French Catholic Modernism
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY
LONGFELLOW H American Poet
LONGSTAFF W Hymn Writer and Church Leader
LOOFS F Lutheran Church Historian
LOSEE W Methodist Episcopal Itinerant Preacher
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1887
1848
1796
1796
1830
1842
1854
1874
1793
1898
1824
1751
1824
1903
1745
1884
1844
1804
1819
1855
1880
1825
1827
1883
1867
1814
1877
1830
1862
1880
1735
1844
1875
1766
1801
1839
1823
1878
1900
1814
1870
1899
1879
1861
1849
1835
1869
1795
1892
1886
1841
1876
1831
1908
1795
1836
1891
1888
1791
205
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
LOURDES
LOVEJOY E Presbyterian Editor and Abolitionist
LOW COUNTRIES [see also 1609]
LOWRY R Baptist Pastor and Hymn Writer.
LUDLOW J Christian Social Reformer
LUX MUNDI
LYNE J Preacher and Community Leader
LYTE H Scottish born Hymn Writer and Author
MABILLE A Swiss missionary to South Africa
MACARIUS of Moscow Metropolitan of Moscow
MACAULAY Z Evangelical Anti Slave Leader
M’CHEYNE R Church of Scotland Minister
MCCULLOCH T Nova Scotia Presbyterian Minister
MCGIFFERT A American Church Historian
MCGRANAHAN J Evangelistic Singer and Hymn Writer
MCGREADY J American Presbyterian Revivalist
MACGREGOR J Presbyterian Pioneer in Canada
MACHRAY R Anglican Primate of Canada
MACKAY A Scottish Missionary to Uganda
MACKAY G Canadian Missionary to Formosa
MCKENDREE W First American Methodist Bishop
MACKENZIE J Scottish missionary to South Africa
MACKINTOSH H Scottish Theologian
MACLAREN A Baptist Preacher and Leader
MACLEOD N Scottish Chaplain and Editor
MCNICOL J Toronto Bible College Principal
MADSEN P Danish Bishop and Theologian
MAITLAND S Anglican Historian and Editor
MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also 1653]
MALAN C Swiss Preacher
MANNING H Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster
MANNING J Founder of Brown University
MANSEL H Dean of St Paul's
MANZONI A Romantic Poet and Italian Novelist
MARIANISTS Society of Mary
MARIAVITES Polish Sect
MARIOLATRY The worship of Mary
MARISTS [Society of Mary]
MARITAIN J French Philosopher
MARKOS VIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria
MARKOS IX Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria
MARSDEN S Anglican Chaplain New South Wales.
MARSHMAN J Baptist Missionary to India
MARTENSEN H Danish bishop and Theologian
MARTINEAU J Unitarian Minister and Teacher
MARTYN H Anglican missionary to India
MASON L American Church Music Composer
MATHESON G Scottish Minister and Hymn Writer
MATTHEW Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
MATTHEWS S American Liberal Theologian
MAURICE F Christian Socialist Theologian
MAXWELL J First Presbyterian missionary to Taiwan
MAXWELL J Scottish Christian Physicist
MAY LAWS Bismarck’s State – Religious Laws
MAZZARELLA B Italian Protestant Scholar
MEDHURST W Protestant Missionary to China
MELETIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem
MELETIUS II Patriarch of Antioch
MELETIUS II Constantinople Patriarch
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1858
1832
1832
1854
1854
1889
1860
1823
1860
1879
1793
1836
1838
1893
1876
1800
1786
1893
1875
1871
1791
1858
1897
1858
1872
1902
1909
1832
1816
1817
1865
1765
1868
