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Review for Exam (Weeks 33 - 34, 5 Hours, 5 classes, total 2 weeks approx.) Total Hours - 110 approx. Total Weeks - 32 approx. Total Classes - 90 approx. Weeks 33 - 34: Review I review for the AP exam by providing students with a copy of the course outline as it appears in the “Acorn Book (AP Book)” and asking them to define, illustrate, or comment on each item. Review for the final exam Review of Key Geographic Concepts and Models by Rubenstein 8th ed. College Board Topics: Evolution of key geographical concepts and models associated with notable geographers Key concepts underlying the geographic perspective: space, place, and scale Sources of geographical ideas and data: the field, census data, etc. Resources: The following models and the geographers (some are other types of scientists, but think and theorize geographically) associated with them are specifically dealt with in the text. Demographic transition model: pp. 57-64 Ravenstein's Migration "Laws" (E.G. Ravenstein): pp. 85-90 Von Thunen's model (Johann Heinrich von Thunen): pp. 356-357 Central place theory (Walter Christaller): pp. 412-414 Concentric zone model (E.W. Burgess): p. 445-447 Sector model (Homer Hoyt): pp. 446 Multiple nuclei model (Harris and Ullman): pp. 446-448 Peripheral model (Chauncey Harris): pp. 459-460 Key Concepts: Outlined here is an abbreviated review of some of the more important concepts covered in the textbook. The instructor is encouraged to use it as the basis for classroom discussions covering topics listed in the above pacing guide. Chapter 1: Basic Concepts Location: pp. 15-20 o Site, situation, mathematical location Characteristics of distributions: pp. 33-36 o Types of regions: pp. 20-30 o Density, concentration, pattern Formal, functional, vernacular Diffusion: pp. 38-40 o Hearth, relocation, hierarchical, contagious, stimulus Chapter 2: Population Types of density: pp. 51-53 o Demographics: pp. 53-57 o CBR, CDR, NIR, doubling time, TFR, infant mortality, life expectancy Population pyramids: pp. 62-68 o Arithmetic, physiological, agricultural Dependency ration, sex ratio Demographic Transition: pp. 58-69 o Stages 1 through 4 Chapter 3: Migration Ravenstein's Migration "Laws": pp. 85-90 Push and pull factors: pp. 85-88 Intervening obstacles: p. 88 Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture Differences between folk and popular culture: pp. 117-122 o Origin and diffusion Influence of physical environment on folk culture: pp. 123-129 Influence of popular culture on physical environment: pp. 139-143 Chapter 5: Language Distribution of language families: map pp. 165-171 Language family tree: chart pp. 166-167 Theories of origin and diffusion of Indo-European: pp. 162-163 o Kurgan hearth theory, Anatolian hearth theory Chapter 6: Religion World distribution of religions: map pp. 187-193 Religious distribution in the U.S.: map p. 188-189 Major religions and branches: pp. 187-196 Chapter 7: Ethnicity Ethnic distribution in the U.S.: pp. 227-235 o Regional concentrations, concentration in cities, ghetto Nationality and nation-state: pp. 237-243 Ethnic conflict: pp. 245-255 o Multi-ethnic state, multinational-state, ethnic cleansing Chapter 8: Political Geography Issues of sovereignty: pp. 263-270 o Boundaries: 271-281 o City-state, colony, state, Korea/China issue, Antarctica Shapes of states, types of boundaries Cooperation between states: pp. 281-292 o Political and military alliances, economic cooperation, terrorism Chapter 9: Development Human development index, core and periphery: map pp. 299-304 Indicators of economic development: pp. 299-321 o Economic, social, and demographic Development strategies: pp. 322-327 o Self-sufficiency and international trade approaches Chapter 10: Agriculture Commercial vs. subsistence agriculture: pp. 333-335 Agricultural regions: map pp. 335-356 Von Thunen's model: pp. 356-359 Green Revolution: p. 481 Chapter 11: Industry World manufacturing regions: map p. 375-381 Manufacturing in the United States: maps pp. 377 Location considerations: pp. 381-393 o Bulk-reducing, bulk-gaining, break-of-bulk point, labor intensive Chapter 12: Services Central place theory: pp. 412-418 o Rank-size rule: pp. 416-418 o Primate city Economic base of settlements: pp. 425-426 o Market area, range, and threshold Basic and non-basic industries Central business districts: pp. 427-431 Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Models of urban structure: pp. 445-448, 448-454 o Concentric zone, sector, multiple nuclei, and peripheral models Models of urban structure outside North America o European cities, pre-colonial cities, Latin American cities, squatter settlements Inner-city problems: pp. 454-459 Suburbs: pp. 459-467 Troubleshooting Tips: For many AP* students, the review can "make or break" the test. A good review is key to helping students in a comprehensive and cumulative course perform well. While you need not review everything, the key concepts are a must. Case studies, discussed during the course, should be used to illustrate each of the topics reviewed so that no term, concept, or model is reviewed as only a mere "definition"–all should be descriptive and analytical of actual places. When reviewing the models, students should understand the underlying assumptions of the model and be able to describe both examples and non-examples. Illustrate the major concepts using overhead transparencies and/or slides, or simply have students look at the maps Important Concepts and Terms: Special thanks to Martha Sharma, National Cathedral School, Washington, D.C. who has made this list available. Basic concepts: the following concepts transcend all units in AP Human Geography; they are central to all geographic thinking and analysis and could even be considered central to any definition of geography. Spatial [of or pertaining to space on or near Earth’s surface] Location [absolute, relative, site, situation, place name] Direction [absolute, relative] Distance [absolute, relative] Size Scale [implied degree of generalization] Physical attributes [natural landscape] Cultural attributes [cultural landscape] Changing attributes of place [built landscape, sequent occupance] Environmental determinism Possibilism Spatial interaction [accessibility, connectivity, network, distance de cay, friction time space compression] Diffusion [hearth, relocation, expansion, hierarchical, contagious, stimulus] Distribution Density [arithmetic, physiological] Dispersion/concentration [dispersed/scattered, clustered/agglomerated] Pattern [linear, centralized, random] Region [formal/uniform, functional/nodal, perceptual/vernacular] of distance, Geographic tools: Map [maps are the tool most uniquely identified with geography; the ability to use and interpret maps is an essential geographic skill. Map scale [distance on a map relative to distance on Earth] Distortion Projection Grid [North and South Poles, latitude, parallel, Equator, longitude, meridian, prime meridian, International Date Line] Map types [thematic, statistical, cartogram, dot, choropleth, isoline] Mental map Geographic Information System (GIS) Global Positioning System (GPS) Remote sensing Model [a simplified abstraction of reality, structured to clarify causal relationships]: geographers use models [e.g., Demographic Transition, Epidemiological Transition, Gravity, Von Thunen, Weber, Concentric Circle (Burgess), Sector (Hoyt), Multiple Nuclei, Central Place (Christaller), etc.] to explain patterns, make informed decisions, and predict future behaviors. Unit II. Population – Basic Vocabulary and Concepts POPULATION: MIGRATION: Population densities Demographic regions Population distributions Natality Mortality Population explosion Thomas Malthus Demographic Transition model Zero population growth Age distribution Population pyramid Cohort Sex ratio Gendered space Standard of living Infant mortality rate Diffusion of fertility control Disease diffusion Maladaptation Sustainability Epidemiological Transition model Demographic equation Dependency ratio Rate of natural increase Doubling time J-curve S-curve Ecumene Overpopulation Underpopulation Carrying capacity Population projection Neo-Malthusian Demographic momentum Push-pull factors Voluntary Forced Transmigration Refugee Migrations patterns -- intercontinental -- interregional -- rural-urban Place utility Activity space Personal space Space-time prism Gravity model Distance decay Step migration Chain migration Intervening opportunity Cyclic movement Migratory movement Periodic movement Transhumance Internal migration Unit III. Cultural Patterns and Processes, part 1 – Basic Vocabulary and Concepts CONCEPTS OF CULTURE: Acculturation Assimilation Cultural adaptation Cultural core/periphery pattern Cultural ecology Cultural identity Cultural landscape Cultural realm Culture Culture region Formal – core, periphery Functional – node Vernacular (perceptual) – regional self awareness Diffusion types Expansion – hierarchical, contagious, stimulus Relocation Innovation adoption Maladaptive diffusion Sequent occupance FOLK AND POPULAR CULTURE: LANGUAGE: Adaptive strategies Anglo-American landscape characteristics Architectural form Built environment Folk culture Folk food Folk house Folk songs Folklore Material culture Nonmaterial culture Popular culture Survey systems Traditional architecture Creole Dialect Indo-European languages Isogloss Language Language family Language group Language subfamily Lingua franca Linguistic diversity Mono-/multilingual Official language Pidgin Toponymy Trade language Unit III. Cultural Patterns and Processes, part 2 – Supplemental Vocabulary and Concepts RELIGION Animism Buddhism Cargo cult pilgrimage Christianity Confucianism Ethnic religion Exclave/enclave Fundamentalism Geomancy (feng shui) Hadj Hinduism Interfaith boundaries Islam ETHNICITY Acculturation Adaptive strategy Assimilation Barrio Chain migration Cultural adaptation Cultural shatterbelt Ethnic cleansing Ethnic conflict Ethnic enclave Ethnic group Ethnic homeland Ethnic landscape Ethnic neighborhood Ethnicity Ethnocentrism Ghetto Plural society Race Segregation Social distance Jainism Judaism Landscapes of the dead Mono-/polytheism Mormanism Muslim pilgrimage Muslim population Proselytic religion Reincarnation Religion (groups; places) Religious architectural styles Religious conflict GENDER Dowry death Enfranchisement Gender Gender gap Infanticide Longevity gap Maternal mortality rate Religious culture hearth Religious toponym Sacred space Shamanism Secularism Sharia law Shintoism Sikhism Sunni/Shia Taoism Theocracy Universalizing Zoroastrianism Unit IV. Political Organization of Space – Supplemental Vocabulary and Concepts Annexation Antarctica Apartheid Balkanization Border landscape Boundary, disputes (definitional; locational; operational; allocational) Boundary, origin (antecedent; subsequent; superimposed; relic) Boundary, process (definition; delimitation; demarcation) Boundary, type (natural/physical; ethnographic/cultural; geometric) Buffer state Capital Centrifugal Centripetal City-state Colonialism Confederation Conference of Berlin (1884) Core/periphery Decolonization Devolution Domino theory EEZ Electoral regions Enclave/exclave Ethnic conflict European Union Federal Forward capital Frontier Geopolitics Gerrymander Global commons Heartland/rimland Immigrant states International organization Iron Curtain Irredentism Israel/Palestine Landlocked Law of the Sea Lebanon Mackinder, Halford J. Manifest destiny Median-line principle Microstate Ministate Nation National iconography Nation-state Nunavut Raison d’être Reapportionment Regionalism Religious conflict Reunification Satellite state Self-determination Shatter belt Sovereignty State Stateless ethnic groups Stateless nation Suffrage Supranationalism Territorial disputes Territorial morphology (compact; fragmented; elongated; prorupt; perforated) Territoriality Theocracy Treaty ports UNCLOS Unitary USSR collapse Women’s enfranchisement Unit V. Agricultural and Rural Land Use – Supplemental Vocabulary and Concepts Adaptive strategies Agraian Agribusiness Agricultural industrialization Agricultural landscape Agricultural location model Agricultural origins Agriculture Animal domestication Aquaculture Biorevolution Biotechnology Collective farm Commercial agriculture [intensive, extensive] Core/periphery Crop rotation Cultivation regions Dairying Debt-for nature swap Diffusion Double cropping Economic activity [primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, quinary] Environmental modification [pesticides, soil erosion, desertification] Extensive subsistence agriculture [shifting cultivation (slash-and-burn, milpa, swidden), nomadic herding/ pastoralism] Extractive industry Farm crisis Farming Feedlot First Agricultural Revolution Fishing Food chain Forestry Globalized agriculture Green Revolution Growing season Hunting and gathering Intensive subsistence agriculture Intertillage Livestock ranching Market gardening Mediterranean agriculture Mineral fuels Mining Planned economy Plant domestication Plantation agriculture Renewable/nonrenewable Rural settlement [dispersed, nucleated, building material, village form] Sauer, Carl O. Second Agricultural Revolution Specialization Staple grains Suitcase farm Survey patterns [long lots, metes and bounds, township-and-range] Sustainable yield Third Agricultural Revolution [mechanization, chemical farming, food manufacturing] “Tragedy of the commons” Transhumance Truck farm Von Thunen, Johann Unit VI. Industrialization and Economic Development – Supplemental Vocabulary and Concepts Economic Development: Agricultural labor force Calorie consumption Core-periphery model Cultural convergence Dependency theory Development Energy consumption Foreign direct investment Gender Gross domestic product (GDP) Gross national product (GNP) Human Development Index Levels of development Measures of development Neo-colonialism Physical Quality of Life Index Purchasing power parity Rostow, W.W. “Stages of Growth” model Technology gap Technology transfer Third World World Systems Theory Growth poles Heartland/rimland Industrial location theory Industrial regions (place, fuel source, characteristics) Industrial Revolution Industry (receding, growing) Infrastructure International division of labor Labor-intensive Least-cost location Major manufacturing regions Manufacturing exports Manufacturing/warehouse location (industrial parks, agglomeration, shared services, zoning, transportation, taxes, environmental considerations) Maquiladora Market orientation Multiplier effect NAFTA Outsourcing Ozone depletion Plant location (supplies, “just in time” delivery) Postindustrial Refrigeration Resource crisis Resource orientation Special Economic Zones (China) Specialized Economic Zones (Manufacturing export zone; high-tech zone) Substitution principle Threshold/range Time-space compression topocide Trade (complementarity) Transnational corporation Ubiquitous Variable costs Weber, Alfred Weight-gaining Weight-losing World cities Industrialization: Acid rain Agglomeration Agglomeration economies Air pollution Aluminum industry (factors of production, location) Assembly line production/Fordism Bid rent theory Break-of-bulk point Canadian industrial heartland Carrier efficiency Comparative advantage Cumulative causation Deglomeration Deindustrialization Economic sectors Economies of scale Eco-tourism Energy resources Entrepot Export processing zone Fixed costs Footloose industry Four Tigers Greenhouse effect Unit VII. Cities and Urban Land Use – Supplemental Vocabulary and Concepts Agglomeration Barriadas Bid-rent theory Blockbusting CBD Census tract Centrality Centralization Central-place theory Christaller, Walter City Cityscapes Colonial city Commercialization Commuter zone Concentric zone model Counterurbanization Decentralization Deindustrialization Early cities Economic base (basic/nonbasic) Edge city Emerging cities Employment structure Entrepot Ethnic neighborhood Favela Female-headed household Festival landscape Gateway city Gender Gentrification Ghetto Globalization Great cities High-tech corridors Hinterland Hydraulic civilization Indigenous city In-filling Informal sector Infrastructure Inner city Invasion and succession Lateral commuting Medieval cities Megacities Megalopolis/ Conurbation Metropolitan area Multiple nuclei model Multiplier effect Neighborhood Office park Peak land value intersection Planned communities Postindustrial city Postmodern urban landscape Primate city Racial steering Rank-size rule Redlining Restrictive covenants Sector model Segregation Settlement form (nucleated, dispersed, elongated) Shopping mall Site/situation Slum Social structure Specialization Squatter settlement Street pattern (grid, dendritic; access, control) Suburb Suburbanization Symbolic landscape Tenement Threshold/range Town Underclass Underemployment Urban growth rate Urban function Urban hearth area Urban heat island Urban hierarchy Urban hydrology Urban morphology Urbanization Urbanized population World city Zone in transition Zoning CHAPTER 1 I. Five Concepts a. Space i. ii. iii. iv. b. Place c. Regions v. i. Location 1. Toponym 2. Site- physical characteristics 3. Situation- relative location 4. Mathematical- geographic grids a. Longitude- importance in calculating time i. Regions 1. Formal – uniform or homogeneous 2. Functional- or nodal 3. Vernacular- or perceptual Culture 1. How geographers study culture 2. Cultural identity 3. Cultural ecology a. Possibilism Ii d. Scale Distribution 1. Density 2. Concentration 3. Pattern Interaction results from the diffusion of a feature Relocation Diffusion 1. Bodily movements Expansion diffusion 1. Through Snow balling a. Hierarchical diffusion- from a node b. Contagious Diffusion- widespread Stimulus diffusion- underlying principles i. Globalization 1. Economy a. Movement of money b. Role of transnational corporations c. Global investment flows d. Local specialization in location of production 2. Culture a. Elements of culture b. Customary beliefs c. Social forms d. Material traits 3. Globalization of culture a. Fewer local differences b. Enhanced communications c. Unequal access d. Maintenance of local tradition 4. Globalization of environment a. Possibilism b. Physical process i. Climate ii. Vegetation iii. Soils iv. Landforms 5. Sensitive and insensitive environmental modifications a. Brazil rainforest e. Connections i. Spatial interaction- interdependence 1. Movement of people, ideas and objects through regions a. Space time compression b. Distance Decay ii. Diffusion 1. Movement of people ideas and information between places a. Uneven development b. Hearth- where an innovation originates (Reggae music) c. Two main types of diffusion i. Relocation ii. Expansion 1. Hierarchal – person or nodes of authority 2. Contagious- snowball effect- testing blood for HIV/AIDs 3. Stimulus a. Technologyi. Internet CHAPTER 2: POPULATION II. World’s Population a) Distribution a. Concentration i. Three Quarters of World’s Population live on only 5% of the Earth’s surface 1. Five Regions of Population Concentration – East Asia – South Asia – SE Asia – Europe – Eastern North America b. Sparsely Populated Ecumene i. Dry ii. Wet iii. Cold iv. High c. Cartograms- Displayed by population rather than land size b) Population Density a. Three ways i. ii. iii. Population Density or arithmetic density 1. Total People/Total land Physiological Density 1. Total people/Arable land Agriculture 1. Total Farmer/Arable Land b. Factors i. ii. iii. iv. Crude Birth Rate (CBR) Live births per 1000 people Crude Death Rate (CDR) Deaths per 1000 people CBR-CDR/10=Natural Increase Rate Doubling Time 1. Total Fertility Rate Average number of children will have throughout her child bearing years (15-49) 2. Mortality a. Infant Morality Rate Total deaths of infants under one per 1000 live births i. LDCs are high ~100 b. Life Expectancy i. LDC vs. MDC 1. Factors a. Medicine b. Economic Factors i. c) Affluence ii. Diet Population Increases at Different Rates a. Demographic Transitions i. b. c. d. Stages Three stages 1. Beginning 2. Middle 3. End i. Low Growth ii. High Growth Revolution iii. Moderate Growth iv. Low Growths (to 1750) (from 1750-?) CBR declines ZPG Examples of Demographic Transition i. England 1. Stage 1 1066-1750 2. Stage 2 1750-1880 3. Stage 3 1880-1970 4. Stage 4 1970-today Population Pyramids i. Agricultural Revolution Industrial and Medical Age Structure 1. Dependency Ratio 2. Sex Ratio 3. Males per 100 females 1m to 6m 6m to 30m 26m to 49m 49 to present d) Malthus a. English Economist 1766-1834 i. Lived during 1st Industrial Revolution- not focused on agricultural development ii. Premise was that the world’s population outgrowing food supplies 1. Mad Max /Postman World 2. Wrote essay on the Principle of Population 3. 4. 5. People Food Today 1 1 25 years 2 2 50 years 4 3 75 years 8 4 100 years 16 5 Contentions a. Population growth would press all resources b. Moral Restraint to have lower CBRs c. Higher CDRs Neo-Malthusians a. Higher growth in LDCs unprecedented b. Kaplan and Homer-Dixon i. Scavengers ii. Civil War iii. Not just food but other resources Malthus’ Critics a. F. Engels, Co-Author of Communist Manifesto dismissed Malthus as arithmetic artifact of Capitalism i. b. Enough resources but must be shared Boserup and Simon i. larger population stimulates economic growth and produces more food ii. PESSIMISTIC CHAPTER 3 MIGRATION KEY ISSUE 1: I. Why Do People Migrate? a. Reasons for Migration b. Distance of migration c. Characteristics of migration Ravenstein’s outline in the 19th Century on migration take into considering 11 migratory ‘laws’ Three basic groupings Reasons for moving How far they move Characteristics of the move 1. Reasons for migrating a. Most people move for economic reasons b. Secondary reasons are cultural and environmental factor i. Push factors induces people to leave 1. Example low wages ii. Pull factors draw people to a specific place 1. Example higher wages c. Economic factors i. Job opportunities 1. Natural resources a. Oil b. Gold c. Land d. Cultural Push and Pull factors i. Forced international migration 1. Slavery 2. Political instability a. Ethnic wars ala Rwanda-Burundi b. Partition of India i. Refugees 1. 30m in 1999 a. 13m international b. 17m interregional e. Environmental Push- Pull Factors i. Drawn to better climates 1. California 2. Colorado 3. Arizona a. ‘Doc Holiday’ b. Not true today ii. Pushed from hazardous environments 1. Floodplains 2. Lack of water a. Africa f. 2. 