Download The World between the Wars, 1918 - 1939

The World between the Wars, 1918 - 1939
Photo: The mastery of space and form was at the center of modern architecture, as exemplified
here by Frank Lloyd Wright's "Falling Water" House in Bear Run, Pennsylvania.
Economic Conditions in Europe between the Wars
Following World War I Europe experienced a significant decline in international trade as it met
with less receptive markets for its imports. Compounding Europe's decline in trade was Japan's
exportation of inexpensive textiles and mass-produced exports from the United States, most
notably the automobile. These factors led to a decline in trade between France, Germany, and
Britain. Demand for Europe's steel, ships, and coal also declined. Coal was being replaced with
alternative fuels and hydro-electricity, while Europe's agricultural countries experienced economic
difficulties with the low prices of farming produce on the world market.
The American economy, which had experienced a boom during the 1920s, came to a crashing
halt in the 1930s, thus further decreasing the already limited food and raw materials that America
imported from Europe. World prices for raw materials and food dropped by fifty percent or more
between 1929 and 1932. International lending suffered from shortages of foreign currency in
Britain and Germany, while French and American investors limited their lending practices.
Countries who had borrowed monies from the United States were forced to bring their payments
into balance by increasing tariffs on imports and devaluing their currencies, which in turn further
hindered the world trade market. The United States led tariff increases during this time with the
Smoot-Hawley tariff, designed to protect domestic producers. Tariff protectionism accelerated
during the European banking crisis in 1931, when international lending reached a standstill.
Britain and other countries were forced to abandon the gold standard and in 1932 world trade in
manufactures was nearly half of its 1929 level. An International Money Conference that convened
in London in 1933 failed to promote financial cooperation among the industrial nations, who held
firm to economic nationalism.
Social Conditions in Europe
Though European economies were weakened by the war, advances in overall human welfare did
occur during this time. Standards of housing, nutrition, and education continued to be disparate
between the more developed northwest and the less developed southeast. While more bread and
cereals, along with less meat, fish, milk, and eggs, were consumed in the impoverished countries,
overall death rates declined through the use of newly discovered drugs. Higher education
remained a privilege for the upper and middle classes. Europe instituted methods of redistribution
to assist the impoverished and social security became a national objective, along with the
promotion of employment, equitable distribution of wealth, and improved housing, education, and
nutrition. Rent control was also instituted, whereby dwellings could be rented below market
prices. The construction of such dwellings was carried out in the 1920s at an unprecedented rate.
The insurance principle also came to the fore in Europe during this time; by 1939 there were
insurance schemes organized to assist workers on reduced or non-existent incomes. This
general social progress between the wars was in marked contrast to the economic decay of
Europe.
Western Europe
The Weimar Republic in Germany
Germany's Weimar Republic, proclaimed on November 9, 1918, in Berlin, was unable to satisfy
the defeated people of Germany following World War I. The German people were outraged by the
terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which provided that Germany restore lands to other countries,
accept responsibility for starting the war, and turn over war criminals to the Allies. Further, large
reparations (cash payments for damages rendered) were to be made to the Allies. The treaty also
severely restricted Germany's military. However, the Republic signed the treaty on June 28,
1919. From that day on, Germany became a house divided, with conservative nationalists and
the army accepting neither the peace treaty nor the Republic that had ratified it. The German
people viewed the Weimar Republic as a traitorous government for having signed an agreement
whose terms they considered unfair and humiliating.
The Socialist-ruled Weimar Republic (consisting of a two-house parliament, the Reichsrat and the
Reichstag) was the official government, yet the conservatives held economic power that they
used to undermine the Republic. The leaders of the newly formed Republic allowed the army to
circumvent military restrictions of the peace treaty to the extent that the army (Reichswehr)
exerted increasing influence over the nation's foreign and domestic policies. Additionally, the
Weimar Republic experienced a backlash of hostility from the German people as a result of the
depressed economic and social conditions in Germany. Between 1921 and 1923, the German
mark fell so drastically that it became nearly worthless. During this time, French troops invaded
the Ruhr, Germany's industrial center, in retaliation against the Germans for non-payment of
reparations. This action would have grave economic consequences for Germany, for which its
citizenry blamed the Weimar Republic.