1812
1817
1906
1854
1816
1906
1745
1797
1794
1799
1854
1832
1805
1847
1866
1746
1894
1838
1864
1879
1873
1860
1843
1731
1899
1769
206
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
MELETIUS III Constantinople Patriarch
MENDELSSOHN BARTHOLDY F Composer
MERCERSBURG THEOLOGY
METHODISM
METHODIST NEW CONNEXION
METHODIST NEW CONNEXION
METHODIUS Patriarch of Antioch
MEYER E German Early Church Historian
MEYER F Evangelical Baptist Leader
MEYER H German Protestant N T Scholar
MIALL E Nonconformist Social Reformer
MIDLANE A British poet and Hymn Writer
MIGNE J French Roman Catholic Publisher
MILLER W Founder of the Adventists
MILLIGAN W Scottish New Testament Scholar
MILLS B Evangelist and Christian Socialist
MILMAN H Anglican Poet Translator and Historian
MILNE W Missionary to China and Printer
MILNER I Evangelical Anglican
MILNER J Evangelical Anglican Headmaster
MITCHELL W Missionary to India and Australia
MOBERLY R Anglo Catholic Liberal Theologian
MODERATES 18th Cent Moderate Scottish Ministers
MOFFAT R Scottish missionary to Africa
MOFFATT J Moffatt Bible Translator
MOHLER J German scholar Ecumenist
MOHR J Parish Priest and Composer of Silent Night
MONOD A French Great Protestant Preacher
MONOD F French Protestant Pastor and Editor
MONTGOMERY J Hymn writer and Editor
MOODY Evangelist and Bible Institute Founder
MOON, C Southern Baptist missionary to China
MOORE J Archbishop of Canterbury
MOORE G American Old Testament Scholar
MOOREHEAD W Dispensationalist Professor
MORE H English writer and Philanthropist
MORISON J Founder of the Evangelical Union
MORMONISM
MORRISON R Pioneer Missionary to China
MORTON J Founder Mission to Indians in Trinidad
MOSHEIM J von Lutheran Church Historian
MOULE H Bishop of Durham and Author
MOULTON J Greek and Iranian Scholar
MOLTON W Headmaster and Biblical Scholar
MONSELL J Anglican Minister and Hymn Writer.
MOTE E Pastor and hymn writer.
MOUNTAIN J First Anglican Bishop of Quebec
MOZART W Austrian Composer
MOZLEY J Anglican Theologian and Editor
MUHLENBERG H Father of American Lutheranism
MULLER G Christian Brethren Pastor Philanthropist
MULLER J German Evangelical Theologian
MURRAY A South African Dutch Reformed Leader
MURRAY J Founder of American Universalism
MYERS F Society of Psychical Research Founder
MYNSTER J Danish Bishop and Theologian
NAZARENE Church of the
NEALE J Anglican Scholar and Hymn Writer
NEANDER J German Protestant Church Historian
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1845
1846
1840
1731
1798
1860
1843
1902
1904
1829
1871
1859
1830
1833
1892
1878
1816
1815
1775
1797
1826
1892
1733
1816
1896
1828
1815
1847
1832
1796
1886
1873
1783
1899
1862
1788
1843
1830
1807
1868
1755
1901
1908
1870
1853
1834
1793
1791
1871
1739
1834
1825
1848
1793
1882
1834
1906
1846
1813
207
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
NEESHIMA Y Japanese Christian Educator
NEOPHYTUS VI Constantinople Patriarch
NEOPHYTUS VII Constantinople Patriarch
NEOPHYTUS VIII Constantinople Patriarch
NESTLE E German Scholar and Textural Critic
NEVIN J German Reformed Theologian,
NEVIUS J American Missionary to China
NEW APOSTOLIC CHURCH
NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY
NEWHAVEN THEOLOGY
NEW JERUSALEM Church of the
NEWLIGHTISM