3. 4. Intervening obstacles i. Physical Barriers 1. Mountains 2. Deserts 3. Bodies of Water ii. Cultural obstacles 1. Language Distances of Migration a. Internal Migration i. Permanent two types 1. Intraregional a. Typically from rural to urban b. But also from urban to rural 2. Interregional a. Within same country but a different region b. Examples form Chicago to California i. Gold Rush ii. Dust bowl iii. b. International Migration i. Permanent move from one country to another ii. Two types 1. Voluntary: chooses to move 2. Forced: Compelled to move 3. Wilbur Zelinsky Migratory Transition correlates to Demographic Transition. a. Stage 2 is International migration LDC to MDC b. Stage 3 and 4 are normally internal migration Characteristics of Migrants a. Most long distance migrants have traditionally been male i. Prior to 1990s 54% male Mexico to US 85% male ii. Post 1990 54% female Mexico to US 50%-50% b. Family Status of Migrants i. 55% of immigrants to the USA are between 18-44 years old [US population is 45%] ii. Only 5% are 65 or older [US population is 13%] iii. Today Children immigrants equal US population @17% 1. Problems a. Education level of immigrants is only 4 years of schooling b. Most Mexican immigrants come from the states farthest from the US border c. Jobs- agricultural i. Seasonal Where are Migrants Distributed? a. Global Patterns of Migration i. Africa, Asia and Latin America have net outgoing migrants 1. To Europe from Asia 2. To North America from Asia and Latin America 3. Lesser but still significant migration occurs from a. Europe to North America b. Asia to Oceania(Australia) 4. Lower still from Latin America to Oceania Africa to Europe Africa to North America Africa to Oceania b. Immigration to the US i. Population of US includes about 25m born in other countries. 1. 50% of the people were born in Latin America a. 50% of these people were from Mexico ii. Total immigrant population of the US is @10% iii. Despite it being the largest immigrant nation, the total percentage is lower than most countries 1. Canada is 15% 2. Europe is 6% 3. Highest region is the Middle East a. UAE 90% b. Kuwait 70% iv. 65m have immigrated to the US since 1820 1. Two main eras or waves of migrants a. Mid 19th to early 20th Century i. Irish potato famine b. 1970s to today i. Vietnamese ii. Iran v. European Migration to the US 1. Since 1492, 60m Europeans have migrated to other continents have migrant 2. 36m of these migrants have immigrated to North America 3. Europeans chose the US because of the greatest opportunity for economic success. a. Breakdown by European nations-problems with boundaries and borders of nations i. Germany 7.1m 25% of Americans trace their roots ii. Italy 5.4m iii. UK 5.2m 12.5%of Americans trace their roots iv. Ireland 4.8m 12.5% of Americans trace their roots v. Russia 3.5 4. 1607-1840 steady stream of English settlers which was about 90% of our population 5. 1840-1850s about 4m migrated to the US which was about twice as many as in the previous 250 years 6. Immigration jumped from 20,000 per year in 1775 to 250,000 per year in the 1840s. 7. 90% of the immigrants in the 1840s-1850s were from Ireland and northern and Western Europe. 40% from Ireland and 33% from Germany 8. Second wave began in the 1880s to the 1920s. Immigrants were 500,000 per year. Majority were from Western and northern Germany with 33% being German. But also large numbers of Swedes, Irish, and Norwegians 9. Economic problems in the Us discouraged the Third wave of immigrants in the 1890s, but the early 1900s, immigration again was reaching peak levels. Nearly 1.0m per year for the first 15 years of the 20th century. Peak was in 1907 with 1,5m immigrants 10. Again 90% were European, but shift to Eastern and Southern Europe. 25% from Italy,. Why? Industrial Revolution had diffused to southern and Eastern Europe a. 14% of US total population in 1910 were immigrants @ 13m of the total 92m in the US 11. Impact of European Migration & Diffusion of European culture a. European Demographic Transition i. Rapid growth in Europe fueled international migration ii. Limited economic opportunities in Europe C. iii. Consolidation of small farms to increase food production caused exodus of farmers to US 1. Called the ‘Enclosure Movement’ in England iv. Net emigration to US allowed Europe to have a better standard of living. v. Lower populations-stage 3 and 4- meant lower emigration to US b. Ellis Island between 1892 and 1954 12m emigrants were 1. processed at Ellis Island in New York. Opened in 1990 as a restored museum of immigration. Who owned the island? NJ or NY? May ’98 Sc Court ruling gave it to NJ c. Diffusion of European Culture i. Emigration of 60m Europeans has changed world culture ii. Examples 1. 50% of languages around the world are IndoEuropean 2. Largest European religion, Christianity, is the world’s largest religion 3. Classical music; art 4. Close links to North America and Australia/New Zealand 5. Political structure a. Imperialism- little concern about interjecting their culture to other cultures 6. Economic plantations; cotton; rice; sugar; tobacco a. Labor- slaves, natives- little to no Europeans 12. Recent Immigration Trends to the US a. Dropped sharply in the 1930s and 1940s i. WWII and Great Depression ii. Only 50,000 per year iii. Emigration exceeded immigration b. Surged during the 1980s and 1990s 1. Asia leading source in the 1970s and early 1980s a. Vietnam b. Iran 2. Overtaken by Latin America in the 1980s a. 2m from 1840 to 1960 b. 10m from 1960 to 2000 c. Immigration Reform Act i. Resident Alien status after 5 years. ii. Chain migration iii. Undocumented immigration 1. Millions annually Why do Migrants face Obstacles? 1. Immigration Quotas a. US quota Laws- designed to keep America European i. 1921 Quota Act ii. 1924 Nations Origins Act 2. Hemisphere Quota a. 1978-295k; 20k per country b. 1990- 500,000 i. Brain drain ii. Guest workers in Europe 1. 10% Switzerland & Luxembourg 2. 9% Germany 3. 6% France c. Time-contract Workers i. 19th century ii. 29m Chinese worldwide iii. Work in another country in exchange for transport d. Emigrants from Cuba e. Emigrants from Haiti f. US invasion of Haiti g. Emigration from Vietnan i. 1975 South Vietnam falls to communism 3. Cultural Problems a. US attitude towards immigrants i. Language ii. Cultural differences iii. Religions iv. Problems with Guest worker 1. French political party- anti foreigner Henri Le Pen D. Why do people migrate within a Country? 1. Less disruptive 2. Two types a. Interregional i. Economic opportunities 1. US West 2. Gold Rushes 3. Land boom- Oklahoma 4. Sunbelt –technology a. Proximity to Mexico 5. International examples a. Brazil- Brasilia away from the coast and Rio b. Indonesia- away from Djakarta and Java c. Russia d. India Assam b. Intraregional i. Rural to urban ii. Counterurbanization CHAPTER 4- CULTURE I. Introduction. 1. Remember culture combines three elements Values Material artifacts and Political institutions 2. Chapter Four focuses on material or visual artifacts of culture. It may be subdivided into two facets of material culture a. Material derived from survival activities of daily life: food shelter and clothing b. Material derived from leisure activities: arts and recreation. Habit versus custom Individual versus group 3. 4. Folk Culture a. Traditionally practiced by small homogeneous groups live in isolated rural areas. Smaller scale i. Sarongs ii. Sari iii. Turban Popular Culture a. 5. Practiced large heterogeneous societies that share habits despite differences in other personal characteristics. Large scale Aspects of Space/Place/Connections/Regions a. b. II. 1. Where they are located. Spatial arrangement? Why popular culture and folk culture are located where they are? KEY ISSUE 1: Where do Folk and Popular Culture Diffuse? d. Origins of folk and popular culture e. Diffusion of folk and popular culture Each social custom has a unique spatial distribution. It can be explain by two factors: i. ii. Process of origins Pattern of diffusion 2. Process of origins of Folk and Popular Culture a. Folk Music a. Tells a story. Similarities between western and other culture b. C&W Music from a hearth i. b. 1. Blue grass or Appalachian music-East Tenn, WV, W.NC 2. Cowboy Music-TEXAS 3. Ozark Music-Arkansas 4. Middle Tennessee/Kentucky Popular Music a. Originates around 1900? Why? i. ii. 1. b. Music Halls Tin Pan Alley song sheet music AFRTS i. ii. 3. Country Upper South- regional Broadcast round the world in WWII English becomes the language of music Diffusion of Popular and Folk cultures a. b. c. d. AFRTS –hierarchical node Movie industry- Hollywood Advertising- Madison Avenue NYC Relocation diffusion of a Folk Culture a. Amish b. 70,000 or 0.03% c. Culture and customs are intact i. Jakob Ammann ii. Swiss 1. 2 waves of Amish immigration 2. 1st Settled in Pennsylvania because of inexpensive land prices a. Mainly Lancaster County in 1700s 3. 2nd Wave settled in Ohio, Illinois, Iowa and Ontario in the 1800s a. low priced land 4. Rural settings allowed the Amish folk traditions 5. Slow diffusion and recently land is being sold in Lancaster County PA so sons can buy lower priced land (1/5 the cost) in Western KentuckyChristian and Todd Counties. 4. Sports: Hierarchical Diffusions a. Soccer i. Folk Culture: English sport- ‘Kick the Dane’s Head’ early 1000s. England invaded by the Vikings in Northumberland. Inflated cows bladder meant to resemble a Dane’s head. ii. Rowdy sport outlawed by the King Henry II in 1188. Reinstated and legalized by James I in 1603. iii. Industrial Revolution- leisure time and increase affluence- athletic events and leagues organized by the church to keep people from the public house iv. Professional sporting events ‘Football Association’ shorten to assoc, which becomes ‘soccer’ v. GLOBALIZATION of the sport 1. Britain’s empire- natural diffusion from the mother country 2. Students, who studied in England, bring the sport to their native landHolland, Germany. 3. British engineers introduce Spain to the game 4. Russia introduced to the game by a textile plant owned by an English company in 1887.Moscow Dynamos. 5. World Cup of Soccer- greatest sporting event in the World- played every four years 6. US does not follow the popularity of the game- instead they begin college rugby which evolves to collegiate football. First game between Harvard and Princeton in 1869. Other modification of soccer becomes Australian Rules football, Canadian football and Irish football- all forms of rugby and soccer. b. Other Sports i. Cricket- diffused to British empire- warmer nations- India, Pakistan, Bahamas ii. Baseball- US introduces sport to Japan following WWII; Philippines during US possession 1900-45; iii. Lacrosse- NE US and Canada- Native American sport. Popular in Maryland, NJ, III. KEY ISSUE 2: Why is Folk Culture Clustered? 1. Isolation promotes Cultural diversity a. Art i. Himalayan a. Terrifying scenes of Monks and Saints- Tibetan Buddhists b. Domestic life and familiar scenes- Hindus in the Himalayas c. Flowers and nature- Islamic regions of the Himalayas d. Yeti- abominable snowman-of Bhutan is an example of animism of the eastern Himalayas b. Physical Environment Influences i. Food clothing and shelter are influenced by environment a. Parkas- Aleuts b. Shoes i. Fur lined northern regions ii. Wood in Holland and Gatas in Japan (water) iii. No shoes in hot climates- Africa ii. Food a. Spicy food in cool and hot regions b. Diversity i. Soups 1. Goulash in Hungary 2. Irish stew 3. Borscht in Russia 4. Sauerkraut c. Taboos- some as a result of their environment i. Hindus no beef- needed for work ii. Muslims no pork- ability to taint easily and unclean iii. Jews kosher food – blessed by Rabbi and clean c. Housing a. Building materials i. Wood- Africa-korralsii. Brick- sun baked adobe; oven baked Harrapans in India 1st to make iii. Grass- Pacific iv. Stone- Zimbabwe v. Sod- Farmer in Midwest vi. Skins- Native America; Africa b. Influences of environment i. Stilts in water prone regions ii. Sacred walls 1. Kibla – direction of Mecca 2. East wall in Fiji 3. Doors facing West in Madagascar iii. Pitched roofs to facilitate run-off and snow c. US Folk House Forms i. Three major hearths or nodes according to Fred Kniffen 1. New England- fours types-diffused to Great Lakes region and Hawaii i. Saltbox ii. Two chimney iii. Cape cod iv. Front gable and wing 2. Mid- Atlantic- two story I shaped houses 3. Lower Chesapeake-one story; steep roof; two chimneys; wet areas raised on piers or bricks III. Key issue 3: Why is Popular culture widely Distributed Diffusion of popular clothing, housing and food 1. Popular housing a. Modern Styles (1945-60) a. Minimal tradition: one story with a dominate front gable and few decorative details b. Ranch: one story with long side parallel to the street. Took up more space and encouraged urban sprawl c. Split level: garage and family room d. Contemporary: flat or low pitched roofs; e. Shed: high pitched roof gave appearance of geometric forms b. Neo-eclectic (Since 1960) Great rooms are a common feature a. Mansard- shingle covered second story sloped slightly and merged into roofline b. Neo-Tudor- dominant pitched front and gables c. Neo-French-dormer windows with rounded tops and high hipped roofs d. Neo-colonial- garage connected to two-story house with pitched roof 2. Popular clothing a. Trends a. Habits i. Blue collared-construction workers ii. White collared- business worn with a tie or neck scarf b. Affluence in MDC i. Fashion- Paris –original designs ii. Speed is essential in copying Paris fashions-Diffused to the rest of the world in six weeks c. Globalization i. Parka-Aleut ii. Poncho- South America iii. Jeans 1. Levi’s 501s 2. Lee’s 3. Image: James Dean; 1960s freedom of expression 4. Scarcity in Eastern Europe- $400 per pair Popular Food Customs a. Alcohol and Fresh Produce a. US: alcohol and snacks by regions i. Bourbon in the upper south/ pork rinds ii. Rum in the East coast- popcorn and potato chips iii. Canadian Whiskey in regions contiguous to Canadapopcorn and potato chips iv. Alcohol consumption relates to religious background and partially to income and advertising v. Baptists and Mormons have low consumption rates. 1. Southeast 2. Utah vi. Nevada has a high consumption rate 1. Resort and gambling vii. Texans like tortilla chips-Hispanic roots viii. Urban residents prefer scotch; Midwesterners like beer ix. New Englanders prefer nuts b. Wine Production a. Climate: cold rainy winters followed by long hot summers b. Grapes are planted on hillsides to promote sun exposure and facilitate draining c. Soil must be coarse and well drained d. Wines are labeled by their region of origins- Bordeaux; champagne; e. Year of harvest listed on bottles f. Wine distribution is based principally on cultural values, both historically and contemporary. People must have a desire to drink it and afford it. Perhaps wine was popular at first because of the quality of water- dirty and blackish. i. France ii. Italy g. Part of the Christian Religion- Body and blood of Christ h. Not popular or part of their cultural make-up i. Hindus ii. Muslims iii. Not part of Middle East; Asian culture or religion 4. Role of Television in diffusing Popular Culture a. Diffusion of Television a. Originated in 1930s b. TV Growth 3. c. Year Sets 1945 10,000 US World 1949 1,000,000 1951 1959 10,000,000 @85% of all TV’s worldwide 20 nations worldwide have TVs 50,000,000 @50% of all TV’s worldwide 62 nations worldwide have TVs 1960s 76,000,000 @33% of all TVs worldwide 91 nations worldwide have TVs 1990 225,000,000 @25% of all TVs worldwide 180 nations have TVs Four Categories i. Every household has one: North, America, Europe, Australia, NZ and Japan ii. Common but not universal: Latin America, Portugal; Yugoslavia iii. Some but not all: Africa; Asia; Latin America iv. Few Televisions: 30 nations primarily Africa; Asia. Some don’t have TV stations. CHAPTER FIVE LANGUAGE I. Where are English-language Speakers distributed? a. Origin and Diffusion of English i. It is spoken fluently by .5 billion, 2nd most spoken, 1st universal, official language of 2 countries. ii. English is distributed the way it is primarily due to its colonies where is an official language. iii. Origin 1. Celts arrived 2000 BC 2. AD 450 Tribes from main Europe invaded pushing Celts into highlands of Wales and Scotland 3. Angles, Jutes and Saxons were tribes that invaded 4. English was derived from the language of the Angeles and the Saxons; England comes from Angeles’ land. 5. Common origin of English and other Germanic languages can be proved. 6. Normans in 1066, from France, made French the official language for 150 years. 7. 1362 English became official, modern English owes straightforward words to Germanic roots and its fancy words to French roots. iv. Dialects of English 1. English originated from three different invading tribes, Angles in north, Jutes in Southeast and Saxons in south and west. 2. This explains the different dialects of old English. 3. Even though BRP came out in 1476 three regional differences exist: Northern, Midland and Southern v. Differences between British and American English 1. Isolation led to differences in vocabulary and spelling and pronunciation 2. Americans encountered many new things so vocabulary differs dramatically. 3. Spelling diverged in America because of a strong feeling for an independent identity. Noah Webster wanted to make a new language or dialect, so he eliminated “u” from British words and put “s” in for a c. 4. “a” and “r” are pronounced differently. 5. Pronunciation in US is closer to how English used to be pronounced. vi. Dialects in US 1. Originated because of differences in original settlers. 2. Settlement in East a. Northern “pail” “brook” drop “r” sound b. Midland “bucket” “run” the common pronunciation throughout the US c. South “bucket” “branch: putting words into two syllables II. Why is English related to other Languages? a. Indo-European Family has eight branches (2.5 billion) .5 billion 2nd language i. Germanic branch 1. English belongs to the West Germanic group, which is then divided into low and high subgroups based upon elevation. 2. English is low German, modern German is in high group 3. North Germanic languages include Scandinavian countries derived from Old Norse ii. Indo-Iranian =(100 languages spoken by 1 billion) 1. Indic Eastern Group-India, Hindi, Urdu which is written in Arabic 2. world’s second largest language group 3. Iranian or Western group-includes Persian, Pathan (Afghani) iii. Balto-Slavic Branch of Indo-European 1. Differences emerged 7th AD. 2. East Slavic and Baltic groups a. Most widely spoken, which is Russian, Ukrainian and Belo Russian 3. West and South Slavic groups b. i. Polish is most spoken, Czech, then Slovak. Croatian is written Roman alphabet and Serbian is written in Cyrillic. iv. Romance Branch of Indo-European 1. evolved from the Latin language spoken by Romans 2000 years ago 2. Spanish, Portuguese, French and Italian. 3. Very small groups are found in this one 4. Vulgar Latin transformed in different reaches of the Roman empire 5. Dialects eventually turned into languages 6. Spanish and Portuguese have achieved worldwide importance due to its colonies. 90% speakers live outside of Europe do to Treaty of Tordesillas 7. Romance language became Creole languages Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European i. Single ancestor called Proto-European cannot be roved with certainty ii. Evidence that existed is internal in words such as winter and snow iii. Gimbutas has the theory that the language comes from the Kurgan people whose home; and was in present day Russia and conquered a lot of Europe spreading their language iv. Renfrew believes that the language came from Anatolia. III. Where are other language families distributed? a. Classification of Languages b. 50% Indo European c. 20% Sino-Tibetan family i. Mandarin is spoken by 75% of the Chinese. ii. Four other types of Chinese are spoken in China, 10 millions each, same writing system iii. 240 one syllable words, must infer meaning from context, Chinese is written with ideograms iv. Austro Thai is used in Laos, Vietnam and Thailand. v. Tibeto-Burman- Is used in Burma vi. Korean as separate because each letter represents a sound d. 5% i. Afro Asiatic (Middle East)-Arabic, (200 million), Hebrew is 4th largest family ii. Austronesian (Southeast Asia)-Pacif islanders iii. Niger-Congo-1000 different langauges, not written iv. Dravidian v. Altaic and Uralic languages as one family.-Altaic are spoken on a band of Asia countries vi. Uralic is in Finland, Estonia, and Hungary e. Remaining 10% belong to a much smaller family IV. Why do people preserve local Languages a. Preserving Language diversity i. Thousands of language are extinct, only about 300 are safe ii. Hebrew is an extinct language that was revived because Israel being founded in 1948. iii. Celtic is the language that was spoken by the ancestors of people who spoke English iv. Celtic is broken into two groups, Gaelic(both Irish and Scottish) and Brythonic languages. v. Survival depends on the political and military strength of the leaders of a group vi. Revival of languages has occurred, such as in Cornish language being taught at school. vii. Multilingual states viii. Belgium 1. Southern Belgium’s speak French, Northern Belgium’s speak Flemish. A conflict occurred causing the prime minister to resign. 2. Switzerland has four languages, German, Italian, French and Romansh. b. c. d. e. f. Basque is an isolated language that is spoken by one million people on the maintains that has no relationship to Indoeuropean languages. Icelandic is relatively unchanging since 874/ Global dominance of English is due to the success of business in America. It is a lingua franca. New words are always added. CHAPTER SIX RELIGION Religion interests geographers because it is essential for understanding how humans occupy Earth Where Religions are located Why some distributed widely and others are clustered in particular places To help understand why some religions occupy more space than others, geographers must look at the difference in faiths and practices. Geographers must also study spatial connections in religions. Their place of origin, the process how the religion diffuse and their widespread practices and beliefs Geographers find tension in scale between local diversity and globalization of religion for several reasons People care deeply about their religion and draw their core values and culture from these beliefs Some religions are designed to have a universal appeal, while others are designed to appeal to specific geographic regions Religious values help to explain how people identify themselves Most religions require adherence so global religions might mean turning away from a traditional local beliefs and customs Migrants take their beliefs and customs to their new location. Key Issue 1: Where are religions distributed? 