Download Weather and Climate

Ecosystems
Ecology- is the branch of science that studies how living things interact with one another and with their
environment. All the plants and animals (living = biotic) living in a given area, together with the nonliving parts
(abiotic) of the environment, make up an ecosystem.
Abiotic- nonliving factors of an ecosystem include temperature soil, water, climate, and sunlight.
Biotic- living factors of an ecosystem that include plants, animals, and other living organisms.
Ecosystems are typically self-sufficient and independent of other ecosystems.
Any group of living and nonliving things interacting with each other can be considered an ecosystem.
Estuary - a partially enclosed body of water formed where freshwater from rivers and streams flows into
the ocean, mixing with the salty sea water. Estuaries and the lands surrounding them are places of transition
from land to sea, and from fresh to salt water. Although influenced by the tides, estuaries are protected
from the full force of ocean waves, winds, and storms by the reefs, barrier islands, or fingers of land, mud,
or sand that define an estuary's seaward boundary.
Life in an estuary is influenced by the rise and fall of the tides
Salt marshes- occur in places where the land meets the sea, such as barrier islands and other coastal areas.
Salinity - salt content (amount of salt in the water) depends on whether it is located close to the ocean or
further upstream in the estuary. The water level and salinity level determine which plants and animals make
their homes there.
Microscopic organisms like bacteria, fungi and algae make their home in the decaying marsh grasses. The
plants of the salt marsh provide shelter from predators, especially for young animals that use the salt marsh
as a nursery.
Mammals birds, fish, reptiles, shellfish, and plants all live and interact in this ecosystem to create very
complex food webs.
The soil, sand, and mud in an estuary are full of rich decaying matter in which plants thrive. During the day,
when the tide is out, creatures such as clams and oysters close their shell for protection. An estuary comes
“alive” at night when the tide returns. The returning seawater (high tide) floods the estuary bringing
protection from predators.
Oceans- cover approximately three-quarters of the Earth’s surface.
Pond- is a body of water shallow enough to allow plant roots to reach the bottom.
Lakes- bigger than a pond and is too deep to support plant roots except near the shore.
Biosphere- is the part of the Earth where life exists. The biosphere is characterized by large regions. These
regions (large-scale ecosystems) making up the biosphere are called biomes.
Temperature- is the major abiotic factor in determining the biome. This includes not just the average
temperature, but things such as the length of the growing season and whether or not it ever freezes.
There are four biomes that extend from the extreme latitudes with low temperatures to the tropics with
very warm temperatures. These are the tundra, taiga, deciduous forest, and tropical rainforest. Other
biomes are controlled not so much by temperature but by the amount and distribution of rainfall.
Deciduous forest- The temperate deciduous forest is a biome that is always changing. It has four distinct
seasons: winter, spring, summer and fall. Winters are cold and summers are warm. Temperate deciduous
forests get between 30 and 60 inches of precipitation a year. Precipitation in this biome happens year round.
The soil is very fertile and many hardwood trees.
Photosynthesis- allows green plants and trees to capture energy from the sun and use it to grow. In the
deciduous forest in the autumn of the year, the chlorophyll in the leaves breaks down, and the leaves change
color. To survive the long winters, most trees and shrubs become dormant and drop their leaves. When spring
arrives and the days become warmer, the process of photosynthesis begins the cycle again.
Grasslands, also called savannahs- are big open spaces with only a few bushes and trees that are found
located near rivers and streams. Grasslands are often found between forests and deserts. The amount of
rainfall that occurs in a grassland is a major factor in its maintaining its characteristics.
Desert- is a land of extreme heat and dryness. Temperatures in excess of 200 degrees Fahrenheit are
common.
Tundra- is located at the top of the world near the North Pole. The frigid cold and deep snow makes life
difficult in the tundra.
Taiga- is south of the tundra. This is an area of dense evergreen forests of coniferous trees. In the winter,
food shortages and coldness make like difficult. Some animals hibernate and others fly south if they can.
The average temperature is below freezing for 6 months out of the year.
Tropical rainforest-in the extreme south near the equator and receives plenty of rainfall all year long. An
average of 50 to 260 inches of rain falls yearly. Rainforests cover less that 6% of the Earth’s land surface,
but produce 40% of the Earth’s oxygen.
Ecosystems are not lush gardens of unlimited resources. There is fierce competition for food, space, and
mates.
Niche- is an organism’s ‘address’ or ‘job’ in the community. It defines where an animal lives, what it eats and
what it gives back to the ecosystem.
Every single organism depends on the sun for survival.
Plants are producers because they provide their own energy.