NEWMAN F English Scholar and Missionary
NEWMAN J Tractarian Cardinal
NEW TESTAMENT CRITICISM
NEW TRIBES MISSION
NEWTON B Early Plymouth Brethren leader
NEWTON J Anglican clergyman and Hymn Writer
NEW ZEALAND
NIAGARA CONFERENCES
NICANOR Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
NICODEMUS Patriarch of Jerusalem
NICHOL H Musician and Hymn Writer
NICOLL W Religious Editor and Journalist
NIELSEN F Danish Bishop and Theologian
NIETZSCHE F German Philosopher and Nihilist
NIKOLAI Russian Orthodox Missionary to Japan
NITSCHMANN D Moravian Missionary and Bishop
NITZSCH K German Lutheran Theologian
NOEL C Hymn Writer
NOMMENSEN L German Missionary to Sumatra
NORTH AFRICA
NORWAY [see also 1537]
NOYES J Perfectionist and Social Reformer
NUELSEN J Methodist Bishop
NUNCIO AND LEGATE, PAPAL
NUREMBERG DECLARATION
NUTTALL E First Archbishop of the West Indies
OBERLIN J Lutheran minister and philanthropist
OBOOKIAH H Hawaiian Christian
OCCOM S American Indian Preacher
OIKONOMOS C Greek Scholar and Theologian
OLD CATHOLICS
OMAN J Presbyterian Theologian
OOSTERZEE J van Dutch Reformed Editor
ORGANIC ARTICLES French Church Law
ORIGINAL SECESSIONIST CHURCH
ORR J Scottish Conservative Theologian
OTTERBEIN P United Brethren in Christ Founder
OVERBECK F Atheist Professor of Church History
OWENS P American song writer and teacher
OXFORD MOVEMENT
OXYRHYNCHUS PAPYRI
OZANAM A St Vincent de Paul Society Founder
PAINE T Deistic Writer and Political Propagandist
PAKISTAN [also see 1601 and 1947]
PALEY W Anglican Scholar Archdeacon of Carlisle
PALMER B Southern Presbyterian Minister
PALMER R Congregational minister and Hymn Writer
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1874
1734
1789
1891
1898
1840
1854
1863
1750
1834
1787
1740
1822
1845
1875
1942
1847
1779
1814
1876
1866
1882
1888
1886
1905
1889
1861
1735
1847
1861
1861
1888
1796
1834
1908
1815
1870
1893
1769
1809
1759
1844
1889
1907
1845
1802
1842
1874
1752
1870
1882
1833
1897
1833
1776
1794
1780
1856
1865
208
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
PALMER W High Church Prebendary of Salisbury
PARAGRAPH BIBLES
PARK E American Congregational Theologian
PARKER H American Composer
PARKER J English Congregational Preacher
PARKER P First Medical Missionary to China
PARKER T American Congregational Minister
PARKER W Baptist Hymn Writer.
PARTHENIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem
PARTHENIUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
PASSAVANT W American Editor and Philanthropist
PASTOR L Church Historian Vatican Librarian
PATON J Pioneer New Hebrides Missionary
PATRIMONY OF ST PETER
PATTERSON J Missionary Bishop to Melanesia
PEAKE A English Nonconformist Scholar and Writer
PEARSON C Pioneer Anglican missionary in Uganda
PECK J Pioneer Baptist American Missionary
PECULIAR PEOPLE
PELOUBERT F Writer of Sunday School Literature.
PEMBERTON E American Pastor and Educator
PERKINS J American Missionary to Persia
PERRONET E Hymn Writer and Poet.
PERRY C First Anglican Bishop of Melbourne
PETROS VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria
PFLEIDERER O German Protestant Scholar
PHILEMON Patriarch of Antioch
PHILARET D Metropolitan of Moscow, Humanitarian
PHILIP J Scottish missionary to South Africa.