1. Only a few religions can claim adherence of numerous people a. Two types i. Universalizing Religions A religion that attempts to appeal to all people, not just bthose living in a particular region ii. Ethnic Religion A religion with a relatively concentrated spatial distribution whose principles are likely to be based on the physical characteristics of the particular location in which its adherents are concentrated 2. Universalizing Religions a. Three main religions: Christianity, Islam and Buddhism b. Sub-divided into branches, denominations and sects i. Branch: A large and fundamental division within a religion ii. Denomination: A division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations in a single legal and administrative body. iii. Sect: A relatively small group that has broken away from an established denomination 3. Christianity a. World’s largest religion with over 2 billion adherents b. World’s most widely distributed faith also i. Predominant religion in North and South America; 90% of all inhabitants ii. Europe iii. Australia iv. Majority faith in Africa and Asia also c. Branches of Christianity i. Three Major Branches 1. Roman Catholic 50% worldwide 2. Protestant 25% worldwide 3. Eastern Orthodox 10% worldwide 4. Other (non-Roman Catholic; variety of African, Asian and Latin American Christian Churches 15% Worldwide ii. Roman Catholic- sharp boundaries with Protestants 1. Dominant Christian faith a. South west and Eastern Europe b. North America 25% iii. iv. v. 4. i. Clustered in SW US; NE US and Quebec c. South America 95% Protestant 1. Northern Europe 2. North America- 40% a. Baptists 14% i. Southern Baptists 6% ii. National Baptist 4% iii. 4% other Baptist churches b. Methodist 5% i. United Methodists 3% ii. African Methodist 2% c. Pentecostal 4% i. Church of God in Christ 2% ii. Other Pentecostals 2% d. Lutheran 3% e. Latter Day Saints 2% f. Church of Christ 2% g. Presbyterian 2% h. Reformed Churches 1% i. Episcopal 1% Eastern Orthodox 1. Collection of 14 Self-governing churches in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. 2. Last of these churches in the Russian Orthodox that was established in the 1500s. 40% of all orthodox followers belong to this church. 3. 2nd largest in the Romanian Orthodox with 20% 4. Greeks, Serbian and Bulgarian Orthodox faith each have 10% Smaller Christian Branches 1. Developed independent of the three main branches of Christianity a. Coptic Church of Egypt and the Ethiopian church i. Separated in 1948. ii. Axum Christian in Ethiopia dates to 4th Century b. Armenian Church i. Originated in Syria ii. Followers today reside in Lebanon; Armenia; NE turkey; western Azerbaijan c. Maronites i. Clustered and suffered in Lebanon Islam a. Predominant religion of the Middle East; from North Africa to Central Asia. Has 1.2B adherent worldwide. 50% of all Muslims worldwide live in four countries outside of the Middle East: Pakistan; Bangladesh; India and the world most populous Muslim nation, Indonesia. b. Islam: means submission to the will of God in Arabic c. Muslim: means one who submits to God in Arabic d. Faith is centered around the Five Pillars of THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM 1. The declaration of faith: To bear witness that there is none worthy of worship except Allah, and that Muhammad is His messenger. 2. Prayers: Daily prayers are offered five times a day as a duty towards Allah. 3. Fasting the month of Ramadan: The Muslim during the month of Ramadan not only abstain from food drink and sexual intercourse from dawn to sunset but also from evil intentions and desires. It teaches love, sincerity and devotion. It develops a sound social conscience, patience, unselfishness and will power. 4. Zakah: The literal and simple meaning of Zakah is purity. The technical meaning of this word designates the annual amount in kind or coin (ALMS), which a Muslim with means, must distribute among the rightful beneficiaries. 5. Haj (Pilgrimage to Mecca): It is to be performed once in a lifetime, if one can afford it financially and physically. Two main branches of the Faith i. Shiite (sectarian) 16% Worldwide mainly centered in 1. Iran 40% ((90% of national population) 2. Pakistan 15% 3. Iraq 10% (50% of Nat’l pop) 4. Turkey; Azerbaijan (50% of Nat’l pop.); Afghanistan; Yeman total of 10% 5. Others: Bahrain (50% of Nat’l pop); Oman (50% of Nat’l pop) ii. Sunni (orthodox) 1. 83% worldwide iii. Nation of Islam in US 1. Elijah Muhammad founds the organization in the 1930s in Detroit a. New messenger of Allah b. Advocates black Muslims live in a separate and autonomous state within the US c. Divides in the 1960s because of tension between Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X. Malcolm X becomes a Sunni and creates a new organization called the Organization of African American Unity. Assassinated in 1965 d. After E. Muhammad’s death in 1975, Nation of Islam reforms itself into the American Muslim Mission. Son leads the following closer to the fundamentals and principles of orthodox Islam. Splinter group continue to retain name and Elijah’s beliefs. iv. Different between Shi’ite and Sunni 1. There is no difference of opinion amongst Muslim schools that the religion of Allah is Islam; that the only way to know Islam is through the Book of Allah known as the Koran (or Quran), without any "addition" or "deletion". 2. The difference is in the interpretation of some of the verses of the Koran and the issue of leadership after the death of prophet. a) Some Sunni scholars hold beliefs that Allah has face, hand, and leg, and can be seen. The Sunni scholars believe that the Prophet did not appoint anybody to be his successor and that their leader (or Caliph) can be either elected, or nominated by the preceding Caliph, or selected by a committee (Most qualified). b) Shiites firmly believe that Allah cannot be seen and therefore has not got a body. Shiites say that Ali was appointed by Allah to be the successor of the Prophet, and that the Prophet declared it on several occasions and therefore their leader (or Imam) must be appointed by God; that appointment may be known through the declaration of the Prophet or the preceding Imam. (Distant relative of the Prophet Muhammad) Buddhism a. 6% of the world’s population. Foundations of the faith are based on the Four Noble Truths and the Eight Fold(Middle) Path. Found primarily in Asia. Founded by the Lord Buddha, (enlightened one) Siddhartha Gautama who i. Four Noble Truths: 1. Life is full of suffering 2. Suffering comes from desire 3. If you end desire, you end suffering and end the cycle of re-incarnation towards Nirvana. 4. To end desire and reach enlightenment (also known as Nirvana, a state of complete redemption), follow the Eight Fold Path a. Right Speech b. Right Beliefs c. Right Mindfulness d. Right Actions e. Right Thoughts f. Right Efforts e. 5. ii. g. Right Livelihood h. Right resolve Branches of the Faith 1. Mahayana 56% World wide 2. Theravada 38% Worldwide Thailand 3. Tantravada 6% worldwide Japan, Korea, and China Sri Lanka; Cambodia; Myanmar; Laos; Tibet; Mongolia 6. Other Universalizing Religions a. Sikhism 22m adherents i. Clustered in Punjab region of India 1. 1st Guru was Nanak in the 15th century a. God was revealed as the one supreme creator who rules the universe by divine will. Only God is perfect. Work towards improvement by taking responsibility for your individual actions and deeds. Golden Temple 2. Turban and not cutting hair b. Bahai 07m adherents i. Founded in the 19th century in Iran by Siyad Ali Muhammad. Function was to overcome the disunity of religions and establish a universal faith through abolition of racial, class, and religious prejudices. II. Ethnic Religions 1. Hinduism - 97% of the world’s 900m Hindus live in India. 2% in Nepal. World’s third largest faith Monotheistic. But has 330m Gods. Premise is Single force in the universe- ultimate reality or God – known as Brahman a. 330m deities today b. Three main deities i. Brahma the creator ii. Vishnu the preserver iii. Siva the destroyer 1. Duty of the self- Atman – to seek this ultimate reality. By doing so, after death Atman would merge with Brahman 2. Reincarnation is the belief that the individual soul is reborn after death in a different form. 3. Cycle of life or existence towards the Great world soul or dreamless state 4. Karma:force of a person’s action in this life determines their rebirth in the next life 5. Dharma: Different action s for different members of society. Brahmins, for example, are held to a higher standard than sudras. 6. Yoga: a method of training the body to achieve union with god i. Four types of yoga ii. Path of knowledge; path of love; path of work; and path of meditation Up to the individual to decide which is the best way to worship God. Path of knowledge, path of devotion; path of action. Needs to be in harmony with your true nature. Does not have a central authority or single book 2. Confucianism a. Philosopher and teacher in China @500 BC b. Wrote the Analects c. Emphasized filial piety and li- (correct behavior) d. Knowledge was the key to happiness and successful conduct e. Philosophical system based on the moral and ethical values preached by Confucius. Establishes a code of behavior based on peace, order, humanity, wisdom, courage, and fidelity. Recognizes no God, but advocates recognizes there is a state of heavenly harmony which man can obtain by cultivating virtues, -especially knowledge-, patience, sincerity, obedience and the fulfillment of obligations between children and parents, subject and ruler. 3. 4. 5. 6. Taoism a. Lao Tzu founder o the faith. b. Ancient Chinese philosophy second only to Confucianism which advocates a contemplative life in accord with nature- unspoiled by intellectual evaluations. Tao literally means the way or the path. i. Yin and Yang- balance and harmony in nature. ii. Banned in 1949 after the Communists took over mainland China. Mainly practiced in Taiwan today. Shintoism a. Ancient religion of Japan. Ethnic belief that the forces of nature are divine. Especially the sun and moon- also rocks, rivers, trees, mountains, and certain animals b. Transmitted orally from one generation to the next until 5th century AD when the introduction of Chinese characters facilitated the writing of the prayers and rituals c. Decreased emperors gradually become more important deities than nature d. Under Emperor Meiji, Shintoism becomes the official religion of Japan i. Both a political cult as well as a religion ii. Following WWII; Emperor is no longer a Deity e. Very much part of the history and culture of Japan- honor ancestors, prayers and rituals Judaism a. Term comes from the word Judah, which was one of the patriarch’s 12 sons (12 tribes of Hebrews who migrated from Egypt). Israel is another biblical name for Jacob, the patriarch. b. 14m Jews worldwide: 6m Jews live in the USA; 4m in Israel; 2m in former USSR – especially Belarus; Lithuania; Russia and Ukraine. In the US, 1/3 live in NYC alone. Heavily urbanized. c. Majority in the nation of Israel, first time since the biblical era d. Emigration from former Soviet Union has declined rapidly since the 1980s, when emigration laws were liberalized. i. Number of Synagogues has declined from 400 in 1962 to 62 in 1975. e. Conditions in Eastern Europe has also declined for the Jews as they are blamed for a worsening economy f. Judaism plays a major role in Western Civilization because two of the major universalizing faiths have their roots in Judaism. i. Jesus was born and died a Jew ii. Muhammad traced his ancestry to Abraham iii. Ethnic religion based in the lands bordering the Eastern Mediterranean 1. Canaan in the Bible 2. Palestine by the Romans 3. Israel since 1947 g. Monotheistic- One all powerful God. Sharp contrast to the polytheistic practices of the region i. Jews are the chosen one, because God has chosen them to live their lives by the ethical and moral standards of the 1o Commandments Ethnic African Religions h. i. @ 10% of all Africans (200m in 1980- 50% of all Africa) follow their traditional beliefs called animism. Animists believe thant inanimate objects such as plants and stones, or natural events are full of spirits or animated. Religion a. Polytheistic 1) God of creation- Yoruba canoe god 2) Gods were generally merciful and could be appeased through rituals and dances. 3) Ancestor worship was important- closer to the gods 4) Art reflected their beliefs Wood carvings & Bronze statues from Benin b. Oral tradition 1) Girot c. Religion has lost its popularity since 1980 because of the influence of universalizing faiths: Christianity (50%) 25% RC & 25% Protestant Islam (40%) Key Issue Number Two: Why do Religions have Different Distribution 1. Origins of Religions a. Universalizing Religions a. Buddhism roots traced 2500 years ago b. Christianity roots traced 2000 years ago c. Islam roots traced 1500 years ago 2. Origins of Christianity a. Founded upon the teachings of Jesus Christ. b. Born in Bethlehem between 8 and 4 BC c. Raised as a Jew; developed a band of followers called the disciples; d. Preached the word of God- the gospel. Four main followers Mathew, Mark, Luke and John e. Christ means messiah (Hebrew for anointed or chosen one) in Greek f. After sharing the Jewish Passover seder (home ceremonial dinner) with his 12 followers, he was betrayed by Judas Iscariot. This dinner became known as the last supper. Following his arrest, Jesus was put to death on a cross. On the third day after his death, his tomb was found empty. g. Christians believe Jesus died to atone for man’s sins and his resurrection form the dead provides people with hope for salvation a. Roman Catholics i. Accept the teaching of the Bible ii. Accept the interpretation of the Church hierarchy teachings which include the Pope’s iii. God’s grace to humanity is conveyed through seven Sacraments 1. Baptism infant- to allow the grace of God to watch over and guide the child 2. Confirmation adultto recognize Christ as their savior 3. Eucharist partaking of literally the Body and Blood of the Lord Jesus Christ- transubstantiation 4. Penance confession and absolution of sins 5. Holy Orders priest hood and nunnery 6. Matrimony marriage 7. Anointing of the Sick last rites b. Eastern Orthodox i. Arose from the split of the Roman Empire ii. Recognize the Seven Sacraments iii. Do not acknowledge the dogma of the Roman Catholic Church since the 8th century c. Protestants i. Begin with the protests against the Catholic Church in 1517 ii. Salvation according to Martin Luther is achieved through personal and direct communication with God iii. Grace is achieved through faith, not through sacraments performed by the Church. iv. Protestants generally recognize only baptism and the Lord's Supper (the Eucharist) CHAPTER SEVEN ETHNICITIES Outline: I. Where are ethnicities distributed? a. 13 percent are African Americans, Hispanics 11 percent b. Clustering of Ethnicities i. African Americans are clustered in the Southeast, Hispanics in the Southwest, Asian-Americans in the West and Native Americans in the Southwest and Plains states c. Regional Concentrations of Ethnicities d. e. f. i. Blacks make up one fourth of the population in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, South Caroline and more than one third in Mississippi. ii. Nine states that follow have less then 1 percent African American: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont as well as the plain states of Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota Utah and Wyoming. iii. 1973 the government chose the term Hispanic to denote Latin Americans. iv. Hispanics are heavily clustered in Arizona, California, New Mexico and Texas where they constitute over 25% of the population. v. 25% of Asians are Chinese, Filipinos are 20 percent and the Japanese, Indians are Vietnamese are 12% each. Concentration of Ethnicities in Cities i. Blacks are highly clustered in cities, with more then 50% living in cities. ii. The percentage is even more drastic for the state vs. the city level in Michigan. Blacks make up 10 percent of the state, and 75% in the city of Michigan. Chicago is a similar number. iii. The distribution of Hispanics is similar with them compromising 50 percent of LA population and 25% of New York City and 66% of the population in El Paso and San Antonio. iv. A division of ethnicities among certain neighborhoods is a major issue. v. Ethnic groups tend to cluster in like areas. African American migration Patterns i. Forced Migration from Africa-600,000 Africans were shipped over, with 400,000 legally before 1808 and 200,000 illegally after 1808. Slavery was rare in Europe, but made sense in America because of the labor shortages. 1. Between 1710 and 1810 at least 10 million Africans were uprooted from their homes. 2. The majority of the slaves came from West Africa. 3. European countries developed the triangular slave trade as an efficient pattern for trading slaves and making a profit. 4. Ships went to Africa with cloth to buy slaves then slaves and gold from Africa were transported to the Caribbean. Then the ships carried sugar and molasses from the Caribbean back to Europe. 5. When the 13th amendment abolished slavery, most blacks were forced to be sharecroppers and give a percentage of their crop to the owner of their field. ii. Immigration to the North 1. From the Carolinas and South Atlantic states to Baltimore, Philadpehia, New York. 2. Alabama to Detroit 3. Mississippi and Tennessee to St. Louis and Chicago. 4. Texas to California. 5. Southern blacks migrated first before and after WWI, then before and after WWII. iii. Expansion of the ghetto-Blacks tended to concentrate in areas with fellow blacks so that way the ghetto expanded. Differentiating Ethnicity from Race i. Race is sharing of a biological traits to traits that are well defined ii. Asian Americans, African Americans and Hispanic Americans are all distinct ethnicities 1. Asian is recognized as a distinct race by the US Census 2. African-American and blacks are two different groups but are lumped together by the government 3. Hispanic or Latino is not considered a race iii. Lactose intolerance is large in 95% of Asian American, 65% of blacks and African Americans and a low percentage in white people iv. Biological features such as skin color, hair type and color and blood traits and shape of the body head were once though to be classifiable into distinct races but has resulted in problems. v. Biological classification by race is the basis for racism, which is the belief that race, is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities. vi. Now people can check more the one box for the race. vii. In 1896 there was a ruling in Plessy vs. Ferguson that it was constitutional to have different boxes and railway cars for blacks and whites. “separate but equal” viii. Jim Crow laws were very discriminating against blacks ix. “White flight” occurred when Brown w. the Board of Education at Topeka in 1954 found that separate but equal was not correct because it was not possible for things to be equal if they are separate. x. Real estate agents engaged in blockbusting or encouraging white families to sell homes cheaply because of fear of black people then selling the homes expensively to black people xi. In South Africa, there was a legal division of race called Apartheid. A new baby would be classified into four separate races: white, black, colored and Asian. Each race had a different legal status. xii. The system was created by the descendants of the Boers or the people who settled in Africa in the 1630s that came from Holland. xiii. In 1948 when an Afrikaner Nationalist party won elections, Apartheid began and most companies stopped operating in South Africa. The government designated 10 homelands that were supposed to be for blacks. xiv. In 1991, the white government appealed the laws of apartheid and the African National Congress was legalized. ii. Why have ethnicities been transformed into nationalities? a. Nationality is identity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular country. b. A nation or nationality is a group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural tradition. c. Rise of Nationalities i. Most European identify themselves by ethnicity ii. Self-determination is the concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves. iii. A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality. iv. Denmark is a good example of a nation state because the territory occupied by the Danish ethnicity closely corresponds to the boundary of Denmark, but not exactly. But they also control the Faeroe Islands as well Greenland. v. Nationalism is loyalty and devotion to nationalism. vi. Mass media is effective at promoting nationalism and it does so by promoting the symbols of the states. vii. Nationalism is an example of a centripetal force which is an attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state. d. Nationalism in Former Colonies i. When colonies were broken up, boundaries were drawn to separate the two ethnicities. ii. Pakistan and India were divided up from India because of the ethnicities living there. Hindus, the British and the Muslims were constantly fighting for control. iii. 17 million people migrated from r into the state was India, due to how the borders were created. iv. Pakistan and India constantly fight for control over Kashmir. v. Sri Lanka, the Singhalese and the Tamils have been fighting since 1983. vi. Tamils are 18 percent of the country and Hindus whereas the natives are Buddhists. e. Revival of Ethnic Identity i. Ethnic identity in the late 20th century became more important then nationality. ii. Communist leaders used centripetal forces to discourage ethnicities from expressing their culture differences. iii. The Soviet Union did recognize the existence of ethnicities and broke states into republics for the ethnicities. iv. In East Europe, the fall of nation states allowed for people to organize themselves. v. Slovenia is a good example of a nation state carved out from an a former state. iii. Why do Ethnicities clash? a. Multiethnic state is a state the contains more then one ethnicity b. Multinational states are multiethnic states that contain two ethnic groups with traditions of self-determination that coexist peacefully together by recognizing each other as distinct nationalities. c. The United Kingdom is one example of this. Scotland and Wales have their own elected government. d. The main element of distinct national identity is sports, because each nationality has their own sports team. e. Ethnic competition to Dominate Nationality i. The Horn of Africa has major problems, mostly in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Sudan. ii. A civil war started in 1961 until 1991 lasted between Ethiopia and Eritrea over independence. iii. Ethiopia ended up taking control of Eritrea in 2000 but there were still major problems between the Christians and Muslims in the countries. iv. In Sudan a civil war started in the 1980s between black Christian/ animists and the Arab Muslim government. v. Sudan has designed laws to segregate the sexes in public and women cannot come in contact with men. Men and women must wear clothing that covers the body, and there are a lot of streetlights. vi. Somalia has six major ethnic groups known as clans, in 1991 one clan took over the country. The US marines went there to protect the delivery food and reduce the number of guns people had. vii. In central Africa, the Hutus and the Tutsis have had major conflicts. viii. Hutus were dominate in Africa, but the Tutsis gained presidential control and eliminated half a million Hutus. ix. However, the Tutsis leader, Kabila could no longer rely on them so he switch to the Hutus and members of these ethnic groups have continued pouring into the country. f. Overlapping of Ethnicities and Nationalities i. The Middle East is a good example because of all the religious groups and the Jewish homeland. ii. Conflict over the hold land, Palestinian Perspective 1. In the 1960s a new nationality emerges, known as the Palestinians, and they are 5 groups of people. 