Download Catiline Conspiracy

Marcus Tullius Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero was born in 106 BC, hailing from a local equestrian family in Arpinum.
Both Cicero and Pompey, who became associates at a very young age, struggled to detach
themselves from the Marian clan that held the foremost political position in the region. While
both followed the footsteps of Marius to become novus homo (new men) in the Roman Senate,
they did so in completely different fashions. Pompey, of course, chose the military route, paying
little regard to the traditional steps of the political ladder (cursus honorum). Cicero, on the
other hand, was the idyllic Republican politician. From the moment he arrived in Rome, his
career was spent adhering to the courts of law and to strict principals of traditional Senatorial
advancement.
As a boy, Cicero visited Rome and received the finest literary education that money could buy.
In this time, he met and became the best of friends with another equestrian youth by name of
Atticus. It is Atticus who was the recipient of numerous letters from Cicero, in which many have
survived as an indispensable window into the final days of the Republic and Roman politics.
In the Social War of the 80's BC, the young Cicero was beginning to follow his career path. He
served under Pompey's father, Pompeius Strabo, along with Pompey and his future enemy
Catilina. Cicero quickly learned though that he wasn't suited to military affairs and chose
instead to pursue his career as a lawyer, orator and politician. Despite convenient and likely
beneficial connections to Marius and his supporters during the civil wars, Cicero avoided using
these contacts to his advantage. He clearly sided against the populares party and stuck to an
early path of conservative policy. However, conservative principals didn't necessarily push him
to the extremes of the Sullan camp either. During the dictatorship of Sulla, Cicero first began to
gain notoriety as an attorney and orator opposing Sulla's proscriptions. In 80 BC, in the midst of
Sulla's supreme authority, Cicero defended one Sextus Roscius against proscription. Making his
case tactfully and in such a manner as not to offend the dictator, Cicero made a lasting
impression on Roman audiences.
By the 70's BC, Cicero returned to his educational pursuits. He studied rhetoric abroad in the
east, of which he would eventually come to be considered as the penultimate master. Using his
oration as a base, Cicero clawed and scratched his way to prominence as a new man in Roman
society. Little opportunity was available for a man with so few family connections in the ancient
world, while trying to break into the elite Senatorial circles. While some gained prominence
through military achievement, Cicero traveled the road of lesser glory and forced his way
through the sheer force of will and conviction. At a still considerably young age, he had grown
into one of the most formidable defense attorneys in the Republic, and used the prestige and
notoriety from this to continually gain position.
In 75 BC, Cicero ran for his first important office, the Quaestorship. Successfully winning
election he was later assigned to Sicily to oversee the grain supply. The appointment provided a
unique opportunity with potentially spectacular results. The previous governor, C. Verres, was
1
detested by the local Sicilians and they asked Cicero to prosecute him on their behalf. Verres
was heavily involved in various extortion schemes to rob Sicily while lining his own pockets at
the expense of others. While gubernatorial excesses in their provinces were typical in the late
Republic, Verres took matters to nearly indefensible extremes (included the illegal execution of
a Roman citizen without trial). Even normally conservative Senators were outraged at the
apparent crimes committed. Cicero, while normally avoiding the potential enmity that a
prosecution could create, agreed to take the case. In the prosecution speech Cicero so blistered
and attacked Verres that the defendant went into self-exposed exile before the trial was even
over.
After his term as quaestor Cicero continued his conventional rise through the Senate. While
Pompey was in the east gaining new Roman territories, in which Cicero played a major role in
advocating the legality of the command, he worked diligently to make inroads with Roman
aristocracy. Despite his court successes, Cicero was still viewed as somewhat of an outsider and
his advocating the disliked and distrusted Pompey didn't help. Even so, he had little trouble
gaining election to each political office, successfully winning the Praetorship in 67 BC. Perhaps a
bit of luck, or simply being the right man at the right time played a role, but regardless, Cicero
was steadily rising.
Becoming Consul was the next and highest step available, and within 2 more years Cicero would
achieve it. However, the political system of the late Republic may have been continuing to
erode Cicero would find himself as a center target of a conspiracy against the Senate. His old
acquaintance during the Social War, L. Sergius Catilina had already been embroiled in various
scandals and his attempt at open rebellion was to become one of the most dangerous in the
Republic's history. Whatever was necessary to gain power, Catilina was prepared to try. During
the Catilinian Consipiracy, he and Cicero would come head to head in a battle for the Republic
Catiline
Cicero's nemesis and a key political figure in the 60's BC was L. Sergius Catilina. Like Crassus,
Catiline profited enormously from the proscriptions of Sulla's dictatorship, but Catiline was
notorious for his brutality and unlawful methods. While a definite villain of the Late Republican
period, he was also the victim of Cicero's eloquent attacks, which certainly did little to
commend him either with his ancient peers or in modern review.
In 67 to 66 BC he served as the Propraetor governor of Africa and may have used his position to
extort large sums of personal wealth. Upon his return to Rome, he sought the Consulship but
accusations of provincial mismanagement and a general distrust barred his ability to run. In the
year 65 BC, Catiline's efforts for the Consulship were blocked by impending trials for extortion,
but massive bribery would eventually see his acquittal of the charges.