PHILIPPINES [see also 1521]
PHOTIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
PIDGEON G Moderator United Church of Canada
PIERPOINT F Schoolmaster and Hymn Writer
PIERSON A Presbyterian Minister and Writer
PIETROCOLA-ROSSETTI T Italian Protestant Poet
PIGOTT J Irish Poetess and Hymn Writer
PILKINGTON G Missionary to Africa
PISTOIA Synod of
PITRA J Cardinal Legate and Librarian
PIUS VI Pope
PIUS VII Pope
PIUS VIII Pope
PIUS IX Pope
PIUS X Pope
PLAN OF UNION The
PLESSIS J Roman Catholic Archbishop of Quebec
PLUMTRE E Theological Writer & Classical Scholar
PLYMOUTH BRETHREN
POLLARD A Bible teacher and Hymn Writer
POLLARD S English Missionary to China
POLLOCK A Plymouth Brethren Minister
POLYCARP I Patriarch of Jerusalem
POPE W Canadian Wesleyan Theologian
PORTEUS B Bishop of London Reformer
PORTUGAL [see also 1614]
POTTER J Archbishop of Canterbury
PRATT G LMS Missionary to Samoa
PREMILLENNIALISM
PROCOPIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1849
1755
1847
1890
1853
1838
1837
1885
1737
1788
1867
1874
1858
1870
1856
1892
1878
1817
1838
1857
1746
1835
1779
1847
1810
1875
1766
1826
1828
1841
1900
1909
1864
1891
1857
1882
1890
1786
1880
1775
1800
1829
1846
1903
1801
1806
1881
1831
1902
1887
1894
1808
1842
1787
1845
1737
1839
1887
1787
209
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
PROCOPIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem
PRIESTLEY J Scientist and Nonconformist Minister
PROBST F German Liturgical Scholar
PROCOPIUS I Constantinople Patriarch
PROTESTANT DISSENTING DEPUTIES
PROVENCHER J Canadian Roman Catholic Bishop
PRUITT C Southern Baptist Missionary to China.
PUNSHON W Methodist Minister in Canada
PUSEY E Leader of the Oxford Movement
PUSEY P English Anglican Scholar
QUARRIER W Founder of Orphan Homes
QUEBEC ACT
QUIMBY P Founder of Christian Science
RABAUT P French Huguenot Leader
RAIKES R Promoter of Sunday Schools
RAINEY R Free Church of Scotland Minister
RAMABAI PANDITA Indian Christian Reformer
RAMSAY W Classical Scholar and Archaeologist
RANDALL B Co Founder Free World Baptists.
RANKE L Lutheran Historian
RANKIN J Pastor, Academic and Hymn Writer
RASHDALL H Anglican Philosopher and Theologian
RAUCH C First Moravian Missionary to Mohicans
RAWSON G Congregationalist Hymn Writer
REBMANN J German Missionary to East Africa
REDEMPTIONISTS. Catholic Mission among Poor
REES T Welsh Congregational Religious Historian
REES W Welsh Congregational Minister and Author
REINKENS J German Old Catholic Bishop
RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY
RENAN J French Humanist Author and Linguist
RENQVIST H Finnish Author and Translator
REUSCH H Old Catholic Theologian
REUSS E German Biblical Scholar
REVEIL LE Swiss Evangelical Revival
REVIVALISM
RHENISH MISSIONARY SOCIETY
RHENIUS K Missionary to South India
RICASOLI B Italian Politician and Patriot
RICCI S de Bishop of Pistoia-Prato
RICE L American Baptist Missionary to India
RICHARD T Baptist Missionary to China
RILEY W Baptist Minister and Educator
RIPLEY D Missionary to American slaves
RITSCHL A German Protestant Theologian
RIZAL J Filipino Physician and Political Writer
ROBERTS E Welsh Revivalist
ROBERTS I American Baptist missionary in China.
ROBERTSON F Anglican Preacher
ROBINSON G Poet and Hymn Writer
ROMAINE W Evangelical Anglican
ROSE H Anglican High Churchmen
ROSENMULLER E German Biblical Scholar
ROSMINI A Founder Sisters of Providence Order
ROSS J Scottish Protestant Missionary to China
ROSSETTI C Anglican Poet and Hymn Writer
ROUTH M English Patristic Scholar
ROWE S Methodist Missionary in South Africa
ROWLAND D Welsh Calvinistic Methodism Leader
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1872
1767
1896
1785
1732
1818
1882
1849
1828
1854
1871
1774
1847
1756
1780
1874
1891
1895
1780
1825
1869
1898
1740
1858
1846
1732
1836
1853
1873
1799
1879
1804
1849
1834
1825
1734
1799
1814
1861
1780
1812
1870
1893
1797
1864
1896
1904
1860
1847
1876
1766
1833
1813
1846
1872
1862
1791
1890
1763
210
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
ROWLEY F Baptist Minister and Hymn Writer
ROWNTREE J Quaker Social Reformer
RUOTSLAINEN P Finnish Pietist Leader
RUSSIAN BIBLE SOCIETY founded.