2. People living in the west bank, Gaza, Jerusalem, citizens of Israel who are Muslim, rather then Jewish, people who fled from Israel, people that fled from the west bank, Gaza or identify themselves as Palestinians. 3. Israel has unfairly built 100 settlements iii. Israeli perspective 1. Israel sees itself as a very small country, 8000 square miles with a Jewish majority surrounded by hostile Arabs. 2. The major population centers are close to international borders for attacks iv. Ethnic cleansing 1. Ethnic cleansing is a process in which a more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes a less powerful one in order to create an ethnically homogeneous region. 2. Ethnic cleansing occurred in former Yugoslavia 3. Yugoslavia has seven neighbors, (3 were democracies, 4 were communist) 4. Sis republics were inside 5. Five of the republics were named for the country’s five recognized nationality 6. Yugoslavia had four official languages 7. There were three official religions 8. 2 languages were written in Cyrillic and in the Roman alphabet each v. Rivalries among ethnicities resurfaced in Yugoslavia after the death of Toto, leading to the breaking up of the country vi. When ethnicities formed countries, other ethnicities became upset and started fighting each other in order to redefine the borders of the countries. vii. In Bosnian and Her, Bosnian Serbs cleansed against Bosnian Muslims from intervening areas. viii. Serbs in Kosovo had engaged in ethnic cleansing by trying to get rid of the 90 percent of Albanians ix. Balkanized was a term that was used to describe a small geographic area that could not successfully be organized into one or more states because of the large amount of ethnicities that lived there. x. Balkanization is the process by which a state breaks down, based upon the many ethnicities that live there. CHAPTER Eight POLITICAL STATES Notes/Outline: I. Issue I, Where are states located? a. The world half a century ago, contained 50 countries b. Recently it contains and 189 of them are in the UN c. A state is an area that is organized in a political unit and is ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs. It has defined territory and a defined population. d. Sovereignty is what a state has and it is defined as independence from control of its internal affairs from other states. State is a synonym for country. e. Antarctica is the only large landmass that is not part of a state, even though Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the UK claim portions of it. The Treaty of Antarctica signed in 1957 and redone in 1991 confirms this. f. Problems of Defining States i. Korea, China, and Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic test this notion) ii. Korea: One State or Two? 1. Korea was a colony of Japan and divided into two zones by the 38th parallel, one controlled by Soviet and the other supported by US. 2. The new government of North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950 that started a 3-year war. 3. Both governments want to form one Korean state, and in 2000 leaders agreed to exchange visits of families. 4. However, S. Korea and N. Korea were admitted into the UN as two separate counties. iii. China and Taiwan 1. According to China, Taiwan is not an official state and until 1999 Taiwan agreed. 2. The government in Taiwan was head one group of nationalists trying to control the county. The nationalists in Taiwan were no longer recognized by the UN has the true government in 1971. iv. Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic) 1. Most Africans consider it as sovereign independent state on the continent’s west coast, whereas Morocco calls it a territory, Western Sahara and has built a wall around it to keep rebels out. 2. Two parts in the territory want to stay part of Spain v. Varying Size of States 1. The largest state is Russia, which encompasses 6.6 mill square miles. The distance is 4,300 miles from the long post. China, Canada, United States, Brazil and Australia are next. 2. Microstates are states with very small land area. Monaco encompasses .6 square miles, and then other small ones are Andorra, Grenada, Liechtenstein, Maldives, Tonga, Singapore, St. Vincent and San Marino. vi. Development of the State Concept 1. The concept of dividing the world into various states is a recent concept prior to the 1800s the world was organized as city-states, empires and tribes. 2. The concept of states can be traced to the Fertile Crescent even though Europeans led the modern movement to separate the world into states. 3. vii. viii. II. The first states developed in Mesopotamia and were called city-states, which is a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. Walls made the boundary of the city and the city controlled the surrounding land. 4. Political unity was well established when Rome was at its height. After the Roman Empire collapsed the European part fragmented and estates that were ruled by barons, dukes and kings turned into bigger pieces of land and then kingdoms were formed. Not until the 19th century did Germany and Italy become complete countries Colonies 1. A colony is a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather then being completely independent. 2. Colonialism is the effort by one county to establish settlements and to impose its political and cultural principles on such territory. The reasons that colonies were established are as follows: a. European missionaries established colonies to promote Christianity. b. Colonies provided resources that helped the economy of European states c. European states considered the number of colonies to be an indicator of relative power. 3. Colonial ere began in the 1400s and then eventually turned into imperialism which is control of territory already occupied and organized by a society. 4. The British got the most number of colonies and they created different government structures and policies for various territories of their empire. They preserved local customs and generally made peaceful transitions except for Middle East, Southern Africa and Ireland. 5. France tried to assimilate its colonies into French culture and most colonies kept in touch with France. Remaining Colonies 1. Puerto Rico is the worlds most populous colony a. France’s French Polynesia, Mayotte and the Netherlands Antilles, Channel Islands and some other have reasonable population sizes. b. Pitcairn is the world’s smallest colony Where are Boundaries drawn between states? a. A state is separated from its neighbors by a boundary, an invisible line marking the extent of a state’s territory. b. Shapes of states-these are important because they control the length of its boundaries with other states and the shape therefore affects the potential for communications and conflict with neighbors. i. Compact states are efficient because the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly. Good communication and defense can occur if the capital is in the center, examples are Kenya, Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda. ii. Prorupted states: Access or Disruption- It is what would be considered a compact state that has a large projecting extension. This can provide a state with a resource such as the Congo. Or it can separate two states that would either wise share a boundary; such as Afghanistan and the Caprivi Strip in Namibia is an example. iii. Elongated states: are states that are long and narrow in shape, a perfect example is Chile, because it is 2,500 miles long and rarely more then 90 miles wide. Italy, and Gambia are other examples. These states may suffer from poor internal communications. iv. Fragmented states: A fragmented state includes several discontinuous pieces of territory. The most extreme example is Indonesia, which includes 13,777 islands. East Timor is a place in Indonesia that resisted joining it voluntarily. A problematic division is when a state is divided by another state, in terms of Canada and Alaska as well Russia. Bangladesh is separated by India. Panama is another example of a fragmented state. v. Perforated states: South Africa- it is a state that completely surrounds another state. A good example of this state is Lesotho in South Africa. c. vi. Landlocked states: lack a direct outlet to the sea, and our most common is Africa where 14 out of 54 states have no access to the sea. Direct access to the ocean is critical because it promotes international trade. 1. Cooperation between landlocked states in southern Africa has been complicated by racial patterns. States of southern Africa had to balance dislike of South Africa’s racial policies while doing business with them. 2. Zimbabwe has had issues because they want to avoid South Africa because of its racial policies, but it was not that easy to do so. So they had to go through other states that have been disrupted by civil war so they ended up going through South Africa after all. Types of Boundaries i. Frontiers rather than boundaries historically separated states. A frontier is a zone where no state exercises complete political control. ii. A frontier is a tangible geographic boundary whereas a frontier is an invisible line. iii. Antarctica and the Arabian Peninsula are the only places that still have frontiers and are inhabited by a bunch of nomads. When troops are stationed at a frontier then it becomes a boundary. iv. Physical Boundaries is important feature on the earth’s land that can separate a state. 1. Mountains can be effective boundaries, but in some cases it is disagreed on where to draw the line, Chile and Argentina finally decided the boundary would be a line drawn in between the mountain peaks. 2. A boundary drawn in a desert can be effective because desserts are hard to cross. 3. Water boundaries are commonly used, but there are problems on where you put the line. a. The boundary between the Congo democratic republic and Uganda runs through Lake Albert. b. The boundary separating Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda runs through Lake Victoria. c. The boundary separating Burundi, Congo and Tanzania and Zambia runs though a lake. d. Boundaries are typically in the middle of water, even though the boundary between Malawi and Tanzania follows the north shore of the lake. e. One problem is that borders shift overtime because rivers or lakes can change one example is that the Rio Grande has shifted its course several times. f. Ocean boundaries are typically 14 miles or 12 nm off shore, whereas states have exclusive fishing rights for 200 miles, whereas countries must negotiate the fishing right sometimes. 4. Cultural Boundaries-sometimes boundaries conflict with differences in ethnicity and language a. Geometric boundaries i. Part of the northern US boundary with Canada is a straight or arc on 49-degree northern latitude line. However some people in the 1800s, the War hawks wanted the boundary to be 54 degrees. The boundary between Chad and Libya is the same way. Conflict over the Aozou strip. ii. Religious boundaries- the most notable one is in South Asia that separates Pakistan and India because one is predominantly Muslim while the other one, India is Hindu. This also explains the division between North Ireland and South Ireland. iii. Language boundaries: Language is the primary reasons for why things are divided in Europe; this was a result of the Versailles treaty. III. Why do boundaries between states cause problems? a. Problems occur because on mismatches between the boundaries of states and ethnicities. Problems are that either one state contains more then one ethnic group or one ethnic group is divided among several states and the problem is that one single coherent nationality cannot be made. b. One state with many nationalities i. A multinational state contains two or more ethnicities with traditions of selfdetermination. ii. Cyprus-Greeks comprise 78 percent of the islands population and are clustered in the South, whereas Turks are clustered in North. 1. The Greeks and the Turks used to mingle before some Greek officers took control of the government and tried to make Cyprus part of Greece. 2. The Turkish sector considers itself an independent state but is only recognized by Turkey officially. Now there is a buffer zone patrolled by UN troops, some cooperation has ensured between both side because the Turks supply the Greeks with water, in exchange for electricity. iii. Former Soviet Union: The largest multinational state 1. The Soviet Union was the world’s largest multinational state and its 15 republics now make up individual states that can be broken down into groups. 2. 3 Baltic: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania a. They had been independent countries before World War II and are located on the Baltic Sea. b. Lithuania closely fits the definition of a nation state with 81 percent being ethnic Lithuanians, in Estonia, 65 percent are ethnic Estonians. Whereas in Latvia, the ethnic people are only 57 percent. Russians are the other ethnic groups. c. Most Estonians are Lutherans, Lithuanians are Catholic and Latvians are a mix. There languages are also different. 3. 3 European: Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine a. Belarus is 78 percent native, Moldova is 68 percent native and Ukraine is 73. b. Belarusians and Ukrainians became distinct ethnicities because they were isolated from the main body of the Slavs in the 13 th and 14th centuries do to the invasions of the Mongolians. c. Russians living on the Crimea were satisfied until the Soviet Union broke up. The Tatars moved back to Ukraine. d. Moldavians are very similar to Romanians and want unification eventually. 4. New Central Asian States: Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan a. In Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan the ethnic groups provide a majority, 77 and 80 percent respectively, however they are still spread out in other countries such as Russia. b. Kyrgyzstan is 52 percent, 18 percent Russian and 13 percent Uzbek. They speak an Altaic language and resent the Russian c. Kazakhstan is divided evenly between Kazakhs and Russians. The ethnic group that lives there are Muslims and speak an Altaic languages. It has been peaceful because its economy is all right. d. Tajikstan is 65 percent Tajik, 25 percent Uzbek and 3 percent Russian is suffering from a major civil war. It is between the Tajik and Muslim fundamentalists and western intellectuals. 5. Russia: Now the largest multinational state: 39 nationalities a. Independent movements are flourishing b. Chechyna has tried to break away from Russia. c. Russian soldiers have caused tension because they are still stationed in old Soviet countries because Russian does not have the money to house them back in Russia. d. Russians claim that they are now subject to discrimination in other countries. 6. 3 Caucasus states: Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia a. b. c. IV. There are a large number of ethnicities in this region The Soviets dealt with all these ethnicities by making communism a centripetal force and using force to deal with disputes. i. Azerbaijanis trace their roots to Turkish invaders and live in a fragmented state. 7 million live in the country and 6 million live in Iran. ii. Armenians controlled an independent colony in the regions and eventually converted to Christianity. However Turkey and the Soviet Union wanted the region to themselves. iii. In Georgia, only 7- percent of the population is from Georgia. One Nationality in more than one state i. Now that the Soviet Union has broken up, less numerous ethnicities are scattered throughout a lot of states. ii. The Kurds 1. They live in the Caucasus south of Armenians and Azeris. The Kurds are Sunni Muslims who speak a language in the Indo-Iranian branch of the IndoEuropean. 2. The Kurds used to have their own state in the 1920s but are now split among 6 states. 3. The Turks have discriminated against the Kurds. iii. Pan-Arab state 1. The fragmentation of the Middle East into two dozen countries is a result of the British and the French. For many Arabs the region should be one country because there are almost no cultural differences. The only exception is Israel. 2. Middle East unity was shattered to Iraq and a major reason for unity was to spread out the wealth. iv. Internal Organization of State 1. If an ethnicity is not in control of a country where they constitute a large percentage of the population may be happy with regional control. 2. The Unitary state places most of the power in the hands of central government officials. It works best when there are few national differences. 3. The Federal state allocates strong power to units of local government within a country. Ina federal state local governments can adopt their own laws. It is more suitable for very large states because the capital may be to remote to be effective in promoting control. 4. Trend toward Federal government a. In Franc they are curbing the unitary government. The first tier of local government is 100 departments that are headed by a prefet. The second tiers are communities that have a locally elected mayor and council. Further the average commune only has 1,500 inhabitants. b. The French government recently ahs given more power to communes and departments. Why do States cooperate with each other? a. The future of the world’s current collection of states is globalization. i. Even though must states have joined the UN, most states are willingly transferring authority to regional organizations, established primarily for economic cooperation. ii. Political and Military Cooperation 1. During the Cold War, most states joined the UN and other regional organizations 2. The UN is the most important international organization, which was created at the end of WWII by the victorious allies. When established in 1945, the iii. UN contained 49 states whereas now it contains 189. Switzerland and Taiwan are the only two populous countries that are not in the UN. Taiwan resigned when the UN officially recognized the mainland government of China. a. In 1955, 16 countries that had been liberated from Germany joined the UN. b. In 1960 all former colonies except for one of Britain and France were added. c. And 26 countries were added between 1990 and 1993 primarily from the break up of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. d. The UN was not the first attempt as a peacekeeping commission; it replaced the League of Nations. e. UN members can vote to establish a peace keep force request states. Efforts needed approval of all 5 members on the Security Council, China, France, Russia, Uk and US. f. The UN tries to maintain neutrality in peacekeeping functions. 3. Regional military alliances a. The Cold War was an area of two superpowers, the US and the USSR. Before WWI eight great powers existed. b. There was a balance of power so that way a war would not occur, in post WWII it was between the US and USSR. States could either be allies or satellites and the two main countries usually respected the desires of the other ones. c. NATO or the North Atlantic treaty organization or the Warsaw pact were one the two alliances. d. The Warsaw pact was between the communist Eastern Europe countries. Designed for a bipolar balance of power. e. NATO continued after the Cold War even though the Warsaw pact was disbanded. f. The Organization on Security and Cooperation is Europe has 55 members. It includes Russia, Canada and the US. g. Organization of American States: includes all 35 states in the Western Hemisphere the head quarters are in DC. h. In Africa there is the organization for African Unity (OAU) and promoted the end of colonization. i. Conflicts occurred in Afghanistan, and people were forced to live in refugee camps. Economic cooperation 1. The most important elements of state power are increasingly economic rather than military Japan and Germany have joined the ranks of superpowers on their economic success. 2. The leading superpower in the 1990s is nto single state, but an economic union of European states lead by Germany. 