Hitler's Fascist Germany
It was during this time that an extreme nationalist named Adolf Hitler was implementing his own
designs for a fascist government in Germany. A totalitarian form of government, fascism is based
on force and censorship. Through his persuasive speaking and subsequent control of radio and
publications, Hitler was able to influence increasingly larger numbers of German people against
the Weimar Republic. In 1921 he was elected chairman of the Nazi Party, and in 1923 Hitler and
his Nazi Party strongly attacked both the Treaty of Versailles and the Weimar government. In
1924, following a failed attempt to overthrow Bavaria, Hitler was sentenced to nearly a year in
prison, where he wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle), the publication of which would facilitate his
rise to power in Germany. Mein Kampf purported the supremacy of pure races, such as the Aryan
or Nordic race, and the threat to this supremacy by "inferior" races such as the Jews. Hitler
manipulated the German people through the use of intense propaganda, and anti-Semitism
became government policy. In an economically and politically unsound Germany, Hitler's racist
views were well-received by the masses, who needed someone to blame for their plight. Blacks,
Poles, homosexuals, and other groups also fell under Hitler's prejudicial eye; all these groups
would suffer under his command in later years.
Hitler's Rise to Power
By 1931, with the failure of Germany's central Danatbank, a national panic had erupted. By now
the Nazis held a majority of seats (230) in the Reichstag. Hitler became chancellor of Germany
and quickly implemented his totalitarian government through a massive rearmament campaign.
Next, he secured decrees to allow his Nazi storm troopers, the "brown shirts," to attack political
enemies after a fire destroyed the Reichstag. The Communist Party was then outlawed and the
first concentration camp established in Dachau. Hitler instituted a national boycott of all Jewishowned businesses and professions, with the Nazi Party being declared Germany's sole political
party. Germany then withdrew from the League of Nations and, in 1934, the Nazis conducted a
political purge, executing nearly eighty of their own members. Heinrich Himmler was appointed
head of the German concentration camps and the Nazis attempted, unsuccessfully, to overthrow
the Austrian government. In 1934, after the death of Paul Hindenberg, the second president of
the Weimar Republic, Hitler became president of Germany, referring to himself as Fuhrer
(leader).
Hitler openly denounced the disarmament clause of the Treaty of Versailles and decreed the
Nuremberg Laws, depriving Jews of citizenship rights. Germany moved military troops into the
Rhineland and effectuated a Four-Year Plan to develop economic self-sufficiency. Indeed,
Germany prospered enormously during the first five years of Nazi rule, with practically zero
unemployment. This made Germans loyal to the "Third Reich," the term given the Nazis following
Germany's alliance with the Rome-Berlin Axis. Hitler's attack on surrounding countries ensued
thereafter. Near the end of 1938, his racial hatred of Jews culminated in the Kristallnacht (Crystal
Night) during which the Nazis conducted the worst open assault on Jews in German's history,
sending between 20,000 and 30,000 Jews to concentration camps, while destroying synagogues,
homes, and stores. Thereafter, Hitler's Third Reich proceeded with the systematic elimination of
Jewish and other minority populations, while invading countries in defiance of the Treaty of
Versailles. Such was Hitler's continued disregard for the both treaty and humanitarian rights that,
in September of 1939, German troops invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war on
Germany and World War II began.