RYERSON A Methodist Leader and Educationalist
RYLE H Anglican Bishop and Preacher
RYLE J Bishop of Liverpool
SABATIER L French Protestant Scholar
SABATIER P French Calvinistic Scholar
SABATIER P French Biblical Scholar
SAILER J Jesuit Scholar and Educator
SAINT-CYRIAN Abbe de Jansenist Theologian
SAKER A Missionary to the Cameroon
SALESIANS Order
SALMON G Anglican Theologian & Mathematician
SALVATION ARMY
SAMMIS J Presbyterian Pastor and Hymn Writer
SAMUEL I Constantinople Patriarch
SANDEMANIANS Bible Loving Christians
SANKEY I Singing Evangelist and Hymn Writer
SAPHIR A Jewish Presbyterian Minister
SAYCE A Professor of Assyriology
SCHAFF P Church Historian and Pioneer Ecumenist
SCHERESCHEWSKY S Missionary Translator
SCHLATTER A von Swiss New Testament Scholar
SCHLATTER M German Reformed Church Leader
SCHLEIERMACHER F German Theologian
SCHMIDT G Moravian Brethren Missionary
SCHMUKER S Founder Lutheran Seminary
SCHWARTZ C German Missionary Translator
SCOFIELD C American Biblical Scholar
SCOTLAND [see also 1559]
SCOTT C Music Teacher and Hymn Writer
SCOTT T Biblical Commentator
SCOTTISH BIBLE SOCIETY
SCOTTISH UNITED PRESBYTERIAN MISSION
SCRIPTURE UNION
SCRIVENER F New Testament Scholar
SCUDDER I Missionary Doctor to South India
SCUDDER J American Missionary to India
SEABURY S First Bishop Episcopal Church USA
SECKER T Archbishop of Canterbury
SECOND GREAT AWAKENING
SECRETAN C Protestant Philosopher & Theologian
SEELEY J Sir Professor of Modern History
SELWYN G First Anglican N.Z. Bishop
SEMLER J German Biblical Scholar
SERAPHEIM I Patriarch of Constantinople
SERAPHEIM II Constantinople Patriarch
SERAPHIM Patriarch of Antioch
SEVENTH DAY ADVENTISTS
SHAFTESBURY A Earl Evangelical Social Reformer
SHAKERS
SHAW W Wesleyan Methodist Missionary
SHEDD W American Calvinistic Theologian
SHEKLETON M Hymn Writer
SHELDON C Congregational Minister and Writer
SHORT A First Anglican Bishop of Adelaide
SIMEON C Cambridge Evangelical Leader
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1886
1837
1852
1819
1874
1903
1880
1877
1885
1742
1775
1633
1845
1859
1845
1865
1887
1763
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1870
1854
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1870
1877
1898
1739
1804
1742
1825
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1909
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1882
1801
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1796
1867
1846
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1821
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1758
1797
1839
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1752
1733
1757
1813
1863
1826
1787
1823
1888
1883
1896
1847
1782
211
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
SIMPSON Sir J Discoverer of Chloroform
SLEEPER W Congregational pastor and Hymn Writer
SLESSOR M Missionary to West Africa
SMALL J Scottish Minister and Hymn Writer
SMITH E Missionary, Writer and Anthropologist.