3. European Union a. In 1958 the European Union included six countries. Its main goal is to promote development within the member states through economic cooperation. b. There are rarely any boundaries in Europe now. c. Former communist countries had the Council for Mutual Economic assistance called COMECON. 4. Germany has domination in Western Europe. Fredrick the Great of Prussia lead Prussia to more territory and Otto von Bismarck consolidated Germany into one country. CHAPTER NINE DEVELOPMENT Notes/Outline: I. Key Issue 1: Why does development vary among countries a. A country’s level of development can be broken up into: economic, social and demographic factors. b. The Human Development Index (HDI) is an index that was created by the UN that recognizes the importance of all these factors in determining what a developed nation is. c. d. e. f. The HDI is created by choosing one economic factor, two social factors and one demographic factor that best reveals a county’s level of development by a committee from the UN. The economic factor is the GDP per capita, the social factors are literacy rate and amount of education, and the demographic factor is life expectancy. The highest HDI has been Canada with .932 and the lowest is Sierra Leone with an HDI of .254. Economic indicators of Development i. Things separate more developed from less developed are economic structure, worker productivity, access to raw materials and availability of consumer goods. ii. Gross Domestic product per capita 1. In developed countries the worker receives $10-$15 where in LDC a worker receives .50 per hour. 2. The Gross domestic product of GDP is the value of the total output of goods and services produced in a country. Dividing the GDP by the entire population basically shows how each individual contributes to society. 3. In MDC, GDP is greater than 20 grand, 30 grand in the us and around 1,000 in LDC. 4. This is not an accurate method of measuring wealth because there are exceptions to every rule. iii. Types of jobs 1. Primary sector is work that involves direct extraction of minerals from the ear through agriculture, mining, fishing and forestry. 2. The secondary sector involves manufacturers that process, transform and assemble raw materials into useful products. 3. The tertiary sector involves the provision of goods and services to people in exchange for payment. 4. In many less developed countries, many people work in agriculture where in more developed countries less people work in agriculture. iv. Productivity 1. Productivity is defined as the value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor needed to make it. Works in more developed countries have access to more machines, and equipment to perform a lot of work. 2. The value added can be used to measure productivity and it is the gross value of the product minus the cost of raw materials and energy. v. Raw Materials 1. Development requires access to raw materials such as minerals and trees but it also requires energy. 2. The UK had an abundant supply of coal and iron, along with water for power, when they ran out of resources they founded colonies. 3. Petroleum is the most popular resource to have. vi. Consumer Goods 1. Part of the wealth in MDC is for essential goods/services (food, clothing, shelter) but the rest is available for consumer goods (cars, telephones, TV). 2. The quantity and type of goods purchased is a good measurement of the development that occurs. 3. The ratio is MDC is one vehicle, television and telephone for each person. 4. In LDC these products do play a important part in their lives. The ratio is 1 television and car for every 100 people. The people with possessions in LDC are concentrated in the city. Social indicators i. More developed countries use there money to provide schools, hospitals and welfare to other people. ii. Education and literacy 1. MDC the average student attends school for more then 10 years, and women are equally likely to attend school. 2. In LDC, 73 women for every 100 men who attended school, actually go to school. 3. The literacy rate is the percentage of a country’s people that can read and write, it exceeds 95% in MDC. 4. Women in the Middle East and South Asia have the lowest literacy rates. 5. Improved education is a goal of LDC but it is very expense. iii. g. II. Health and Welfare 1. People are healthier in more developed countries because these countries have the resources, hospitals, doctors and nurses to take care of them. 2. The health of the population is also influenced by diet’ which is fairly good in MDC. 3. MDC also use part of their wealth to protect people who are unable to work, Denmark, Norway and Sweden are the best examples. Demographic indicators of development i. Life expectancy 1. Babies in LDC can expect to live to their early forties where in MDC it is in the 70s. Females live 13 years longer and males 9 in MDC. However, MDC have a higher percentage of elderly people. ii. Infant mortality rate 1. In LDC 90 percent of the children survive versus over 99 percent in MDC. iii. Natural increase rate 1. The natural increase rate is an average of 2 percent higher in LDC iv. Crude birth rate 1. LDC had a high CBR of around 40 in 1000 versus 15 in 1000 for LDC. 2. Crude death rate does not show a society’s level of development for two reasons: diffusion of medical technology from MDC has sharply reduced some diseases and MDC have higher mortality rate because of the large number of old people. 3. Women in childbirth are more likely to die. Where are more and less developed countries distributed? a. There nine regions that the world can be broken down based upon their level of development. i. In the western hemisphere, two regions Anglo America (Canada and the US) and Latin America can be distinguished based upon dominant languages, religions and natural increase rates. ii. Europe can eb broken down into two regions: western and eastern. iii. Asia is broken down into east, south, southwest and southeast because of different religious, linguistic, ethnic and political characteristics. However, they are similar in language, religion and population growth. iv. Sub-Saharan Africa is the last region. v. Japan and the South Pacific are two important areas. vi. Nearly all of the developed countries are above 30 degrees north. b. More developed regions i. Anglo America HDI .93 1. Language and religious patterns are less diverse in Anglo America more than any other region in the world. 2. 95 percent use English as the first language and 95 percent use Christianity as their religions. 3. There is some intolerance, it has a lot of minerals, natural resources and used to be the biggest producers of settle. 4. Despite the lost of manufacturing jobs, Anglo America has been transformed into a service economy. ii. Western Europe HDI .91 1. On a global scale western Europe appears to have cultural unity because everyone pretty much speaks an Indo-European language and practices Christianity but there pasts are quite different because of all the wars they have had with each other. 2. Immigrants are responsible for most of the population growth and within western Europe the growth is the highest in northern Italy, Switzerland, UK, S. Scandinavia, Netherlands, s Italy, Portugal, Italy and Spain. 3. Now Western European companies must pay for their imports because colonialism has ended for the most part but they do it by providing high value services such as insurance, banking and luxurious cars. EU is become very big. iii. Easter Europe HDI .75 1. c. The HDI has declined since the 1990s because of the break up of the Soviet Union and communist rule. 2. Communism did not work in most places because they were not or were never industrialized. 3. Stalin had five year plans which focused on heavy industry first such as iron, steel, machine tools, petrochemicals, mining, trains and weapons, power, transportation and mining. 4. Next the plan was to move the facilities from eastern Europe to the Asian areas to secure them from attacks. 5. The third policy was to locate the production facilities by the raw materials. 6. The economic polices were dismantled upon communist break up because: a. Scare funds were used to meet annual production targets rather than to invest b. Despite a large amount of farmland, food had to be imported c. Orders from the government were not implemented, some targets could never be achieved d. Pollution was a major problem. e. Czech republic, Hungary and Slovenia converted more rapidly to market economies because they were near the core region of western Europe. 7. Problems have occurred because of higher death rates, production cutbacks, the rise of gangsters all because of the end of communism. iv. Japan HDI .92: 1. Japan’s development is remarkable because of the small amount of land it has. 2. Japan became a great power be taking advantage of an abundant supply of people willing to work for low wages. 3. The Japanese government encouraged companies to sell their goods for lower prices in other countries, and then gained a foothool. Then they began to specialize in high quality, high value products such cars, cameras and electronics. v. South Pacific HDI .92 1. It is not very central to the global economy because of its small population size and its location. 2. Includes New Zealand and Australia and are net exporters of food and other resources to the UK. Less Developed Regions i. Latin America HDI .76 1. They either speak a romance language and are Roman Catholicism. 2. Latin Americans are more likely to live in urban areas then other people in developing regions. 3. The level of development is high among the south Atlantic coast. The area enjoys high agricultural productivity and exports the most wheat and corn. 4. Overall development is full of bad income distribution. ii. East Asia 1. China is the world’s largest country but the most poorest. 2. The communist government took control of farmland to make sure enough food was grown for people. 3. In recent years, strict contol has been loosed and individuals are once again able to own land and control their own production and can sale their extra crops and make money. 4. China has a much more lower CBR because of its policies and could can contribute to the country’s economic growth by increasing the standard of living. iii. Southeast Asia HDI .68 1. Half of Southeast Asia has suffered from warfare along with Laos and Cambodia. 2. Economic development is limited by mountain ranges and tropical climate. 3. Rice must be exported from some countries but then imported into other. 4. iv. v. vi. III. Thailand has become important in manufacturing things but has gone awry because of lack of watchdogs and regulators. Middle East HDI .63 1. Much of the Middle-East is a desert and a large number of products are imported and it has a trade surplus. Egypt, Jordan and Syria lack oil. 2. The challenge is to promote development without breaking Islamic rules and regulations. 3. Internal conflicts such as war in Iraq have become problems along with Israel. South Asia 1. South Asia includes Pakistan, India and some other states. It has the highest amount of population but the second lowest epr capita income. 2. India producers the largest amount of rice and wheat and has a lot of resources but the ratio between population and resources is very large. Sub-Saharan Africa 1. Countries north of the Sahara desert are grouped with the middle east. 2. It has some assets, low population density, resources, but the most people in poverty, bad education and health. 3. Most of the problems are because of colonialism because of the way the countries divided up the boundaries. 4. Major problem is that the land cannot feed all of the people living there because it is heavily overworked. Why do less developed countries obstacles to development a. GDP per capita has doubled in LDC but has tripled in MDC b. 1/5 of the world’s population consume 5/ of the world’s resources c. Americans spend more on comesmetics than providing schools for 2 billion people, which cost 6 billion. d. To reduce disparities between LDC and MDC, LDC must industrialize e. LDC face two problems i. Adopting polices that successfully promote development ii. Finding funds for development f. Development through self-sufficiency i. This has been the most popular approach ii. Elements of Self- Sufficiency 1. A country should spread its investment as equally as possible across all sectors of tis economy in all regions 2. The system is fair and the incomes in the countryside become equal every else 3. This approach nurses fledging business in a less developed country by isolating them from competition of large international countries. 4. Countries promote this by setting barriers that limit the import of goods from other places but it restricts local businesses from importing to other countries. 5. India effectively made effective use of barriers because it took a lot if effort to import goods into a country. 6. The amount and who good sell goods was strictly controlled, businesses were monitored heavily. 7. The government provided subsidies to ensure that the companies woul operate. iii. Problems with self sufficiency 1. This form protects high inefficient industries, and business can sell all they make at high government controlled prices. 2. There is no incentive to improve the quality of goods being sold 3. Another problem is that it takes a large bureaucracy to run the operation and money can be easily earned be black market activity. g. Development through international trade i. This model calls for a country to identify its distinctive or unique economic assets such as product can be manufactured or exported. h. i. j. ii. A country can develop economically by concentrating scarce resources on expansion of its local distinctive industries. iii. Rostow’s development model 1. The traditional society, this terms defines a country that has not started development and it contains a very high amount of people in agriculture and is called the nonproductive activities. 2. The preconditions for take off are when an elite group of well-educated leaders start to invest in technology and infrastructure. 3. The take off is when rapid growth is generated in a limited number of economic activities such as textiles or foods and keep achieving technological advances. 4. The drive to maturity is when modern technology diffuses to a wide variety of influences which then experience rapid growth and workers become more skilled and specialized. 5. Then the economy shifts from production to havy industry then to consumer goods. iv. Each country is in one of these five stages where MDC are in stage 4 or 5. The US was in stage 1 before independence, stage do during the 1800s, stage 3 during the middle of the 1800s and stage 4 in the late 1800s, stage 5 in the early 1900s v. Economic competitiveness is a major theme that is of concern for LDC but if they adjust it makes there other industries stronger. vi. This model was based on two factors, the developed countries of Western Europe and Anglo America that had been joined by the other part of Europe and Japan. Many LDC had a lot of raw materials sought by their colonial masters and were used. Examples of international trade approach i. The petroleum rich Persian gulf states are a perfect example. ii. It was the least developed region until the 1970s until the government used revenues to fiancé large scale projects, housing, highways, airports, universities and telecommunication networks and other industries do well because of government subsidies. iii. The landscape has been changed by the diffusion of consumer goods but there are problems with Islamic traditions. iv. The four Asian Dragons were successful, which includes S. Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and then the British colony of Hong Kong. v. Singapore/ Hong Kong have no resources whatsoever vi. S. Korea and Taiwan have followed Japan, but they have done well even though they have no resources because they can promote goods. vii. Problems with international trade 1. Uneven resource distribution: middle east did well because resource prices were consistent 2. Market stagnation- countries such as the four dragons depended on low selling goods find that the world market is not expanded that fast anymore 3. Increased dependence on MDC-building up an economy that exports forces LDC to cut back production on domestic goods such as food, clothing and then have to import them Despite problems with the international trade model, it is working as in the case of India, and increased GDP by 4 percent. Financing Development i. LDC do not have the money for all this shit ii. Loans 1. LDCs borrow a lot of money for infrastructure 2. The major lenders are controlled by MDC and they include the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. 3. LDC think that building infrastructure will attract foreign and domestic business and the problem is that many of these projects are expensive failure. 4. Many LDC cannot repay their lone and Brazil, Mexico and Argentia have the highest debts. 5. International agencies require LDCs to develop structural adjustment programs which are economic polices that create conditions that encourage 6. CHAPTER TEN AGRICULTURE Review Sheet I. international trade such as raising taxes and reducing government spending to repary debts. They are unpopular with voters and can cause political unrest. Transnational corporation operates in countries other than one and many are German, Japanese, French or American. In 2000, these corporations invested 400 billion in LDC compared to 40 in 1990. Key Issue I Where did Agriculture originate” a. The origins of agriculture cannot be documented with certainty because it began before recorded history. b. Origins of Agriculture i. Agriculture is a deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through cultivation of plants and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain. ii. Hunters and gathers-Before the invention of agriculture all humans probably obtained the food they need through hunting for animals, fishing, and gathering plants. They lived in groups no larger then 50 and survived by collecting food daily. The directions of migration are dependent on various factors. 1. Today around a quarter of a million people (0.005%) live this way, mainly in the interior of Africa, Australia, South America and the Artic. 2. They are isolated groups. iii. Invention of agriculture-plant cultivation appears to come from accident and deliberate experiment. iv. Two types of cultivation 1. Earliest form, according to Carl Sauer was vegetative planning which is the production of plants directly by cloning which means cutting off part of a plant. Next came seed agriculture, which is the reproduction through annual planting of sees. c. Location of agricultural hearths i. Location of 1st vegetative planning 1. Probably originated in Southeast Asia because made living by fishing and environmental conditions favored vegetative planning. Taro, yam, banana and palm were the first, then diffused to southeast Asia and then westward. 2. West Africa may have been another with South America. ii. Location of 1st seed agriculture 1. Seed agriculture originated in more then one hearth, India, Northern China and Ethiopia. 2. Inhabitants of Southwest Asia integrated producing crops with feeding livestock. iii. Diffusion of seed agriculture 1. Seed agriculture went from Southwest Asia across Europe and North Africa. Greece, Crete and Cyprus show the best evidence of agriculture. 2. From these countries agriculture diffused northwestward through the Danube river basin eventually to the Baltic and north seas. Seed agriculture also diffused eastward from Southwest Asia to northwestern India. From Northern China millet diffused to south Asia and Southeast Asia. 3. Seed agriculture also originated in Southern Mexico and Northern Peru, however heard agriculture was no done. 4. Since there are different origins for agriculture it means that from the earliest times, people have produced food in distinctive ways in different regions. d. Classifying agricultural regions i. Farmers in LDCs generally practice subsistence agriculture, whereas farmers in US practice commercial farming. ii. Subsistence agriculture found in less developed countries is the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmers family. iii. Commercial agriculture: is the production of food for sale off a farm. iv. Purpose of farming 1. Subsistence farming is done to feed themselves whereas commercial farming is for farmers to grow their crops and sale them to larger firms. v. Percentage of farmers in the Labor force 1. In MDC, less then 5 percent of the population are farmers where in LDC the number of farmers is above or 55%. vi. Use of machinery 1. In MDC lots of machinery and use of transportation vii. Farm size 1. The average farm size in the US and Canada is about 435 acres, however they are family owned and operated. 2. Large size is due to mechanization. 3. Prime agricultural land is dwindling in the US due to development. 4. Commercial farming is closely tied to other business, it is called agribusiness because the family farm is not an isolated activity but is integrated into a large food production industry. viii. Derwent Whittlesy in 1936 identified 11 major agricultural regions, plus an area where I did not exist/ 5 types are important in LDCs and the rest in MDC. II. Key Issue 2: Where are agricultural regions in less developed countries? a. Shifting Cultivation i. It is practiced in much of the world’s humid low latitude or a, climate regions which have relatively high temperatures and abundant rainfall. It predominates the Amazon area, central and west Africa, Southeast Asia, Indonesia and New Guinea. ii. Shifting cultivation has two distinguishing hallmarks. 1. Farmers clear land for planting by slashing vegetation and burning the debris. 