Fascist Italy
While "fascism" has been most associated with Italy, this totalitarian form of right-wing
government found followings in France, Spain, Hungary, Romania, Britain, and, especially,
Germany. Immediately following the war, Italy was governed by Giovanni Giolitti, a socially
progressive liberal; however, continued unrest in the country perpetuated the rise of fascism by
1922, when Benito Mussolini was appointed premier by the King of Rome following the march of
Mussolini and his followers on that city. Fascism was defined by Mussolini as "the dictatorship of
the state over many classes cooperating." In reality, Mussolini and his nationalist followers
known as the "black shirts" engaged in outrageous acts of violence against, and the forcible
expulsion of, the local socialist administration in order to attain their position of power.
As elsewhere in Europe, the Italian people, though on the side of the Allies following the war,
were a defeated lot. Many of their men had been killed in battle and their economy was bleak,
fraught with high inflation and unemployment. Mussolini, like Hitler in later years, noted the low
morale of the people and turned it to his advantage. The agitation among working-class people
for higher wages, a rural class war in over-crowded areas of the country, and a general fear of
communism prompted people to subvert to fascism. Additionally, there were many violent strikes
during 1919 and 1920, leading to factory takeovers, as well as land takeovers by the peasants,
resulting in advances for the urban and rural proletariat. Fearing a proletariat revolt and resulting
communism, many landowners and middle class people adopted fascist views.
Despite the illegal violence with which Mussolini attained power, he persisted nearly unopposed,
as the King of Rome shared a general right-wing political ideology. The Church of Rome also
preferred fascism to the alternatives of leftist Marxism and liberal rationalism. Thus, by 1925 the
fascist regime became an open dictatorship, censoring the press, prohibiting parliamentary
influence, and strengthening police powers. Mussolini wished to be known as il Duce (the leader).
A Grand Council was formed and anyone daring to denounce fascism was arrested, imprisoned,
or deported. Mussolini established a harsh "secret police" and concentrated on controlling the
minds of the people. He established semi-military groups of children who were indoctrinated with
fascism, learning the motto, "Believe, Obey, Fight."
Strikes were legally forbidden, with bargaining over wages and work conditions conducted
through employers and established state syndicates based on agriculture, transportation, and
manufacturing. The syndicates of this newly formed "corporate state" had to submit to Mussolini's
government. However, Mussolini did participate in social welfare reforms that occurred in Europe
during this time. Though he was able to control unemployment somewhat through large-scale
public works, Mussolini's determination to hold up the value of Italy's currency resulted in
decreased production and lower actual wages. Additionally, Mussolini's foreign policy--especially
his surrender of liberal democracy--proved to be disastrous for Italy, who was thus forced to
participate in the Second World War.
Spanish Civil War
While Spain was ruled by a democratic monarchy, elections were rigged by a governing oligarchy
(a small, select committee) drawn from the middle and upper classes. Doctrines of anarchism
secured wide acceptance in Spain, especially in southern agricultural regions. In other areas of
the country, the Church retained full influence, such as in the Basque country and Navarre. The
conservative Spanish Church was rich and powerful, with some eighty thousand priests, monks,
and nuns and it controlled education. Anarchist workers revolted, unsuccessfully, between 1918
and 1923, and the general people no longer supported monarchy rule. The king left Spain in
1931. Thereafter, a moderate government of republicans and socialists successfully ruled and
brought about reforms for the proletariat. By 1933 power was wrested from the Catholic Church,
including decreased stipends, dissolution of orders, and the institution of public education.
Agrarian reforms also occurred.
However, the anarchists engaged in violent acts against the Church, thereby decreasing the
government's credibility and, in 1933, a right-wing conservative government gained control. By
1934 a full-scale social war erupted with the anarchists in southern Spain, which was harshly
dealt with by General Francisco Franco. Following this uprising, a more moderate government
gained control and reforms continued. However, anarchist attacks and worker strikes continued to
be widespread. Consequently, the right-wing Falange, a fascist organization, gained in popularity
as the answer to end this ongoing violence. On July 17, 1936, civil war was initiated by the
Falangists and Carlists, led by General Franco in Morocco. Military uprisings then occurred
across Spain. Franco and his rebels gained control of Spain, with the help of foreign aid from
Germany and Italy, after nearly three years, when the war ended in March of 1939.