Animals are consumers because they get their energy indirectly, either by eating animals that eat plants.
Primary consumer, herbivore -an animal that eats only producers
Secondary consumer- an animal that eats a primary consumer, secondary refers to the fact that the
organism is removed from the original source of energy-the plant. Carnivores are animals that eat only
other animals.
Omnivores (also called top consumers) eat both plants and animals.
When animals die, their bodies return to the soil. Decomposers are organisms in the soil that break down this
matter into simple nutrients. These simple nutrients are then used by plants to grow. Fungi, such as
mushrooms, and bacteria are examples of decomposers. Decomposers are the recyclers of ecosystems.
Symbiotic Relationships:
Symbiosis is a relationship in which two species live closely together.
Mutualism is one type of symbiosis is which both species benefit from the relationship. For example, many
flowers depend on insects to pollinate them. The insects are provided nectar and pollen by the flowers, and
the flowers are provided a means for reproduction by the insects.
Commensalism is where one species gains something from the symbiotic relationship and the other is
unaffected. Orchids and mosses are plants that can have a commensal relationship with trees. The plants
grow on the trunks or branches of trees. They get the light they need as well as nutrients that run down
along the tree. As long as these plants do not grow too heavy, the tree is not affected.
Another form of symbiosis is parasitism. A parasite is an organism that lives inside or on another organism.
The harmed organism is called a ‘host’. The parasite depends on the host for some or all of its nourishment
and causes harm to the host.
Scavengers feed on dead animals. They include hyenas, ants and vultures.
Ecological pyramids are diagrams that show each trophic (nutrition value of food) level in a biome. One type
is the energy pyramid. The energy pyramid shows the transfer of energy from one level to the next. The
bottom of a food chain shows the largest amount of energy which comes from the sun. Then as you move up,
energy is used but also lost in the form of heat energy.
Carbon is an element found in nature. It is found in diamonds, gasoline, and pencil lead. Carbon is in our
atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. In organisms, carbon dioxide is breathed out in respiration and is
released into the atmosphere in the decomposition of dead plants and animals. Plants use carbon dioxide in
photosynthesis and make sugars and oxygen. Some of these sugars and stored in tissues of plants, and others
are used by the plant for energy.
The nitrogen cycle is needed to supply amino acids which are the building blocks of proteins and necessary
for plant growth. Nitrogen gas is 80% of our atmosphere.
Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil in a process called decomposition to start the cycle again.
Sunlight is the main energy source for life on earth.
Like light, temperature can affect the types of producers and consumers that are in an ecosystem.
Ecosystems are constantly changing because if nature or humans. When changes occur, older inhabitants die
out and new organisms move in. The changes are called ecological succession. This succession is a gradual
replacement of one community by another.
In NC farmers are using several methods to maintain healthy soil and prevent erosion. For example, they
practice crop rotation to help keep nutrients in the soil. Crop rotation is where a different crop is planted in
the same spot every year. Mulching or spreading a layer of straw on the ground prevents erosion by the wind.
Strip farming is the growing of crops in narrow strips, prevents erosion by leaving only part of the soil bare
at any one time.
Wetlands serve as filters and purify the water that runs through them. Because of this it is against the law
in NC to fill in wetland areas.
Fossil fuels are fuels consisting of the remains of organisms preserved in tocks in the Earth’s crust with
high carbon and hydrogen. They include coal, oil, and natural gas, and are used to operate cars, heat homes,
and produce electricity.
The buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere results in the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect
traps radiation from the sun and heats the surface of the Earth in a process known as global warming.
Smog (the word smog combines the words ‘smoke‘ and ‘fog’) is the thick, smoke-like polluted air containing
chemical wastes which have been pumped into the atmosphere.
Strip mining or removing layers of the Earth’s surface to obtain minerals, damages the surface and also
results in water run-off which can erode topsoil, and atmospheric emissions which can cause pollution.
Pollutants are undesired impurities that accumulate in the environment.
Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore are able to be decomposed by microorganisms.
Other nutrients are non-biodegradable and linger in the environment.
Forces That Shape the Earth
Three
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main layers of the Earth’s interior are:
Crust, outer layer
Mantle, middle layer
Core, last layer, the center of the earth
Lithosphere- very top part of the mantle, includes continents and ocean basins
Constructive Forces- forces that build new land
Destructive Forces- forces that break down land
Ocean Floor- found below the water of the ocean – it isn’t flat down there; there are trenches and valleys.
The Earth’s crust (both the land we live on and the ocean floor) is broken into about twenty pieces. These
pieces are called plates.