SMITH E Congregational Missionary and Orientalist
SMITH Sir G Old Testament Scholar
SMITH H "Higher Christian Life" Speaker
SMITH H Old Testament Scholar
SMITH J Bishop and Chaplain General
SMITH J Missionary to the West Indies
SMITH J Mormon Prophet and Founder
SMITH R [Gypsy] English Evangelist
SMITH S English Minister Writer and Wit
SMITH W Scottish Old Testament Scholar
SMITH W Founder of Boys Brigade
SMITH W Pastor, Hymn Writer and Poet
SOCIETY for PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE
SOCIETY of St John the Evangelist
SOGA T First African Ordained Minister in S Africa
SOLOVIEV V Russian Theologian and Philosopher
SOPHRONIUS II Constantinople Patriarch
SOPHRONIUS III Constantinople Patriarch
SOPHRONIOS V Patriarch of Jerusalem
SOUTHCOTT J Self-styled Prophet
SOUTH AFRICA
SOUTH AFRICA MISSIONS
SOUTH AMERICAN MISSION SOCIETY
SOUTHERN AFRICA MALAWI
SOUTHERN AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE
SOUTHERN AFRICA ZAMBIA
SOUTHERN AFRICA ZIMBABWE
SOUTHERN BAPTIST CONVENTION
SOUTHERN METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION [USA]
SPAFFORD H Hymn Writer
SPAIN [see also 1576]
SPANGENBERG A Moravian Missionary Leader
SPEER R Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions
SPITTA K Lutheran Hymn Writer
SPITTLER C Swiss German Mission Founder
SPURGEON C English Baptist Preacher
SPURGEON T Baptist Pastor
SPYRIDON Patriarch of Antioch
STAINER J English composer
STALKER J Scottish Minister Scholar and Writer
STALLYBRASS E Congregational Missionary to Siberia
STANFORD Sir C British Church Music Composer
STANLEY A Dean of Westminster
STEBBINS G American Gospel Hymn Writer
STERN H Missionary to the Jews
STOCKTON B Missionary to Hawaii
STONE B American Frontier Evangelist.
STONE J Presbyterian New Life Movement Minister
STONE S Anglican Hymn Writer
STOWE H Abolitionist and Author
STRACHAN J Anglican Educator and Bishop
STRANG J Mormon Leader
STRAUS D German Tubingen Theologian
STRONG A American Baptist Pastor and Educator
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1839
1887
1876
1863
1902
1826
1892
1874
1874
1897
1817
1830
1889
1796
1870
1883
1893
1698
1866
1860
1877
1774
1863
1771
1792
1857
1821
1844
1861
1870
1886
1859
1845
1845
1873
1808
1732
1896
1824
1846
1865
1889
1892
1887
1873
1817
1895
1839
1874
1844
1823
1801
1909
1874
1851
1813
1850
1835
1861
212
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
STROSSMAYER J Roman Catholic Bishop
STUBBS W Bishop of Chester and Historian
STUDD C Pioneer Missionary Founder of WEC
STUDENT CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT
STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT
STUNDISTS Russian Evangelical Sect
SUMNER C Bishop of Winchester
SUMNER J Archbishop of Canterbury
SUNDAR SINGH S Indian Christian Mystic
SUNDAY W American Evangelist
SUNDAY SCHOOLS
SUTTON C Archbishop of Canterbury
SVERDRUP G Norwegian American Church Leader
SWAINSON C Anglican Church Creed Specialist.
SWAN, W LMS Missionary to Siberia
SWEDEN [see also 1528]
SWEDENBORG E Swedish Scientist & Theologian
SYLLABUS OF ERRORS
TACHE A Canadian Roman Catholic Bishop
THAILAND
TAIT A - Archbishop of Canterbury
TAYLOR J English Missionary Pioneer to China
TAYLOR J Nonconformist Minister
TAYLOR N American Theologian and Educator
TAYLOR W Methodist Evangelist and Missionary
TEMPLE F - Archbishop of Canterbury
TENNENT G Presbyterian Minister and Revivalist
TENNENT W Presbyterian Minister and Educator
TEN YEARS CONFLICT [1834 – 1843]
TERESA of Lisieux Carmelite and Devotional Writer
THEODOSIUS II – Constantinople Patriarch
THEOPHILUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria
THOLUCK F German Protestant Theologian
THOMAS O Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Author
THOMAS W Anglican Scholar and Teacher
THOMPSON W [Lord Kelvin] Physicist
THORNWELL J Presbyterian Minister and Scholar
THRELKELD L Missionary to Australia
TIELE C Dutch Theologian
TILAK N Marathi Hymn Writer and Poet
TISCHENDORF L German Scholar & Textual Critic
TOLSTOY L Russian Novelist and Social Reformer
TOMLINSON A Church of God Leader & Revivalist
TOPLADY A Anglican Hymn Writer
TORREY C American Linguist
TORREY R American Evangelist and Bible Scholar
TOWNSEND H Anglican missionary in Nigeria.