France
Inflation hit both workers and the lower middle-class people of France following the war, as the
country had numerous expenditures in the form of restoring war-torn lands and repaying monies
borrowed from the United States. Further, the French undertook the costly building of fortifications
along the German borders, known as the Maginot Line, to prevent further invasions. Though
France enjoyed a period of relative political stability, by 1925, after signing the Locarno Pact (a
group of treaties signed by representatives from France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Great Britain,
Poland, and Czechoslovakia in Locarno, Switzerland), France's alliances grew weak and a
scandal in the French government touched off riots in 1934. Trade unions called a general strike
and members of the left-wing government formed the Popular Front, led by the socialist, Léon
Blum, who became the premier of France in 1936. Wages and work conditions improved and
French banks became partially nationalized as part of the government's reform. Inflation
persisted, however, and Blum's ministry, though successful, lasted only one year. After the fall of
the Popular Front, workers experienced setbacks, causing strikes that prompted severe anti-labor
legislation. Though France remained a democracy, fierce divisions existed among its people.
Great Britain
Great Britain experienced a significant decline in its coal, steel, cotton, and shipping industries
and generally failed to increase its value of exports between 1919 and 1929, while sharing in the
world fall of exports after 1929. Some labor unrest, precipitated by coal miners, resulted in a coal
miners' strike in 1925 and a General Strike in 1926 of some six million union workers. However,
as British employers had historically been willing to bargain with workers, the unions, in turn, were
more moderate, and the strike lasted only six days.
Britain had always maintained a socially and politically conservative rule, supported by the
masses whom it strived to serve. Therefore, when Sir Oswald Mosley formed a fascist following in
1932 called the British Union of Fascists (BUF), this group failed to gain a strong foothold.
However, the BUF did adopt the fascist uniform of black shirts and held mass marches. Following
Britain's anti-uniform legislation and limits on assemblies and marches in 1937, however,
Mosley's group soon declined. Great Britain also granted independence to several of its colonies
in 1931 and entered into a new economic relationship with Newfoundland, Australia, New
Zealand, Canada, and the Union of South Africa under the British Commonwealth of Nations.
Ireland
In 1921 the British drew up a treaty agreeing to divide Ireland into two parts. Southern Ireland
became the Irish Free State (Eire), self-governing with no ties to Britain, while northern Ireland
(Ulster) remained tied to the United Kingdom. In 1937 the Irish Free State adopted a new
constitution and elected its first prime minister. Religion and politics continue to divide these
regions, with Roman Catholics in the south and Protestants in the north.
See also: Irish Declaration of Independence.
The United States
The Roaring Twenties
Relieved at the end of the war, most Americans wished to enjoy life and forget about Europe.
Given the economic boom of the 1920s, the range of mass-produced products, and technological
advances, this was an easy task to accomplish. Automobiles, airplanes, radios, and any number
of modern household appliances were produced in mass quantities thanks to Henry Ford's
development of assembly-line production, and America took the lead in world trade, with sales on
credit providing Americans with all they desired. In 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright, brothers from
Ohio, had completed the first motorpowered aircraft flight. In the time between the World War I
and World War II, Americans took to the sky in commercial air flights. Hotels and office buildings
were built, the suburbs expanded, chain stores appeared, banks grew, and movies were
introduced. The stock and bond market became more active and all leading economic indexes
continued to rise throughout these "laissez-faire" (hands off by government) years.
Despite the Eighteenth Amendment's "prohibition" of the manufacture, sale, and transportation of
liquor, Americans continued to have a good time, whiling away their evenings in speakeasies that
served illegal liquor provided by organized crime groups. Women became more independent
during this time, and bolder women, known as "flappers," flaunted their figures and their intellect
with unprecedented freedom. By 1920 about one-quarter of American women were working
outside the home, and the Nineteenth Amendment granted women the right to vote. While most
Americans supported the minimal government intervention and pro-business philosophies of the
Republican party, certain major differences existed among the people.