Plate boundary- the place where two plates meet, they are site of mountains, trenches, volcanoes, and
earthquakes.
Plate boundaries are very active places. Plates are either pushing or pulling, causing three types of forces to
act of the crust:
 Tension- stretches or pulls the crust apart
 Compression- squeezes or pushes together the crust
 Shear- twists, tears, or pushes one part of the crust past another
Folding- the bending of rock at plate boundaries
Fracture- when the force of the pushing is greater than the strength of the rock, a deep fracture is formed
Volcanic activity- the release of molten rock from below the Earth’s crust
Volcanoes- molten rock that has cooled and over time piles up into mountains, found in oceans and on land
Hot spot- a large well of magma, volcanoes can be found here
Ring of Fire- located on the rim of the Pacific Plate, site of many earthquakes, most of the world’s volcanoes
are here.
Seismic waves- vibrations in the Earth
Earthquakes- are one form of seismic activity
Tsunami- made up of gigantic waves that are caused when the ocean is moved by earthquakes, landslides, or
volcanoes
Fault- a crack in the Earth’s ground, where movement occurs
Aftershocks- after an earthquake, a weaker rumbling
Epicenter- the point on the surface of the earth, directly above the focus
Sam Andreas Fault- dividing line between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, in California
Physical Weathering- occurs as rocks are broken apart
Frost Wedging- the freezing and melting of water in rocks causing rocks to split
Weathering – the breakdown of material by air, water, plants and animals
Chemical weathering- changes rocks into new substances.
Acid Rain - causes chemical weathering
Erosion- particles are loosened by weathering or other sources being carried away. Running water is a major
cause, wind also causes erosion
Flood plain- the excess water, and rich sediments across the low-lying land surrounding the stream, very
fertile farm land
Deltas are triangular land forms, created by deposition, when sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river
where it meets the sea
Formation of Landforms
Continental Shelf- a gentle sloping rock platform that borders a continent, slopes down about 180 meters
Continental Slope- next descent after continental shelf, it is a sharp tilt downward that falls nearly 3,800
meters down
Landforms- feature that make up the Earth’s surface
Landforms on the Globe
Barrier Islands- long narrow strip of land made from sand deposited in shallow water by waves
Beach- formed when waves meet gently sloping land and deposit sand and pebbles onto the land
Butte- a flat-topped rock or hill with steep sides
Canyon- is a deep valley with very steep sides mainly found in arid and semiarid areas
Desert- very dry, barren area with very little precipitation, 10 inches or less rainfall each year
Hill- a raised are or mound of land created by faulting or erosion of a mountain
Island- a piece of land that is surrounded by water
Mesa- a land formation with a flat area on top and steep walls occurring in areas of long continued erosion
Delta- low, watery fan-shaped (a sort of triangle) area land formed at the mouth of a river
Meander- an S-shaped bend or loop in a river that is also known as an oxbow loop. Oxbow lakes are created
when growing meanders intersect each other and cut off a meander loop
Mountain- a high steeply sloped area formed by the upward movement of rock
Peninsula- a body of land that is surrounded by water of three sides
Plain- a flat land that has been eroded nearly level or formed of flat-lying sediments
Plateau- a large flat area of land that is higher than the surrounding land
Prairie- a wide, flat area of land that has grasses and only a few trees
River- a large, flowing body of water that usually empties into a sea or ocean
Tributary- a stream or river that flows into a larger river
Valley- a low area between hills and mountains where a stream or river often flows
Volcano- a mountainous vent in the Earth’s crust where magma rises from the Earth’s interior and
erupts as lava
Topographic Maps- show the shape and features of land, they show shape and elevation, as well as special
features.
Aerial Maps- show the geological features of the Earth from a distance above the Earth
Deforestation- the changing of forested areas to non-forested land.
Slash-and-Burn-largest cause of deforestation, involves cutting down trees, then burning the remaining
vegetation
Dams- provide hydroelectric power to areas, but decrease the flow of the river, which means fewer habitats,
and nutrients. Dams can also disrupt breeding for fish.
Weather and Climate
Atmosphere- the invisible ocean of air we live in. It is made up of 78% Nitrogen, 20.9% Oxygen, and .9%
Argon. Small amounts of other gases are also present, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Molecules- are the gases that make up our atmosphere. As gas molecules move about, they spread outward
and upward. There are more molecules near the Earth’s surface because of gravity. The higher up you go in
the atmosphere the less dense the molecules are -- meaning the atmosphere thins out as you go higher.
Atmospheric pressure- is produced by molecules hitting a surface.