2. Farmers grow crops on a cleared field for only a few years until soil nutrients are depleted and then leave fallow so soil can recover. iii. Well-recognized boundaries usually separate villages. iv. The cleared area is known as widen. If the village cannot feed itself then a new village is formed. v. Rice is grown in Southeast Asia, maize and cassava or manioc is grown in South America, millet/sorghum in Africa. Crops are sometimes planted in circles dependent on the amount of nutrients that are needed. More nutrients in outer ring. vi. Village owns Land, individuals have the right to own or protect certain trees. It occupies ¼ of the world’s area. Only 5 percent of the world’s population engages in it. vii. Shifting cultivation is being replaces by logging, cattle ranching and cultivation for cash crops. viii. Some people say that it is good and healthy for the people, and if gone will impact the people. ix. Bolivia greed to set aside 3.7 million acres of forest so they did not have to pay back a 650 billion loan. b. Pastoral Nomadism i. It is a form of subsistence agriculture based on the herding of domesticated animals. ii. It occurs in a large belt of semiarid and arid land. Only about 15 million engage in this but they take up 1/5 of the land of the earth by doing this. iii. The animals provide milk, skins and hair are used for clothing/tents. The herders eat mostly grain, because to nomads the size if their herd is an important as a source of security and prestige. iv. Part of a nomadic group such as the women and the children will often grow food and return. v. The camel is the most desired in North Africa and the Middle East whereas the horse in Central Asia is preferred. Goats and sheep are most important next, a typical nomadic family needs 10-25 camels. vi. Every group has a piece of territory that they control; however each piece of territory is large enough to have enough food to be able to forage and survive. vii. Transhumance is the seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pasture areas. Pasture is a grass or other plants used for feeding animals. c. III. viii. It is not recognized as an offshoot of sedentary agriculture whereas before it was an in between of hunting and gathering. ix. It is declining because of modern technology and communications, which shrink the role of them. Countries have brutally tried to force nomads to settle down. x. In the future, it will be increasingly difficult unless it is done on isolated lands that have no resources. Intensive subsistence agriculture i. Occurs most in densely populated East, South and Southeast Asia. ii. Own small fragmented plots and the ration of farmers to arable land is high. iii. Wet rice dominant-the practice of planting rice on dry land in a nursery and then moving the seedlings to a flooded field to promote growth. 1. First a farmer prepares the field for planting, using a plow drawn by water buffalo or oxen. 2. Then the plowed land is flooded with water. 3. The flooded field is called a sawah, incorrectly called a paddy. 4. Typically the seedlings are grown on dry land then they are put into the flooded field. 5. Rice plants are then harvest by hand, knives are used to separate the husks, known as chaff from the seeds. The heads are threshed by beating them on the ground, then the threshed rice is place on a tray and the lighter chaff is winnowed or blown away. Then the hull or outer covering is removed. 6. Land is used even more intensively in some parts by double cropping. iv. Wet rice not dominant 1. Climate prevents some farmers from doing wet rice so land is primarily worked by human and animal power. 2. Wheat is the most important crop, followed by barley, millet, oats, corn and sorghum and soybeans follow. 3. Crop rotations are used to avoid exhausting the soil. 4. In China agricultural communes used to be big, but now they are managed by individuals Production has actually incread. Where are agricultural regions in MDC? a. Mixed Crop and Livestock farming i. Integration of crops and livestock, most of the crops are fed to animals rather then consumed and animals leave behind manure for the fields. ii. Permits farmers to distribute the workload more evenly. It also reduces seasonal variation in income. iii. This method typical involves crop rotation. Crop rotation helps maintain fertility of a field. iv. Corn is usually the crop of choice because people consume some whereas the remainder is fed directly to cattle/pigs. v. This farming occurs from Ohio to the Dakotas with Iowa in the center, and is called the Corn Belt. Over half is corn. b. Dairy farming i. It is practices on farms near large urban areas in the Northeast US, SE Canada and Northwest Europe. Nearly 60 percent of the world’s milk is produced and developed in these regions. ii. Other areas must locate diary farms because their products are perishable. iii. Since other products are made, it is good for a farmer to be located by manufacturers. iv. The further the farm is from the milk shed the smaller the percentage of output goes to direct production of milk. v. In the east, virtually all milk is sold to consumers who live in New York, Philadelphia and Boston. vi. All of the milk in Wisconsin is processed, whereas some countries like New Zealand focus on one type, such as processed. vii. Dairy farmers face problems economically because of declining revunes and increasing costs. c. d. e. f. viii. First, dairy farming is very labor intensive, it is expensive because they have to feed cows in the winter, and the number of farms with milk cows has declined over the past 20 years, but productivity has increased dramatically. Grain farming i. Grain is the seed from various grasses like wheat, corn, oats, barley and rice and others. ii. Farmers sell their product to companies that make cereals, breads and snacks. iii. Canada, Argentina, France and the UK also grow a lot of grass. iv. The winter wheat belt extends through Kansas, Colorado, and Oklahoma, the crop is planted in the autumn and develops strong roots and is ripe in the beginning of summer. v. The spring wheat belt is in the Dakotas, Montana and A southern part of Canada. 2/3 of the wheat in the nation comes from here. Wheat is planted in spring and harvest in summer. vi. Wheat is also grown in the Palouse region vii. The combine performs threshing, reaping, and cleaning. viii. The work is not uniform throughout the year, start in Oklahoma and move there way over. ix. Wheat is supposed to be a large economic and political strength. Livestock ranching i. Ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area. ii. Ranching is large in popular culture and history, dominated commercial agriculture from 1867-1885. iii. Columbus first brought cattle to the Americas. Prices for cattle were high in the test at $30-$40 per head but 10 percent of that in the west, so cattle were moved to Chicago. iv. Range wars occurred when farmers got a hold of barbwire in 1873 v. Ranchers switched to fix location ranching because of a switch in the breed of cattle. Longhorns used to be used because they could survive long distances and roam the range, whereas the Hereford offered superior meat. Ranches know can be operated by meatpacking companies. vi. US have converted from ranching to crop growing. vii. Spain, Portugal and Argentina are places where ranching is. The cattle industry was large in Argentina. Sheep graze the center of Australia. viii. In general, first comes herding animals over open ranges, then ranching was transformed into fix farming, then ranching was moved to drier lands and it became part of the meat packing industry. Mediterranean agriculture i. It exists in the lands that border the Mediterranean sea, a part of Chile, southwestern part of South Africa, and California ii. They border the sea, are on west coats and summers are hot and dry. iii. Horticulture is the growing of fruits, vegetables, and flowers for commercial basis. Olives, grapes, fruits and vegetables are grown here. iv. In the Mediterranean the two most important cash crops are olives and grapes. 2/3 of the world’s wine is produced in regions that border this sea. v. Half of the land is devoted to growing cereal crops on it. vi. California farmland is devoted to fruits and vegetable farming, over development is causing this farming to disappear. Commercial gardening i. It is the biggest type of agriculture in the US southeast. The region has the long growing seasons and humid climate and access to eastern US cities. ii. It is called truck farming because “truck” was a Middle English word meaning bartering of the exchange of commodities. iii. Truck farms grow many fruits and vegetables that more developed societies such as lettuce, tomatoes require. iv. Labor cost is cheap because of migrant workers who come from Mexico. v. Specialty farming occurs in New England, where farmers are growing crops that have limited demand but demand among affluent customers such as peppers and it represents a profitable alternative for New England farmers when dairy farming is declining. g. IV. Plantation i. It is found especially in Latin America, Africa and Asia. ii. A plantation is a large farm that specializes in one or two crops. Cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber and tobacco are all plantation crops, along with palm oil and coconuts. iii. They usually import workers and managers try to spread work out evenly throughout the year to take advantage Key Issue 4 Why does agriculture varies among regions? a. Three types or reasons explain differences among agricultural regions: environmental, cultural and economic. b. Environmental and cultural factors i. Regions of distinct agriculture practices primarily exist because of climate. ii. Cultural preferences such as Muslim people not eating hog, or Asians not have a history of drinking beer limit production in some countries. c. Economic issues for farmers i. First, because of rapid population growth subsistence farmers must feed a large amount of people. ii. Second, because of the importance of international trade, farmers switch from subsistence farming to selling their food, which hurts their fellow countryman. d. Subsistence farming and population growth i. Boserup claims that population growth compels subsistence farmers to consider new farming approaches to take care of additional people. ii. Historically, they have only had to feed a certain number of people, but now that number keeps climbing. iii. Farmers achieve this by leaving the field fallow for shorter and resulting in expansion of land given to growing at anytime. He identified the following 5-stages: 1. Forest fallow: fields are cleared and use to two years, then left fallow for 20 years to let the forest grow back. 2. Bush Fallow: Fields are cleared and utilized for up to eight years and then left fallow for up to ten 3. Short fallow: fields are cleared and utilized for 2 years then left fallow for two years 4. Annual cropping: fields are used every year and left fallow for a few months by planting legumes/roots. 5. Multicroppoing: Fields are used several times a year iv. In a nutshell this is saying, that lands are left fallow less and less as the years go by, v. Boserup is also a firm believer that subsistence farmers then try to intensify production through adopting new farming methods such as heavier labor or fertilizer. e. Subsistence farming and international trade i. To expand production, subsistence farmers need higher yield seeds, fertilizer and machinery. For African and Asian countries the main source oo these supplies is importing from other countries. ii. To generate the funds they must sell or produce something cheaply. Consumers are willing to pay high prices for goods that would otherwise be out of season. iii. In a less developed country, family members such as women might to task for everyday survival whereas men do tasks for the international economy, women also try and make some extra money on the side. iv. Governments in LDC face the dilemna, the more land that they devote to growing export crops the less land they have for growing their own food. f. Drug crops i. Coca leaf is grown in Columbia, Peru =, and Boliva. Most of the prcessing of cocaine occurs in Columbia. Mexico grows that largest amount of marijuana whereas opium originates in Asia mostly. Thailand serves as a drug transportation hub. g. Economic issues for commercial farmers i. Access to markets 1. The distance from the farm to the market influences the farmer’s choice of crops. 2. ii. iii. CHAPTER 11 INDUSTRY The Von Thunen model is used to explain the importance of proximity to market in choice of crops on commercial farms. 3. His model was proposed in 1826 in a book called the Isolated State; a commercial farmer initially considers which crops to cultivate and which animals to raise based on market location. 4. In choosing an enterprise, the farmer compares two costs, the cost of the land versus the cost of transporting products to the market. 5. First a farmer identifies a crop that can be sold more then the cost of the land. Next the farmer chooses a crop based upon the distance from market because the cost of transporting is very different. 6. Gross profit considered, then net profit is considered 7. In terms of numbers the von Thunen model determines what is the most profitable crop based on the value of the yield per hectare and the cost of transporting the yield per hectare. 8. Application: a. He based his book on the arrangement in northern germany and for his own crops. Market orientated and milk producers were in the first ring, next wood lots were close because wood is heavy to transport. Various crops and pastures were next. On the outside is animal grazing because it requires the most space. b. He did not consider site or human factor in his model. His model failed to understand social polices and cultural policies. The model applies on a national/global scale. Overproduction in Commercial farming 1. Commercial farmers suffer from low incomes because they produce ot much food. A surplus in part has been introduced over the years so farmers can greatly increase their yields. 2. Production has increased, so has amount of food produced while demand has made const. 3. Demands of agricultural growth in MDC are usually small because of low population growth. US government polices 1. US government has three problems to attack excess productive capacity. a. First farmers are encouraged to avoid procuring crops that are in excess supply. b. The government pays farmers when prices are lows. c. Third, the government buys surplus production and sells/donates it to foreign countries. Farm subsidies in the US run around $10 billion a year. d. In more developed countries, farmers are actually encouraged to grow less food. Industry is the manufacturing of goods in a factory Industry really began with the Industrial Revolution Industrial revolution began in England in late 1700’s Began in England because raw materials (coal and iron) were there Most important invention was steam engine (James Watt) Iron industry took off when Henry Cort invented iron forge Coal took the place of wood as a fuel and was used in forging iron Engineering took off: a). James Watt and Matthew Boulton went into business and produced many new machines which improved industry Transportation played critical role in Ind. Rev. a). Needed transportation routes for manufactured products b). Canals and railroads built 1). RR was a joint effort: William Symington and William Murdoch together invented the locomotive 2). William Hedley demonstrated that “iron horse” could run on rails if wheels had rims. 3). Richard Reynolds invented rails 4). First public locomotive used in England in 1825 Textile (woven fabrics) industry took off: 1). Between 1760-1800: a). Method to spin yarn was developed b). Fabrics then had to be woven and bleached c). Bleaching led to the development of the chemical industry 2). First bleaches were ashes and sulfuric acid 3). later bleaches included chlorine gas and lime 4). Today most fabrics are synthetic and may be made of a petroleum or coal derivative 9. Food processing industry took off: 1). Old method of preserving included drying, fermenting, or pickling 2). 1810 – Nicholas Appert developed canning 3). 1839 – Peter Durand invented the tin can 4). 1861 – learned that adding calcium chloride to water decreased time necessary to sterilize cans World’s Fair in Britain in 1851: 1.“Crystal Palace built to symbolize the industrial revolution a). Housed exhibits of modern machinery b). At this time, Britain produced > ½ of world’s cotton fabric, and mined 2/3rds. of world’s coal Worldwide diffusion of manufacturing occurred in 4 clusters: Eastern North America Western Europe Eastern Europe and Russia Japan Land use issues related to manufacturing: 1. Less than 1% of world’s land is used in manufacturing 2. Both site (land costs, capital, labor cost/availability) and situation (transportation costs of raw materials and finished goods) must be considered: a). Land – most factories located in rural or sub-urban areas 1). Most factories are only 1 story, so may need a lot of land 2). Want cheap land as well as available energy 3). Some companies select less expensive areas of the country to locate factories while headquarters may be elsewhere b). Capital 1). Usually must be borrowed 2). Cities may offer tax incentives c). Labor 1). Many industries such as textiles are labor intensive 2). Companies may look for countries where labor is readily available and cheap 3). Today, many US factories are locating manufacturing plants in LDCs 4). Also US textile companies may locate in SE USA where labor unions aren’t strong d). Transportation costs 1). Most expensive: air, then trucking, RR, and shipping 2). Copper industry a). Copper ore in US is low grade – less than 1% of what is mined is copper ore – the rest is waste! b). Copper must be mined, processed, and the wastes disposed c). Thus, copper is a bulk reducing industry 3). Transportation costs are critical to 3 types of industries: a). Bulk gaining – e.g. bottling companies b). Perishable industries such as dairy products c). Single market – fashion industry 4). Total costs will depend on how far and how fast the products must go and if they have to change modes of transportation a). Break-of-bulk-points are points where goods change methods of transportation – e.g. RR to shipping Industrial problems: Gap between supply and demand Stagnant demand: a). From late 1700’s to 1970, growth of manufacturing b). Since 1970, growth has slowed in MDCs because population growth has slowed; wages have not risen as quickly; inflation; and population is demanding high quality goods c). Also – recycling has slowed both the mining and manufacturing industries 3. To solve these problems, MDCs need to protect their markets from competitors; LDCs must find new markets and sources of capitals Trading blocs – 3 most important: Western hemisphere – e.g. NAFTA Western Europe – e.g. European Union East Asia – less formal cooperation – e.g. Pacific Rim countries Competition between trading blocs leads to taxing imports and limiting number of imports and exports Transnational corporations – we have been over this, but review Maquiladoras Environmental laws in LDCs vrs. MDCs Cost of labor in LDCs vrs. MDCs Special problems in LDCs: Distance from market Lack of infrastructure (transportation routes, training facilities for workers, etc.) Often must sell their goods to their own people who can’t afford them Interestingly, both Australia and New Zealand have problems similar to LDCs because of their geographic isolation. Chapters 12 & 13 A. B. Chapters 12 and 13, Rubenstein Services and Urban Patterns Services are any activity that fulfills a human want or need and returns money to those that provide it. Examples: 1. Transportation and commerce 2. Product services such as banking 3. Retail and wholesale 4. Personal and social such as schools 5. Public services such as government Services also must consider site and situation: 1. LOCATION, LOCATION, LOCATION are usually considered the 3 most important factors in retail 2. Must define a market area first to determine a location: a). Maximum distance a customer is willing to travel for a service is called range b). Threshold is minimum number of people needed to support business 3. Gravity model says that the potential use of a good or service at a location is directly related to the population and inversely related to the distance people must travel. 4. Central Place Theory a). Very important!! b). Developed by Walter Christaller in 1930s based on his studies of southern Germany c). Adapted to USA by Brian Berry, et al. in 1950s d). Theory applies most clearly to Great Plains area of USA which has few physical barriers e). Size of cities is determined by geographic location f). The largest city in a region is at the center of the region g). Hexagons can be drawn around the central part of a city which define the market area or hinterland h). Surrounding the largest city and its hinterland are smaller settlements known as towns (which also have hinterlands); towns are surrounded by villages (and hinterlands); villages are surrounded by hamlets (and hinterlands) i). People who live near edges of the hexagon-shaped hinterlands may go to other markets j). Theory implies that once a large city has established its marketplace, it will impede the growth of all surrounding cities (smaller cities can’t compete) 5. Optimal location within a market: a). After determining the range and threshold, optimal location is usually the one that minimizes the distance to the service for the largest number of people. 1). In a linear market such as a strip mall – median point 2). Non-linear – more difficult (see page 420) C. Settlements 1. Most people live in settlements for cultural and economic reasons: a). Cultural reasons include nurturing, sense of community, and protection b). Economic reasons are obvious, but originally probably began as a place where people could trade goods 2. Two basic types of settlements: rural and urban: a). Rural settlements evolved as centers for agriculture b). Urban settlements evolved as centers for manufacturing, warehousing, trade, and services; oldest urban centers thought to have been in Mesopotamia, Indus valley, and Middle and South America 3. Growth of urban centers: a). Particularly since the industrial revolution, urban centers have grown b). Explosive growth of large cities and geographic distribution: 1). 1950s – 21 of world’s 30 largest cities in core countries 2). 1980 – 19 of world’s 30 largest cities in semi- and peripheral countries 3). 