TRACTARIANISM
TRANSCENDENTALISTS
TREGELLES S English N T Textual Critic
TRENCH R Archbishop of Dublin
TRINITARIAN BIBLE SOCIETY
TROELTSCH E Liberal German Theologian
TROTTER I Missionary to North Africa
TRUMBULL C Evangelical Writer and Journalist
TUBINGEN SCHOOL
TUCKER A Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa
TUCKER W Congregational Minister and Educator
TURNER C Anglican Historian of Early Christianity
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1850
1889
1885
1895
1896
1862
1827
1848
1905
1896
1780
1805
1874
1885
1840
1856
1771
1864
1845
1828
1868
1865
1757
1812
1884
1896
1740
1735
1834
1886
1769
1805
1826
1844
1910
1846
1851
1817
1877
1904
1869
1861
1903
1762
1900
1889
1842
1833
1836
1857
1846
1831
1890
1888
1903
1826
1890
1893
1889
213
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
TYLER B American Congregational Theologian
TYNDALE-BISCOE C Missionary in Kashmir
TYRRELL G Roman Catholic Modernist
TYRRELL W First Bishop of Newcastle, Australia
UCHIMURA K Japanese Church Founder
ULLMANN K German Lutheran Theologian
ULTRAMONTANISM Catholic Revival Movement
UNDERWOOD H Reformed Missionary to Korea
UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST
UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS
UNITED FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
UNITED SECESSION CHURCH
UNITED SOCIETY for PROPAGATION of the GOSPEL
UNITED STATES [see also 1607 and 1914]
UTRECHT DECLARATION of
VANDERKEMP J Dutch Missionary to South Africa
VAN ESS L German Scholar and Translator
VAN MANEN W Dutch Theologian
VATICAN I
VAUGHAN C Dean of Llandaff Wales & Teacher
VAUGHAN WILLIAMS R English Composer
VENN H Anglican Evangelical Minister
VENN H Church Missionary Society Secretary.
VENN J Clapham Sect Chaplain
VERBECK G Dutch American missionary to Japan
VEUILLOT L French Roman Catholic Writer
VINCENT J Bishop and Sunday School Educator
VINET A French-speaking Swiss Theologian
VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA
VON HUGEL F Roman Catholic Writer
WACE H Dean of Canterbury
WALCH J German Protestant
WALDENSTROM P Swedish Churchman
WALES [see also 1567]
WALKER M Hymn Writer
WALKER T Anglican Missionary to South India
WALKER W American Church Historian
WALMSLEY R English jeweller and Hymn Writer
WALTHER C American Lutheran Theologian
WANGEMANN H German Mission Executive
WARD W Printer and Missionary to India
WARFIELD B American Presbyterian Scholar
WARING A Poet and Hymn Writer
WARNECK G Professor of Missions and Ecumenist
WARNER A&S Hymn writers for children
WASHINGTON B Negro Educator
WATKINS O Wesleyan Methodist Missionary
WATSON R Wesleyan Social Reformer
WAYLAND F Baptist Pastor and Social Reformer
WEBB-PEPLOE H Anglican Minister and Missioner
WEC INTERNATIONAL
WEISS B German New Testament Scholar
WEIZSACKER K German Protestant Theologian
WELD T American Abolitionist
WELLHAUSEN J German Biblical Critic
WELSH BIBLE [see also 1567]
WESLEY C Hymn Writer
WESLEY J Founder of Methodism
WESLEY S English Composer and Organist
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1808
1890
1880
1848
1881
1821
1814
1885
1800
1789
1900
1820
1701
1776
1889
1799
1790
1885
1869