Altitude- height
Barometer- measures atmospheric pressure. Most barometers are made of mercury. When the mercury
drops significantly this means a storm is approaching. The mercury will rise again once the storm has passed.
There are four layers of the Earth:
 Troposphere- also called the zone of weather, because it’s the lowest layer where all the
weather occurs. Temperatures decrease with increasing altitude (meaning the higher you go
up, the colder it is.)
 Stratosphere- is the 2nd layer of the atmosphere. The temperatures increase with increasing
altitude. This layer contains the ozone layer. The ozone filters harmful ultraviolet radiation
from the sun.
 Mesosphere- is the 3rd layer of the atmosphere. Temperatures decrease with increasing
altitude.
 Thermosphere-surrounds the mesosphere and temperatures increase as you go up in altitude.
This layer is also sometimes known as the ionosphere.
Wind- is the movement of air.
Cold air- moves downward. It sinks because it is heavier.
Warm air- moves upward. It rises because it is lighter.
Convection- is when cooler, denser air moves from an area of high pressure to low pressure (the forests to
the streets); it pushes the warm, less dense air upward. This process of warmer air being pushed up is called
convection.
The water cycle- is a continuous process of water moving from air to ground. The four stages are:
 Precipitation- water that falls to the surface of the Earth (snow, ice, hail or rain)
Much of the precipitation goes into --is absorbed by -- the ground and becomes groundwater. If it does
not go into the ground it is called runoff, because it moves along the ground’s surface.
 Evaporation –water molecules that escape and become water vapor
 Transpiration- groundwater is absorbed by the roots and plants and the unneeded water is
evaporated from tiny openings called the stomata in the leaves in a process known as transpiration.
 Condensation- examples- the dew on a leaf, the bathroom shower that has fogged up, the outside of
an icy cold glass on a warm day.
Humidity- is the amount of water vapor in the air.
Facts:
 Warm air can hold more water vapor than cool air.
 Warm air can hold up to five times as much water vapor as cold air on a winter day. This is why there
is more humidity in the summer.
 100% humidity means that the air is saturated with the maximum amount of water vapor that it can
hold at a certain temperature. This could mean that is it raining. 50% humidity means that the air is
holding half of the water vapor that it can at that temperature.
Relative humidity- tells how much water vapor is in the air compared to the total that could be in the air at
a given temperature.
Dew- is the water droplets that form on the grass and other surfaces. If it is below freezing the dew
becomes frost which is harmful to plants.
Clouds must have three things in order to form:
1. water vapor in the air
2. cooling in the atmosphere
3. condensation
There
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are 3 basic shapes of clouds:
Cumulus- piled up
Stratus- spread out
Cirrus- hair-like strands
Cumulus clouds from when moist air collects rapidly over a small area. The moisture will pile up and form
cumulus clouds.
Cumulonimbus clouds- create thunderstorms.
Stratus clouds- form as air rises gently over a large area and then cools slowly. They are not piled up, but
spread out over the sky.
Cirrus clouds- are the highest in the atmosphere. They look like wispy feathers.
Large areas of air with the same temperature and moisture levels of the surface are referred to as air
masses.
Air masses are very large, and move like giant air bubbles over the earth.
Cold air masses produce cooler weather, and warm air masses bring warmer weather.
Air masses are classified by their temperature and moisture, and get their names from the source regions
where they develop.
Temperature characteristics are defined by: Arctic, Antarctic Polar, Equatorial, and Tropical.
Maritime- an air mass that is moist, and forms over the oceans
Continental- an air mass that is dry, forming over the continents
Wet air masses- form over oceans
Dry air masses- form over continents
Arctic and Antarctic air masses-considered dry, there is little evaporation and very low temperatures.
The temperature of a place depends on the source of the air mass and the path of the air mass.
The leading edge of a moving air mass is called a front.
A cold front occurs at the edge of a cold air mass.
A warm front occurs at the edge of a warm air mass.
If air masses are not moving, then the space between the masses is called a stationary front. Stationary
fronts bring overcast, rainy weather.
Occluded fronts occur when two cold air masses move toward each other, and warmer air is pushed upward.
Occluded fronts bring cool temperatures with rain or snow.
Low pressure areas bring cloudy and rainy weather. Rapid changes in low-pressure area cause storms. Three
types of violent storms include thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes.
Thunderstorms- very intense rainstorms with thunder, lightning, strong winds, and sometimes hail
Lightning- when an electrical spark is generated from either a cloud to a cloud, cloud to the ground, or
ground to a cloud.