With the expansion of industry, city dwellers soon outnumbered country folk for the first time in
American history. Cultural conflicts regarding prohibition, immigration, education, and the Ku Klux
Klan divided rural and urban America. Rural citizens, mostly native-born WASPs (White, AngloSaxon Protestants) favored prohibition, while the heavily immigrant, Catholic urban populace
desired its repeal. Such conflicts became increasing sources of U.S. contention during the
depressed economic years of the 1930s.
The Great Depression
While the United States amassed two-fifths of the world's wealth during the 1920s, certain groups
such as farmers, coal-miners, and other poorly paid workers experienced hardships. Farmers
were hurt by falling crop prices and industrial workers received low wages. Unfortunately, the
government turned a deaf ear to their pleas for assistance. Though production rose significantly,
it became increasingly difficult to sell products and wage increases had not kept pace with
production. American consumers purchased goods on "credit" during the 1920s, eventually owing
thousands of dollars. When they could no longer pay their debts, they stopped buying, factories
cut back production, and unemployment rose. The sharp decline in labor movements following
the war was largely responsible for lower wages. Banks also failed miserably as a result of poor
management; large, unsecured loans; and promotion of speculative enterprises. The "Great Bull
Market" of 1928 and 1929 resulted in much of the country's capital being invested in the stock
market. Therefore, when the stock market declined sharply on Tuesday, October 29, 1929
(known as "Black Tuesday"), America was on its way to experiencing the greatest economic
disaster in its history. The market subsequently lost billions of dollars, creditors called in all loans,
people made runs on banks to withdraw funds, and the once-flourishing economy floundered.
Banks, schools, and businesses closed in record numbers. In December of 1930 the United
States Bank, with deposits of more than $200 million, went under. The value of all farm property
declined significantly between 1929 and 1931, with unemployment approaching twelve million.
Because of his reverence for self-reliance, President Herbert Hoover, rather than lending direct
government aid, called upon the American people and local governments to aid the
impoverished. By August of 1931 Ford Motor Company had shut down production of the formerly
popular Model A due to a halt in sales, while "food riots" began breaking out across the country.
The Trade Union Unity League (TUUL), a Communist labor force, gained in popularity, especially
during its defense of the Scottsboro case, and TUUL leaders organized a hunger march on Ford
Motor Company.
Men and women sought nearly non-existent employment all across America, hopping trains and
hitching rides to places where they might find work. People met strangers, shared food, and slept
in jails to keep out of the cold. Hunger, hard times, and drifting became the norm and an
unprecedented scale of suffering ensued. Children did not attend school because they were
without shoes or proper clothing. Farms were sold, people went hungry, and despair was
rampant. Dust storms wracked the country, nearly depopulating certain states, while
sharecroppers and tenants were thrown off lands in droves when there was no more need for
them. Through a common bond of suffering, however, formerly WASP-ruled regions formed a
new class consciousness and sense of community and the United States became more of a
plural society.
The New Deal
Hoover's continued refusal to provide government aid ended his popularity with the people. The
Democratic Governor of New York, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, was elected president. Roosevelt
promised a "new deal" for Americans. When he took office in 1933 some forty million Americans
were without regular work and an additional four thousand banks had failed in the first two
months of that year. Bread lines lengthened, Hoovervilles (temporary shelters assembled by the
needy during Hoover's presidency) were more crowded than ever, and despair coursed through
the nation. Roosevelt and his collective group of "New Dealers" took immediate action. In the
weeks that followed, known as the Hundred Days, Roosevelt and his people set in motion an
unprecedented amount of legislation.