1841
1906
1749
1841
1783
1869
1839
1888
1819
1896
1867
1903
1734
1864
1735
1855
1885
1888
1905
1837
1865
1799
1887
1863
1896
1849
1881
1880
1812
1827
1876
1913
1877
1861
1835
1892
1770
1738
1738
1876
214
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
WESSENBERG I Radical Roman Catholic
WEST J Anglican Missionary to Canada
WESTCOTT B Bishop of Durham
WESTERN TEXT
WESTON F Bishop of Zanzibar
WEYMOUTH NEW TESTAMENT
WHATELEY R Archbishop of Dublin
WHEELOCK E Founder of Dartmouth College
WHITE E Leader Seventh-day Adventist Church
WHITE J Wesleyan Missionary to Zimbabwe
WHITE W Organiser USA Protestant Episcopals
WHITE FATHERS
WHITEFIELD G English Preacher
WHITELAW T Scottish Presbyterian Scholar
WHITFIELD F Anglican minister and hymn writer
WHITING W Hymn Writer
WHITMAN M Presbyterian Medical Missionary
WHITTIER J American Quaker Poet and Abolitionist
WHITTIER J An American Quaker Poet
WHITTLE D American poet, hymn writer and teacher
WHYTE A Scottish Minister, Educator and Writer
WICHERN J Founder of the Innere Mission
WILBERFORCE S Bishop of Winchester
WILBERFORCE W Slave Trade Abolitionist
WILBER J American Quaker Preacher
WILDER R Missionary to India
WILKES P Missionary to Japan
WILKINSON J Religious Cult Leader
WILLARD F Educator and Temperance Leader
WILLIAMS Sir G Founder of the YMCA
WILLIAMS I Welsh Tractarian Poet and Theologian
WILLIAMS J Missionary “Apostle of Polynesia”
WILLIAMS S American Missionary to China
WILLIAMS W Welsh Methodist Hymn Writer
WILLIAMS W Welsh Preacher
WILLIAMSON A Scottish Protestant missionary to China
WILLIS L American Hymn Writer
WILSON D Anglican Bishop of Calcutta
WINEBRENNER J German Reformed Pastor
WINER J Protestant New Testament Grammarian
WINKWORTH C Translator of German Hymns
WISEMAN N Cardinal, Archbishop of Westminster
WITHERSPOON J President Princetown University
WOODSWORTH J Canadian Methodist Minister
WOOLMAN J American Quaker Abolitionist
WORDSWORTH C Bishop of Lincoln Hymn Writer
WORDSWORTH J Bishop of Salisbury
WORLD ALLIANCE OF REFORMED CHURCHES
WORLD STUDENT CHRISTIAN FEDERATION
YOANNIS XVIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria
YOUNG B Founder of Mormons in Utah
YOUNG E English Poet
YOUNG R Concordance Author
YOUNG MENS CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION
YOUNG WOMENS CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION
ZAHN T German Lutheran Patristic Author
ZAIRE
ZAMORA N Filipino Methodist Pastor
ZEISBERGER D Missionary to American Indians
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1817
1820
1851
1851
1908
1903
1831
1733
1846
1894
1786
1868
1737
1864
1855
1860
1842
1833
1872
1883
1909
1857
1869
1807
1845
1892
1897
1758
1859
1844
1829
1817
1833
1744
1808
1863
1856
1833
1830
1832
1855
1850
1768
1864
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1869
1885
1877
1895
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1850
1738
1879
1844
1855
1868
1878
1909
1736
215
EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
ZELLER E German Protestant Theologian
ZILLERTHAL EVANGELICALS
ZWEMER S “Apostle to Islam”
CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY VOLUME 6
1854
1837
1894
216