Tornado- an extremely violent storm, consisting of a funnel or rope-shaped cloud which hangs below a
cumulonimbus cloud.
Hurricane- a large, violent storm created over water.
Hurricane Floyd caused severe flooding, and severely damaged the coastal plain of North Carolina in 1999.
Gulf stream- ocean current flowing along the coast of the Eastern United State, up to Ireland and Great
Britain.
Hurricane Katrina hit Mississippi and Louisiana in August 2005. It was the worst hurricane to ever hit the
U.S.
Meteorologists are scientists who monitor weather conditions.
Statistical forecasting is based on finding patterns or trends in weather.
Weather forecasting depends on sophisticated technology that gathers information from all across the
nation.
Weather map- meteorologists use different lines and symbols to represent different types of weather
Thermometer- used to measure air temperature
Barometer- used to measure air pressure
Wind vane- measures the direction of the wind blowing
Anemometer- measures wind speed
Hygrometer- measure humidity
National Weather Service- where all weather information collected from weather satellites and radars is
sent
Geostationary- a term used by scientists to describe an orbit of a satellite when it appears to be in the same
position because it is moving in synchrony with the Earth’s rotation.
Polar- a type of satellite orbit near the North or South Pole
Radar- uses radio waves to measure the distance and location of weather such as rain
Weather- the day to day atmospheric conditions in a certain area (short term)
Climate- the average weather conditions in a certain area over a long period of time (long term)
Temperature and Precipitation are the two most important factors in determining climate.
Three major climate zones in each atmosphere
 Polar- located around North and South Poles, very cold climates
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Temperate- “mid-latitudes”, moderate temperatures neither very cold or very hot
Tropical- very mild temperatures year-round
Distance from the equator determines precipitation patterns.
Rain shadow- the leeward side of the mountain that receives dry and warming air
Large bodies of water and ocean currents also influence climate. This is because large bodies of water cool
and warm at a much slower rate than land.
Sea breezes- help keep the temperature down near the coast
Ocean currents are like massive rivers within the ocean.
Warm
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Ocean Currents get their power from 3 main sources:
Heat from the sun
Strong winds
The spinning of the Earth on its axis
Cold Ocean Currents run deep below the surface of the ocean, where the water is not warmed by the sun.
As winds blow warm surface water out to sea, the cold water fills in the gap.
Jet streams- the fast moving, narrow zones of air in the troposphere which blow from the west to the east
due to the Earth’s rotation.
Valley breeze- warm air that rises and flows up the mountains during the day
Mountain breeze- cool air that sinks and flows down the mountains at night
Understanding Force and Motion
Inertia- the tendency of an object to keep on doing whatever it is doing – if it isn’t moving, it tends to remain
at rest. If an object is moving, it will keep moving until it is acted upon by an unbalanced force, such as
friction.
Force- a push or pull on an object
Gravity- the force that pulls objects toward the Earth
Friction- an object’s resistance to move, this is created whenever two surfaces touch
Lift- an upward force that is able to overcome the downward pull of gravity
Drag- similar to friction, only in the air
Aerodynamic designs reduce drag.
Thrust- a forward force produced by an engine
Motion is measured in terms of speed.
SPEED=
Distance traveled________
Time it takes to travel that distance
Velocity- the measure of speed that takes into account the direction of the movement (speed & direction)
Acceleration- is a measure of the rate of change of an object’s speed
Acceleration= speed
Time
Slope- the distance covered while going up or coming down from a height is called slope
Gravity does not care about mass. The increase in acceleration is the same for all objects as they fall closer
and closer to the earth.
Work is done when a force moves an object.
Energy- the ability to do work
Work that goes into a machine is work input. The work done by a machine is work output.
There
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are six types of simple machines:
Inclined Plane- ramp, the simplest machine of all
Wedge- an inclined plan that moves through an object
Screw- an inclined plane that is wrapped around a cylinder to form a spiral
Lever- a bar that pivots around a fixed point
Wheel and Axle- made up of a large circle and smaller circle
Pulley-changes direction in which you have to apply force, made up of a rope and a wheel
Unbalanced Force- when the total force on an object is moving in one direction, changes the motion of an
object – there is movement
Balanced Forces- forces exerted in opposite directions and are equal in size, no change in motion – no
movement
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion:
First Law of Motion- “Law of Inertia”, An object with no unbalanced force acting on it will wither remain at
rest, or continue moving at constant speed in a straight line unless a force acts on it.
Second Law of Motion- “Law of Acceleration”, when an unbalanced force is applied to an object, the object
accelerates. Also, the greater the force the faster the object moves.
Third Law of Motion- For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.