In 1933 Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act, which put banks back in business. The
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation was created. The Federal Securities Act, Federal
Emergency Relief Administration, and abandonment of the gold standard were other measures
taken to swiftly restore food, jobs, and hope to the American people. Roosevelt implemented the
Farm Relief Act, and further aid to farmers included the Federal Farm Bankruptcy Act and the
Jones-Connally Farm Relief Act. The Federal Surplus Relief Corporation purchased surplus crops
and livestock for redistribution to the needy, and deliberately decreased agricultural production in
an effort to drive up market prices.
Roosevelt also addressed the American people's desire to return to work. The Civil Works
Administration returned nearly four million people to work through public works and the Civilian
Conservation Corps (CCC) employed more than three million young men in national forests and
parks. The National Industrial Recovery Act instituted government control over industry and the
Tennessee Valley Authority, one of the most impressive public works projects in history, furnished
more than two billion kilowatt-hours of electricity while also controlling flooding. Labor unions
returned to the forefront when Roosevelt did not oppose legislation granting employees the right
to organize and bargain collectively.
Prohibition was repealed in 1933, giving Americans a new means of financial support. By 1939
economic prosperity began returning to America, though now the people were acutely aware of
the need to check social injustices. Interest groups and the nation's welfare became a priority and
the spirit of the decade led to prosperity, increased civil rights, and a new position of world
leadership.
Eastern Europe
Most of Eastern Europe had agricultural economies and lagged behind western European
countries in terms of industrial development. However, the breakup of the Russian and AustroHungarian empires caused new Eastern European countries to institute economic nationalism to
protect their growing industries, which made trade difficult. While most Eastern European
countries attempted some form of democracy following the war, many turned to authoritarianism,
a political system stressing obedience to the government without controlling every aspect of life.
In Austria, for example, a continuing struggle between socialists and conservatives created
opposing factions. The country became less democratic and the Catholic Church gained control
of the Austrian government, leading to increased fascist-type rule. In Hungary an attempt was
made to overthrow the existing republic and institute a Communist system of government,
thereby hoping to break up large estates and distribute land to the peasants. However, the
aristocracy put down this communist threat and, by 1920, Admiral Nicholas Horthy, a reactionary
of the military class, ruled Hungary. In 1921 Emperor Charles I tried to restore the Hapsburg
monarchy, but the Allies would not permit it. By 1939 Hungary had joined with Germany and Italy
in the Anti-Comintern pact, helped to invade Czechoslovakia, and withdrawn from the League of
Nations. Similarly, Poland adopted a democratic constitution, but opposition from both
conservatives and liberals prevented the success of this new democracy. Therefore, in 1926,
Poland followed the example of Hungary, turning to military dictatorship.
China
Immediately following the war, Chinese university students and teachers in Beijing demanded an
end to foreign influence, with the goal of limiting warlord control and extending democracy. This
"May Fourth Movement," led by Sun Yat-Sen and the Kuomintang, accepted soviet assistance. In
1926, following Yat-Sen's death, however, Chiang Kai-shek became head of the Kuomintang,
largely defeating the warlords, while forcing the Soviet advisers from China and purging the
Chinese Communists in the Kuomintang. Thereafter, Chiang modernized China to a degree, with
the result that certain coastal cities became business and manufacturing centers in the 1930s.
People grew dissatisfied with Chiang, however, when he failed to make social reforms, and many
joined remaining Communists under the leadership of Mao Tse-tung, who trained them in guerilla
warfare for his Red Army. However, Mao's group was overtaken by Chiang in 1934, and Mao fled
northwest China with one hundred thousand of his followers. Only ten thousand survived the
6,000-mile "Long March." This band of close-knit rebels, however, proved to be successful in later
years.
Japan
Industrialization and western contact increased in Japan during the 1920s and Japan cooperated
for a time with the West to reduce war in the Pacific. However, America's Great Depression
caused Japan's silk and rice exports to fall drastically, resulting in increased unemployment and
little means with which to purchase much needed imports from abroad. Japan's military leaders
felt expansion was the answer and in 1931 occupied all of Manchuria, a part of China rich with
coal and iron ore. Japan's military leaders resembled those of fascist Italy and Germany in their
control tactics, condemning moderate forms of government and retaliating harshly against any
voiced opposition.