2020 (projected!) – 25 of world’s 30 largest cities in semi- and peripheral countries c). Megacity – population of 10 million or more ( See São Paulo article for problems in megacities in LDCs) 4. Global system of cities a). Key cities in this system are places where decisions are made concerning movement of information and capital b). Four levels of these cities: 1). World cities – centers of information, banking, law, and insurance – e.g. – London 2). Regional command and control centers – headquarters of education, major corporations, medical, etc. – e.g. – Atlanta 3). Specialized product/service centers – R&D related to specific industries and services – e.g. – Raleigh/Durham, NC 4). Dependent centers – provides relatively unskilled jobs (resorts, manufacturing, military, mining, and industrial) and depends on economic health of larger cities – e.g. – Charleston, West VA. D. Cities – structure and problems: E. Three models of cities: 1. Concentric zone model a. Developed by E.W. Burgess in 1923 – city grows outward from central business district (CBD) 2. Sector model a. Developed by Homer Hoyt in 1939 – city grows in wedges around a CBD 3. Multiple nuclei model a. Developed by Harris and Ullman in 1945 – cities develop in sectors around nodes such as a port, business center, university, etc. and each node attracts certain businesses (look at Denver) F. Central business districts – contain offices and certain types of tertiary activities: 1. Shops with high thresholds – i.e. stores with expensive merchandise 2. Shops with high ranges – i.e. stores with expensive merchandise such as jewelry 3. Shops that serve office workers G. Structure of central business districts: 1. Usually compact – land costs are high (cost of land in Tokyo: $1 million/acre) – so build up H. Problems in CBDs: 1. Commute 2. Cost of parking 3. Higher taxes 4. Inner-city housing is usually either very expensive or very low quality 5. May have high crime rate 6. May have homeless problem – e.g. Boulder Mall; 300,000 people in Calcutta, India sleep, bathe, and eat on traffic islands and sidewalks 7. City may be segregated 8. Fiscal problems: a). Low income people pay little taxes yet require government services, so city can: 1). Raise taxes 2). Reduce services 3). Ask for state and federal funds I. Suburban areas – problems and structure: 1. People like space, so move out of cities 2. As suburbs get crowded, people continue to move out and get URBAN SPRAWL: a. Urban sprawl wastes land and energy! b. National Geographic magazine featured the Front Range of Colorado as an example of urban sprawl (see article) c. 95% of people in US suburbs use cars to commute d. US highway system and urban sprawl and dependent on one another e. Malls have taken retail business from downtown: 1). Closer to population centers 2). Usually lower taxes and costs 3). Free parking 4). Malls are designed to keep customers happy! a). At ends of mall are “generator” (pedestrian traffic) or “anchor” (economic anchor) stores such as large department stores or grocery stores. 1). These stores are the main reason most go to malls, but once there, encourage people to walk through the mall. 2). For example, if you want to go to department store A to shop, you may also want to compare items/prices at department store B which is at the other end of the mall, so you must walk through the mall 3). Stores in the middle of malls are usually stores that depend on impulse buying such as food courts b). Mall window displays are scaled so that although you appear slightly larger than “life” as depicted in the display c). Department stores in malls are designed so that you can get in easily, but get lost trying to get out (so that you see as many of the displays inside CHAPTER 14 Resources A. A resource is a: 1. substance in the environment; 2. economically feasible to extract; and 3. socially acceptable to use B. Resources can be broadly divided between renewable and non-renewable 1. Renewable means those that can be renewed in a reasonable amount of time – e.g. solar, wind, and food 2. Non-renewable includes metals, fresh water, fossil fuels, etc. C. Potential vrs. Proven reserves 1. Potential reserves not measured 2. Proven reserves measured with reasonable accuracy 3. World reserves of fossil fuels should start to decline between 2015-2035 4. However, possible to find new extraction techniques to improve yield D. Fossil fuels: 1. Formed when land plants (coal) and microscopic planktonic organisms (oil and gas) die in an anaerobic (without oxygen) environment. 2. If environment is anaerobic, then plants and animals don’t rot and carbon is preserved 3. Remains get buried over time and under heat and/or pressure, transformed into coal, oil, natural gas, oil shale 4. But not only is supply finite for practical purposes, but the geographic distribution of fossil fuels is based on geology and not on politics 5. Two questions remain: 1. current oil reserves, and 2. how much liquid petroleum can we extract? 6. Geographically, 65% of present oil reserves are in Middle East. Saudi Arabia has majority of oil. 7. Oil shale is difficult to extract, expensive to process, and very damaging to the environment. World’s largest oil shale reserves in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming E. Uneven consumption of resources F. G. H. 1. MDCs usually consume more than they produce 2. LDCs will consume more as they develop OPEC (Organization of Oil Exporting Countries) 1. Organized in 1960s 2. Most members are LDCs in Middle East and Northern Africa - including Algeria, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Venezuela, Indonesia, etc. 3. Control oil prices 4. We import more oil than any other country a). In 1973, Western Europe and the USA supported Israel in a war with Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. b). OPEC retaliated in 1973-1974 by limiting the amount of oil they would sell c). Since the US was dependent on foreign oil, we had an oil shortage and oil prices rose from $9.00/barrel to $40.00/barrel. d). You sat for hours waiting to buy $5.00 worth of gas (limit on amount you could purchase) e). As a consequence, cars became more fuel efficient with smaller engines and bodies f). The most important consideration when buying a car was mileage and all commercials and ads for cars featured mpg on highways and in town. g). There were no V-8 engines! h). Today we have V-12s and we are more dependent on foreign oil than we were in 1973!! Pollution from fossil fuels 1. Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide 2. Carbon dioxide is a variable Greenhouse gas which absorbs longwave radiation and then re-emits it thus warming the atmosphere. Alternative energy sources 1. Nuclear – power generated mostly from radioactive decay of uranium a. Uranium must be mined – pollution from mining b. Next uranium is enriched – more pollution c. Enriched uranium made into fuel rods for nuclear reactors d. Many nuclear reactors cooled with water – another source of pollution – radioactive water! e. But main sources of pollution are the used rods and the water used to cool the reactors. 1). It is estimated that 4 liters of waste water is enough to poison every living thing on earth – and we have hundreds of millions of liters of this waste! 2). Main question is how do we dispose of these products safely? 3). This is still under debate as we have never dismantled a nuclear power plant – and many are ready to be dismantled because they were only built to last 40-50 years! (Sustainable development??!) 4). The world’s most dangerous building according to the EPA is about 10 miles south of Boulder at the Rocky Flats Closure Project (as it is now called). (We have already discussed Rocky Flats) 2. Solar energy a. Good clean source of renewable energy b. Main problems are with latitude (affects amount and angle of sun) and with storage 3. Hydroelectric a. Need running water, so generally must build a dam b. Dams destroy wildlife habitats 4. Geothermal a. Good source of power b. Mostly limited to volcanically active areas and thus geographic limitations c. Iceland and France are both users of geothermal energy 5. Biomass a. Sugar cane, corn, soybeans, etc. – burn these for fuels b. Main problem is that you are burning food for fuel 6. Nuclear fusion a. Great idea – renewable – non-radioactive b. Main problem is that is requires VERY high temperatures to convert hydrogen into helium and we don’t have anything heat resistant enough to contain it! c. (Sun’s energy is from fusion) I. J. Water pollution 1. We have very little fresh water on earth! a. More people die of dysentery due to contaminated water than any other disease!! 2. Many argue water is not a renewable resource! 3. Major sources of water pollution: a. Sewage (remember Sao Paulo! – 20,000 tons/day raw sewage is dumped into their ONE source of fresh water!) b. Acid mine drainage – usually sulfuric acid c. Chemicals from industry, cars, household products, etc. 4. Agriculture a. Organic pollutants – e.g. cows (each cow averages 50 pounds of solid wastes per day and 20 pounds or urine per day!) This goes into the fresh water supply! b. Pesticides and fertilizers c. Aral Sea 1). Yet another example of trying to grow water-loving crops in the desert! 2). Aral Sea is between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan – two countries that were controlled by the former USSR. 3). Under USSR control, waters were diverted from the two rivers that feed the Aral Sea for irrigation of cotton. 4). Sea has now shrunk to half of its original size 5). Fishing villages that surrounded it are now far inland 6). All fish are dead 7). Island that was in middle of Aral Sea was used to store nuclear wastes – now there is a land bridge to the storage area (terrorism concerns) 5. Landfill a. Concern over contamination of ground water b. Also on gases generated, but a possible source of fuel!!! Reducing pollution – how? 1. Reduce amount of waste a). Reduce inputs – feed cows less, reduce lead in gas, etc. b).Reduce demand for product – don’t eat as much beef c). technology – recycle! 2. Expand the capacity of the environment to hold wastes a). Don’t use as many pesticides and fertilizers b). Develop “miracle” seeds – e.g. type of corn that is naturally resistant to pests, or high yield seeds c). Develop new food sources 1). Oceans 2). Higher protein cereals 3). Improve tastes of other food sources d). Increase exports from countries with surpluses e). Re-distribution of food Key Terms Key Terms Acid deposition Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, emitted by burning fossil fuels, enter the atmosphere-where they combine with oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid-and return to Earth’s Surface Acid precipitation Conversion of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides to acids that return to Earth as rain, snow, or fog. Active solar energy systems Solar energy system that collects energy through the use of mechanical devices like photovoltaic cells or flat plate collectors Agribusiness Commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry, usually through ownership by large corporations Agricultural density The ratio of the number of farmers to the total amount of land suitable for agriculture Agricultural revolution The time when human beings first domesticated plants and animals and no longer relied entirely on hunting and gathering Agriculture The deliberate effort to modify a portion of Earth’s surface through the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance or economic gain Air pollution Concentration of trace substances, such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and solid particulates, at a greater level than occurs in average air Animate power Power supplied by people or animals. Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit or conscious life Annexation Legally adding land area to a city in the United States. Apartheid Laws (no longer in effect) in South Africa that physically separated different races into different geographic areas. Arithmetic density The total number of people divided by the total land area Autonomous religion A religion that does not have a central authority but shares ideas and cooperates informally. Balance of power Condition of roughly equal strength between opposing countries or alliances of countries Balkanization Process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its Balkanized A small geographic area that could not successfully be organized into one or more stable states because it was inhabited by ethnicities with complex long standing antagonism toward each other ethnicities Basic industries industries that sell their product or service primarily to consumers outside the settlement Biochemical oxygen demand Amount of oxygen required by aquatic bacteria to decompose a given load of organic (BOD) waste; a measure of water pollution Biomass fuel fuel that derives from plant material and animal waste Blockbusting a process by which real estate agents convince white property owners to sell their homes at low prices because of fear that black families will move into the neighborhood Boundary Invisible line that marks the extent of a state’s territory Blockbusting A process by which real state agents convince white property owners to sell their houses at low prices because of fear that black families will soon move into the neighborhood Break-of-bulk point A location where transfer is possible from one mode of transportation to another British Received Pronunciation (BRP) The dialect of English associated with upper-class Britons living in the London area now considered standard in the United Kingdom Branch (of a religion) A large and fundamental division within a religion Breeder reactor A nuclear power plant that creates its own fuel from plutonium. Bulk-gaining industry An industry in which the final product weighs or comprises a greater volume than the input Business Services Services that primarily meet the needs of other businesses Cartography Caste The science of making maps. The class or distinct hereditary order into which a Hindu is assigned according to religious law. Census tract An area delineated by the U.S. Bureau of the Census for which statistics are published; in urbanized areas, census tracts correspond roughly to neighborhoods. Census A complete enumeration of a population Central business district (CBD) The area of the city where retail and office activities are clustered. Central place theory A theory that explains the distribution of services, based on the fact that settlements serve as centers of market area for services; larger. settlements are fewer and farther apart than smaller settlements and provide services for a larger number of people who are willing to travel farther Central place A market center for the exchange of services attracted from the surrounding area. Centripetal Force An attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a Cereal grain A grass yielding grain for food. Chaff Husks of grain separated from the seed by thrashing Chain migration Migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality previously migrated there. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) A gas used as a solvent, a propellant in aerosols, a refrigerant, and in plastic foams and fire extinguishers. Circulation Short-term, repetitive, or cyclical movements that recur on a regular basis. City-state A sovereign state comprising a city and its immediate hinterland. Clustered rural settlement A rural settlement in which the houses and farm buildings of each family are situated close to each other and fields surround the settlement. Colonialism Attempt by one country to establish settlements and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles in another territory. Colony A territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than completely independent. Combine A machine that reaps, threshes, and cleans grain while moving over a field. Commercial agriculture Agriculture undertaken primarily to generate products for sale off the farm. Compact state A state in which the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly. Concentration The spread of something over a given area. Concentric zone model A model of the internal structure cities in which social groups are spatially arranged in a series of rings. Consolidated metropolitan statistical area (CMSA) In the United States, two or more adjacent metropolitan statistical areas with overlapping commuting patterns areas Consumer services Businesses that provide services primarily to individual consumers, including retail services and personal services. Contagious diffusion The rapid, widespread diffusion of a feature or trend throughout a population. Cosmogony A set of religious beliefs concerning the origin of place the universe. Cottage industry Manufacturing based in homes rather than in a factory, commonly found before the Industrial Revolution. Council of government A cooperative agency consisting of characterized by representatives of local governments in a metropolitan area in the United States. Counterurbanization Net migration from urban to rural areas in more developed countries Creole or creolized language A language that results from the mixing of a colonizer's language with the indigenous anguage of the people being dominated Crop Rotation The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year to avoid exhausting the soil Crop grain or fruit gathered from a field as a harvest during a particular season Crude Birth Rate (CBR) The total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. Crude death rate (CDR) The total number of deaths in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. Cultural ecology Geographic approach that emphasizes human-environment relationships. Culture The body of customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits that together constitute a group of people's distinct tradition. Custom The frequent repetition of an act, to the extent that it becomes characteristic of the group of people performing the act Demographic transition The process of change in a society's population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and a higher total population Demography The scientific study of population characteristics. Denomination A division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations in a single legal and administrative body. Density The frequency with which something exists within a given unit of area. Density gradient The change in density in an urban area from the center to the periphery. Dependency ratio The number of people under the age of 15 of and over age 64, compared to the number of people active in the labor force Desertification Degradation of land, especially semiarid area, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing and tree cutting Development A process of improvement in the material conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology. Dialect A regional variety of a language distinguished by vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. Diffusion The process of spread of a feature or trend from one to another over time. Diocese The basic unit of geographic organization in the Roman Catholic Church. Dispersed Rural settlement A rural settlement pattern characterized by isolated farms rather than clustered villages. Distance Decay The diminishing in importance and eventual disappearance of a phenomenon with increasing distance from its origin. Distribution The arrangement of something across Earth's surface Double Cropping Harvesting twice a year from the same field Doubling Time The number of years needed to double a population, assuming a constant rate of natural increase Ebonics Dialect spoken by some African Americans Economic Base A community’s collection of basic industries Ecumene The portion of the Earth occupied by permanent human settlements Nodal Region An area organized around a node or focal point Edge city A large node of office and retail activities on the edge Functional (or nodal) region An area organized around a node of an urban area or focal point. Elongated state A state with a long, narrow shape. Emigration Migration from a location Enclosure Movement The process of consolidating small land- holdings into a smaller number of larger farms in England during the 18th century Environmental Determinism a 19th and early 20th century approach to the study of geography that argued that the general laws sought by human geographers could be found in the physical sciences. Geography therefore was the study of how the physical environment caused human activities Ethnic cleansing Process in which more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes a less powerful one in order to create an ethnically homogeneous region Ethnic religion A religion with a relatively concentrated spatial distribution whose principles are likely to be based on the physical characteristics of the particular location in which its adherents are concentrated. Ethnicity Identity with a group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and cultural traditions Expansion Diffusion The spread of a feature or trend among people from one area to another in a snowballing process. Extinct Languages A language that once was used by people in their daily activities but is no longer used Federal State An internal organization of a state that allocates most powers to units of local government Filtering A process of change in the use of a house, from a single family owner occupancy to abandonment Fission The splitting of an atomic nucleus to release energy Floodplain The area subject to flooding during a given number of years according to historical trends Folk Culture Culture traditionally practiced by a small homogeneous group living in relative isolation from other groups Forced migration Fordist Production Formal Region Fossil Fuel Fragmented state Franglais Frontier Functional Region Fundamentalism Fusion Gentrification Geothermal energy Ghetto GIS Globalization Grain Gravity model Green revolution Greenbelt Greenhouse effect Greenwich Mean Time Permanent movement compelled usually by cultural factors Form of mass production in which each worker is assigned one specific task to perform repeatedly An area in which everyone shares in one or more distinctive characteristics Energy source formed from the residue of plants and animals buried millions of years ago A state that includes several discontinuous pieces of territory A term used by the French for English words that entered into the French language, a combination of francais and anglais, the French words for French and English respectively A zone separating two states in which neither state exercise political control An area organized around a node or focal point Literal interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles of a religion (or a religious branch, denomination, or sect) Creation of energy by the joining of two hydrogen atoms to forms helium A process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly lowincome renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area. Energy from steam or hot water produced from hot or molten underground rocks. During the Middle Ages, a neighborhood in a city set up by law to be inhabited only by Jews; now used to denote a section of a city in which members of any minority group live because of social, legal, or economic pressure A computer system that stores, organizes, analyzes, and displays geographic data. Actions or processes that involve the entire world and result in making something worldwide in scope. Seed of a cereal grassA model that holds that the potential use of a service at a particular location is directly related to the number of people in a location and inversely related to the distance people must travel to reach that service Rapid diffusion of new agricultural technology, especially new high yield seeds and fertilizers A ring of land maintained as parks, agriculture, or other types of open space to limit the sprawl of an urban area Anticipated increase in Earth's temperature, caused by carbon dioxide (emitted by burning fossil fuels) trapping some of the radiation emitted by the surface The time in that time zone encompassing the prime meridian or 0 Gross domestic product (GDP) The value of the total output of goods and services produced in a country in any given period, normally one year Guest Workers Workers who migrate to the more developed countries of North and Western Europe, usually from Southern and Eastern Europe or form North Africa, in search of higher paying jobs. Habit A repetitive act performed by a particular individual Hearth The region from which innovative ideas originate Hierarchical diffusion The spread of a feature or trend from one key person or node of authority or power to other persons or places Hierarchical religion A religion in which a central authority exercises a high degree of control Horticulture The growing of fruits, vegetables, and flowers Hull The outer covering of a seed Hydroelectric power Power generated from moving water Ideograms The system of writing used in china and other East Asian countries in which each symbol represents an idea or concept rather a specific sound, as is the case with letters in English Immigration Migration to a new location Imperialism control of territory already occupied and organized by an indigenous society Inanimate power Power supplied by machines Industrial Revolution A series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods. Infant Morality Rate The number of deaths in a year among infants under one for every 1,00 live births in a society Intensive subsistence agriculture A form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land Internal Migration Permanent movement within a particular country International Date Line An arc that for the most part follows 180 longitude, although it deviates in several places to avoid dividing land areas. When you cross the International Date Line heading east (toward America), the clock moves back 24 hours, or one entire day. When you go west (toward Asia), the calendar moves ahead one day. International migration Permanent movement from one country to another Interregional migration Permanent movement from one region of a country Intervening obstacle An environmental or cultural feature of the landscape that hinders migration Isogloss A boundary that separates regions in which different language usage predominate Isolated language A language that is unrelated to any other languages and therefore not attached to any language family Labor-intensive industry An industry for which labor costs comprises a high percentage of total expenses Landlocked state A state that does not have a direct outlet to the sea Language A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning Language Branch A collection of languages related through a common ancestor that existed several thousands years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language families, and archaeological evidence can confirm that the branches derived form the same family Language group A collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar Latitude The numbering system used to indicate the location of parallels drawn on a globe and measuring distance north and south of the equator (0). Less Developed Countries Also known as a developing country, a country that is at a relatively early stage in the process of economic development Life Expectancy The average number of years an individual can be expected to live, given current social, economic., and medical conditions. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of year a newborn infant can expect to live Lingua franca A language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages Literacy rate The percentage of a country’s people who can read and write Literary tradition A language that is written as well as spoken Location The position of anything on Earth's surface Longitude The numbering system used to indicate the location of meridians drawn on a globe and measuring distance east and west of the prime meridian (0°). Map A two-dimensional, or flat representation of the earth’s surface or a portion of it. Maquiladora Factories built by US companies in Mexico near the US border, to take advantage of much lower labor costs in Mexico. Market Place The area surrounding a central place, from which people are attracted to use the place’s goods and services. Medical Revolution Medical technology invented in Europe and North America that is diffused to the poorer countries of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Improved medical practices have eliminated many of the traditional causes of death in poorer countries and enabled more people to live longer and healthier lives Meridian An arc drawn on a map between the North and South Poles Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) In the United states, a central city of at least 50,000 population, the country within which the city is located, and adjacent counties meeting one of several tests indicating a functional connection to the central city Microstate A state that encompasses a very small area Migration Form of relocation diffusion involving permanent move to a new location Migration transition Change in the migration pattern in society from industrialization, population growth, and other economic changes that also produce the demographic transition Milkshed The area surrounding a city from which milk is supplied Missionary An individual who helps to diffuse a universalizing religion Mobility All types of movement from one location to another. Monotheism The doctrine or belief of the existence of only one god More developed country (MDC) also known as a relatively developed country, a country that has progressed relatively far along a continuum of development Multi-ethnic state State that contains more than one ethnicity Multi-national state State that contains two or more ethnic groups with traditions of self-determination that agree to co-exist peacefully by recognizing each other as distinct nationalities Multiple nuclei model A model of the internal structure of cities in which social groups are arranged around a collection of nodes of activities Nationalism Nationality Loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality Identity with a group of people that share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular place as a result of being born there Nation-state A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality Natural increase rate (NIR) The percentage growth of a population in a year, computed as the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate. Net migration The difference between the level of immigration and the level of Emigration New international division of labor Transfer of some types of jobs, especially those requiring low-paid less skilled workers, from more developed to less developed countries Nonbasic industries Industries that sell their products primarily to consumers in the community Nonrenewable energy A source of energy that is a finite supply capable of being exhaustedOverpopulation The number of people in an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard Official language The language adopted for use by the government for the conduct of business and publication of documents. Ozone A gas that absorbs ultraviolet solar radiation, found in the stratosphere, a zone between 15 and 50 kilometers (9 to 30 miles) above Earth's surface Paddy Malay word for wet rice, commonly but incorrectly used to describe a sawah. Pagan Parallel A follower of a polytheistic religion in ancient times A circle drawn around the globe parallel to the equator and right angles to the meridian Passive solar energy systems Solar energy system that collects energy without the use of mechanical devices. Pastoral nomadism A form of subsistence agriculture based on herding domesticated animals. Pasture Grass or other plants grown for feeding grazing aninmals, as well as land used for grazing Pattern The geometric or regular arrangement of something in a study area Perforated state A state that completely surrounds another state Peripheral model A model of North American urban areas consisting of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and business area tied together by a beltway or ring road Personal services Services that provide for the well-being and personal improvement of individual consumers Photochemical smog An atmospheric condition formed through a combination of weather conditions and pollution especially from motor vehicles emissions. Photovoltaic cell Solar energy cells, usually made from silicon that collect solar rays to generate electricity. Physiological density The number of people per unit of arable land, which is land suitable for agriculture. A form of speech that adopts a simplified grammar and limited vocabulary of a lingua franca, used for communications among speakers of two different languages Pilgrimage A journey to a place considered sacred for religious purposes. Plantation A large farm in tropical and subtropical climate that specializes in the production of one or two crops for sale, usually to a more developed country Polder Land created by the Dutch by draining water from an area. Pollution Addition of more waste than a resource can accommodate Polytheism Belief in or worship of more than one god Popular culture Culture found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics Population pyramid A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex. Possibilism The theory that the physical environment may set limits on human actions, but people have the ability to adjust to the physical environment and choose a course of action from many alternatives Post-Fordist production Adoption by companies of flexible work rules, such as the allocation of workers to teams that performs a variety of tasks Potential reserve The amount of energy in deposits not yet identified but thought to exist Primary metropolitan statistical area (PMSA) In the United States, a metropolitan statistical area exceeding 1 million population located within a consolidated metropolitan statistical area Primary sector The portion .of the economy concerned with the direct extraction of materials from Earth s surface generally through agriculture, although sometimes by mining, fishing, and forestry Primate city The largest settlement in a country, if it has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement Primate city rule A pattern of settlements in a country, such that the largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement. Prime Agricultural Land The most productive farmland Prime Meridian The Meridian, designated as 0 longitude, which passes through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England Producer Services Services that primarily help people conduct business Productivity The value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor needed to make it Projection The system used to transfer locations from Earth’s surface to a flat map. Prorupted state An otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension Proven Reserve The amount of a resource available in discovered deposits Public Housing Housing owned by the government; in the US, it is rented to low-income residents, and the rents are set at 30% of the family’s income Public Services Services offered by the government to provide security and protection for citizens and businesses Pull Factors Factors that induce people to move to a new location Push Factors Factors that induce people to leave old residences Quota In reference to migration, a law that places maximum limits on the number of people who can immigrate to a country each year Race Identity with a group of people descended from a common ancestor Racism Belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race Racists A person who ascribes to the beliefs of racism Radioactive Waste Particles from a nuclear reaction that emit radiation; contact with such particles may be harmful or lethal to people and must therefore be safely stored for thousands of years Ranching A form of commercial agriculture in which livestock graze over an extensive area Range of a service The maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service Rank size rule A pattern of settlements in a country, such that the nth largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement Reaper A machine that cuts grain standing in the field Redlining A process by which banks draw lines on a map and refuse to lend money to purchase or improve property within the boundaries Pidgin language Refugees Region Regional Studies Relocation Diffusion Remote Sensing Renewable Energy Resource Retail Services Right to Work State Rush or Peak Hour Sanitary Landfill Sawah Scale Secondary Sector Sect Sector Model Seed Agriculture Self Determination Service Settlement Sex ratio Share Cropper Shifting Cultivation Site Site factors Situation Situation factors Slash and Burn Agriculture Solstice Sovereignty Space-time compression Spanglish Sprawl Spring wheat People who are forced to migrate from their home country and cannot return for fear of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a social group, or political opinion An area distinguished by a unique combination of trends or features An approach to geography that emphasizes the relationships among social and physical phenomena in a particular area study The spread of a feature or trend through the bodily movement of people from one place to another The acquisition of data about the Earth’s surface from a satellite orbiting the planet or other long-distance methods A resource that has a theoretically unlimited supply and is not depleted when used by humans A substance in the environment that is useful to people, is economically and technologically feasible to access, and is socially acceptable to use Services that provide goods for sale to consumers A US Sate that has passed a law preventing a union and company from negotiating a contract that requires workers to join a union as a condition of employment The four consecutive 15 minute periods in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic A place to deposit solid waste, where a layer of earth is bulldozed over garbage each day to reduce emission of gasses and odors from the decaying trash, to minimize fires and to discourage vermin A flooded field for growing rice The relationship between the size of an object on a map and the size of the actual feature on Earth’s surface The portion of the economy concerned with manufacturing useful products through processing, transforming, and assembling raw materials A relatively small group that has broken away from an established denomination A model of the internal structure of cities in which social groups are arranged around a series of sectors, or wedges, radiating out from the central business district (CBR) Reproduction of plants through annual introduction of seeds, which result in sexual fertilization Concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves Any activity that fulfills a human want or need and returns money to those who provide it A permanent collection of buildings and inhabitants The number of males per 100 females in the population A person who works fields rented form a landowner and pays the rent and repays the loan by turning over to the landowner a share of the crop A form of subsistence agriculture in which people shift activity from one field to another; each field is used for crops for relatively few years and left fallow for a relatively long period The physical characteristics of a place Locations factors related to the costs of factors of production inside the plant, such as land, labor and capital The location of a place relative to other places Locations factors related to the transportation of materials into the and from a factory Another name for shifting cultivation, so named because fields are cleared by slashing the vegetation and burning the debris Time when the Sun is farthest from the equator Ability of a state to govern its territory free from control of its internal affairs by other states. The reduction in the time it takes to diffuse something to a distant place, as a result of improved communications and transportation systems. Combination of Spanish and English, spoken by Hispanic-Americans. Development of new housing sites at relatively low density and at locations that are not contiguous to the existing built- up area Wheat planted in the spring and harvested in the late summer Squatter settlement An area within a city in a less developed country in which people illegally establish residences on land they do not own or rent and erect homemade structures. Standard language The form of a language used for official government business, education, and mass communications. State An area organized into apolitical unit and ruled by an established government with control over its internal and foreign affairs Stimulus Diffusion The spread of underlying principle, even though a specific characteristic is rejected Structural adjustment program Economic policies imposed on less developed countries by international agencies to create conditions encouraging international trade, such as raising taxes, reducing government spending, controlling inflation, selling publicly owned utilities to private corporations, and charging citizens more for services Subsistence agriculture Agriculture designed primarily to provide food for direct consumption by the farmer and the farmer's family Sustainable agriculture Farming methods that preserve long-term productivity of land and minimize pollution, typically by rotating soil-restoring crops with cash crops and inputs of fertilizer and pesticides Sustainable development The level of development that can be maintained in a country without depleting resources to the extent that future generations will be unable to achieve a comparable level of development Swidden A patch of land cleared for planting through slashing and burning Taboo A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom Tertiary sector The portion of the economy concerned with transportation, communications, and utilities, sometimes extended to the provision of all goods and services to people in exchange for payment. Textile A fabric made by weaving, used in making clothing Thresh To beat out grain from stalks by trampling it Threshold The minimum number of people needed to support the service Toponym The name given to a portion of the Earth’s surface Total Fertility Rate (TFR) The average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years Trading bloc A group of neighboring countries that promote trade with each other and erect barriers to limit trade with other blocs Transhumance The seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pastures Transnational Corporation A company that conducts research, operates factories, and sells products in many countries, not just where its headquarters or shareholders are located Transportation and information services Services that diffuse and distribute services Triangular Slave Trade Truck Farming Uneven Development Unity state Universalizing Religion A practice primarily during the 18th century, in which European ships transported slaves from Africa to the Caribbean islands, molasses from the Caribbean islands to Europe, and trade goods from Europe to Africa. Commercial gardening and fruit farming, so named because truck was a Middle English word meaning bartering or the exchange of commodities The increasing gap in economic conditions between core and peripheral regions as a result of globalization of the economy An internal organization of a state that places most power in the hands of central governmental officials A religion that attempts to appeal to all people, not just those living in a particular location. Urban renewal Program in which cities attempt to identify blighted inner-city neighborhoods, acquire properties from private owners, relocate the residents and business, clear the site, build new roads and utilities and turn the land over to private developers. Urbanization An increase in the percentage an din the number of people living in urban settlements Urbanized areas In the US, a central city plus its contiguous built up suburb. Value added The gross value of the product minus the costs of raw materials and energy. Vegetative planting Reproduction of plants by direct cloning from existing plants Vernacular Region An area that people believe to exist as part of their cultural identity Voluntary Migration Permanent movement undertaken by choice Vulgar Latin A form of Latin used in daily conversation by ancient Romans, as opposed to the standard dialect, which was used for official documents. .. Wet rice Rice planted on dry land in a nursery, then moved to a deliberately flooded field to promote growth Winnow To remove chaff by allowing it to be blown away by the wind Winter Wheat Wheat planted in the late fall and harvested in the early summer. Zero Population Growth (ZPG) A decline of the total fertility rate to the point where the N.I. R equales zero. Zoning ordinance A law that limits the permitted uses of land and maximum density of development in a community.