Russia
In 1922, under Vladimir Lenin's leadership, the Communist party renamed Russia as the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and Russians became known as the Soviet people. Lenin also
instituted his New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, which allowed some free enterprise; however,
major industries remained under government control. The government urged the peasants to
form "collective farms," land pooled into large farms in order to share machinery and profits. Upon
Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin became the leader of the USSR. In 1928 Stalin ended the
NEP and returned the country to a "command economy," wherein the government made all
economic decisions. During this same year, Stalin introduced his Five-Year-Plan for economic
growth.
Soviet resources were nearly used up during this attempt to industrialize the country, and
production of consumer goods declined. Stalin forced people to form collective farms in the hope
that exportation of crops would subsidize his plans for modernization. Those who resisted Stalin
met with execution, imprisonment, and exile to Siberian camps. Stalin's first Five-Year-Plan
succeeded in turning a majority of farmland into collective farms. In 1933 Stalin began his second
Five-Year-Plan, calling for even greater industrialization. While promised an increase in consumer
goods, the Soviet people suffered when the government continued to place all of its efforts on the
expansion of industry, resulting in scarce, high-priced consumer goods.
Stalin instituted a "police state" much like those in Italy and Germany. He used secret police and
spies to maintain totalitarian rule. People who did not conform to the "party line" were again
severely punished. Under Stalin's rule, the government abolished churches, taught atheism, and
instituted rigid censorship. In 1936 Stalin proclaimed "The StalinConstitution." While this
constitution purported a democratic government on paper, the reality was that most power rested
with the Politburo (Political Bureau) of the Communist Party. As head of the party, Stalin ruled as
supreme dictator. This dictatorship grew increasingly harsh and Stalin began a "purge" of party
members disloyal to him. Much like Hitler and Mussolini, Stalinemployed intimidation and
brutality toward all those who refused to submit to his will. By 1939 nearly eight million people had
been arrested and were subsequently deported, imprisoned, forced into labor camps, or
executed.
The Communist International (Comintern) instigated the Communist overthrow of governments in
capitalist democracies, as Communist parties existed in many countries outside the USSR. As
such, fear and suspicion against Communist revolt prevailed in other countries during these
years, exacerbating any political unrest they experienced during this time.
The Middle East
Nationalism was the predominant form of government following the war and the fall of the
Ottoman Empire, leaving only Turkey as an entity. Though Greece attempted to take over Turkey
in 1919, the Turks successfully avoided this through the wise leadership of Mustafa Kemal. In
1923 Turkey became a republic, with Kemal as its first president. Kemal established a one-party
government, instituting mass reforms, such as the separation of church and state, a legal system
based on European law, increased rights for women, western clothing, the Roman alphabet, the
metric system, and efforts toward increased industrialization and modernization.
Following an unsuccessful attempt by Britain to take over Persia, a nationalist revolt in 1925
found Reza Shah Pahlavi as Persia's new leader. Reza Shah modernized the economy of Persia
(renamed Iran in 1935) and introduced western laws and customs, despite opposition from
religious groups. Arabia, on the other hand, continued under the rule of Ibn Saud, with a
government founded mainly on the Islamic faith. Though Saud renamed the country Saudi Arabia
in 1932, he repelled westernization and governed as absolute ruler. Women were oppressed and
modern communications and transportation were forbidden.
French and British Mandates
French troops occupied Syria and Lebanon following the war, despite local opposition, while
Britain granted independence to its mandates Transjordan (now Jordan) and Iraq in 1928 and
1932, respectively. Britain experienced difficulties with Palestine, however, its third mandate.
Britain's 1917 "Balfour Declaration" established Palestine as a national home for Jewish peoples,
while requiring that its non-Jewish residents, primarily Arabs, be allowed to maintain their position
in Palestine. With Jewish immigration to Palestine increasing drastically during the late 1930s,
Jews soon comprised thirty percent of the population, which resulted in civil war between Arabs
and Jews. An additional consideration was the discovery of huge oil deposits in the Persian Gulf.
While profitable for the region, it encouraged western domination of the Middle East.
Cultural Life between the Wars
Literature
The period between the wars saw a wide range of works from artists. Authors probed
subconscious motives and experimented with different forms, including surrealism, which
attempts to portray life in a dreamlike setting. Franz Kafka of Czechoslovakia addressed political
issues through surrealism and Ireland's James Joyce pioneered the "stream of consciousness"
technique, whereby conscious and unconscious thoughts merge in a continuous unfolding of
events. American writers such as F. Scott Fitzgerald portrayed the glittering decade of the
twenties, while Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck wrote clearly and simply to describe a
disillusioned people following the war. Similarly, the American poet T. S. Eliot portrayed the world
as one without hope of recovering its faith in The Waste Land. Some writers also experimented
with what was considered risqué subject matter; D. H. Lawrence's novel Lady Chatterly's Lover is
one example. Surreal, symbolic, and existential literature in Germany were realized in Herman
Hesse's Steppenwolf,Martin Heidegger's Being and Time, and Thomas Mann's The Magic
Mountain. Kahlil Gibran's The Prophet was another classic that was published during this time. In
1932 Aldous Huxley's futuristic novel, Brave New World, epitomized the pessimism toward
totalitarian governments, while children's classics such as Mary Poppins and The Hobbit also
appeared.
Music
Musicians, like authors, felt free to experiment with new forms during this period. Russian-born
composer Igor Stravinsky created an entirely new musical form with instruments playing
simultaneously in different keys, creating a disturbing sound, much like the disturbed years
following World War I. Atonal music, which replaced the eight-tone scale with a twelve-tone scale,
also resulted in strange-sounding, discordant music. With the increase in radio use, music was
aimed at mass audiences and "Big Band" dance music became all the rage. Composers such as
Irving Berlin and Cole Porter wrote pieces for the musical productions that became an increasing
theater attraction. However, jazz and its "blues" outgrowth, performed mostly by African
Americans, permeated the post-war years. Jazz incorporated African and American music and
became highly popular.
Painting
Painters also rejected traditional forms during this era. Spain's Pablo Picasso and France's
Georges Braque created "cubism," a style emphasizing abstract geometric forms and oftentimes
portraying the same object from several perspectives. Distortion of reality is what these artists
aimed for and achieved. Surrealism also surfaced in painting, most notably through the works of
Spain's Salvador Dalí. In the United States, painters such as Grant Wood, Georgia O'Keefe, and
Arthur Dove sought to paint icons of America.
Film
The advent of motion pictures caused thousands of movie theaters to open, drawing millions of
moviegoers. Certain films portrayed post-war pessimism by featuring human intolerance and
cruelty. Most movies, however, offered people an escape from reality. Shirley Temple epitomized
the all-American girl, the Marx Brothers gave people slapstick humor, and Walt Disney's fulllength animated film Fantasia provided viewers with a fantasy world. Classically trained
performers such as Burgess Meredith and Orson Welles brought their talents to the screen, while
filmmaker John Ford broadened popular westerns into classic, epic tales. Movies during this era
ranged from carefree and silly to profound and rich.
Architecture
Architecture also reflected the times, pioneered by America's Louis Sullivan with a style called
functionalism, wherein buildings were designed according to their uses rather than by popular
styles. Large hotels and skyscrapers also were erected during these years, with Frank Lloyd
Wright being the architectural genius in this arena. Europeans caught on to the architectural
advances and formulated their own "international style," using uninterrupted expanses of steel
and glass. These styles continue to mark modern architecture. American works of engineering
genius included the Boulder Dam, Golden Gate Bridge, and Empire State Building.
Further Reading