2
64 BC saw the election of Cicero as Consul. While Cicero, as a new man, wasn't overly popular
with the Senatorial elite, he was a far better conservative alternative than the long line of
corrupt individuals that sought the highest office. The choices for election in that year were
Cicero, the despised Catiline, and his similar contemporary C. Antonius. To prevent a joint
consulship with Catiline and Antonius, the Senate pushed Cicero forward along with Antonius to
prevent the worst of three bad choices (in their opinion) from taking power.
During the Consulship of Cicero, he faced one early challenge of note. The agrarian bill of the
tribune P. Servilius Rullus was intended to elect ten land commissioners with imperium. These
commissioners would oversee all concerns with selling public land and distributions to
veterans, with sweeping power. Cicero vehemently opposed the concept in light of the massive
corruption of the time. Such positions would've undoubtedly been major sources of extortion
and greed. The proposal was defeated in the plebeian assemblies, thanks in large part to
Cicero's usual eloquent speeches. In a testament to his oratory skill and prestige, this was the
first land reform bill that was ever defeated in a vote of the citizen assemblies.
For the year 62 BC, Catiline was again running for Consul and bribery was the operating
standard of the day. Despite massive bribes, Catiline lost one again, however and certainly
began to look at other measures to gain power. Shortly after the elections, a bundle of sealed
enveloped were delivered anonymously to Crassus addressed to several Senators. In opening
the one addressed to him, Crassus found that the letters were warnings, telling certain
individuals that an impending massacre of many Senators was about to take place. Crassus took
the letters to Cicero and it was discovered that they all said the same thing. Cicero then
addressed the Senate with the plot and he was authorized with a tumultus, or a military
emergency, to find the writer and uncover the plot. While Cicero tried to place the blame on
Catiline, the author was never found, and it was suggested that the entire concept may have
been hatched by Cicero himself as an excuse to prosecute troublemakers.
Catiline Conspiracy
Regardless of the truth regarding Catiline's involvement in various plots, social conditions
outside of Rome were again building a foundation for civil war. The great indebtedness of the
Italians and other provincials was creating a situation ripe with potential disaster. In Etruria, a
former Sullan centurion by name of C. Manlius was stirring up trouble by gathering weapons
3
and recruits for a potential revolt. Cicero once again blamed Catiline, though there was no real
evidence of his involvement. Cicero managed to convince the Senate of the danger and a
senatus consultum ultimum was passed granting him extreme authority to deal with the threat.
Catiline, meanwhile, in order to thwart Cicero's attacks against him, organized a meeting of his
supporters. In this meeting, while little real evidence existed, Cicero claimed that a plot to
assassinate him was developed, as well as setting in motion the overthrow of the Senate. In a
debate before the Senate, both men blistered each other in partially surviving speeches, but
eventually Catiline volunteered to go into exile. While en route to his supposed destination of
Massilia, however, Catiline instead joined with C. Manlius and his armed mob in Etruria.
While that move was suspicious enough regarding Catiline's various involvement in plots,
another move by his supporters in Rome was even more damning. Representatives of the Gallic
Allobroges tribe were in Rome discussing conditions relating to their own debt issues. The
Roman conspirators sought to have the Gauls join in their rebellion, but the Gauls wanted little
do with it and word reached Cicero of the conspirator's proposition. P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura
was forced to admit to his own participation in the plot and a great debate over the
punishment ensued. Gaius Julius Caesar, the praetor elect at the time, argued against death
which was the prominent choice of the Senators. He suggested that the plot of Sura was
different than the reason Cicero was granted a Senatus Consultum Ultimatum, and that the
death penalty shouldn't apply. His argument lost to the fear-mongering arguments of Cato and
Cicero, and conspirators were sentenced to strangulation. “Vixerunt.”
In Etruria, the short lived revolt never really got off the ground. With little assistance from
neighboring Italians, or the Allobreges, the plot was doomed to failure. In 62 BC, a force under
M. Petreius destroyed the armed mob of Catiline and Manlius, killing Catiline in the process,
and the conspiracy was over.
Cicero was hailed as the 'father of his country' for saving Rome from another rebellion. Later,
however, the death sentences of various Senators would eventually be a source of much
resentment. It's important to note, that Cicero's action may have been far more motivated out
of fear of Pompey, than the actual conspiracy. Just as Pompey was getting set to return from his
eastern conquests, with veteran legions in tow, conditions in Rome were similar to that of the
Marian and Sullan civil war. In order to stabilize the situation, and not give an excuse for
Pompey to march on the city, Cicero likely pushed his agenda of dealing with the potential plots
as quickly and severely as possible. He would eventually pay a price of his own for it, however.
Within a few years, Cicero himself would be exiled, with his actions during the conspiracy
playing a prominent part. But far greater things were in store for the master orator, as he
would play a major role in the coming Fall of the Republic.
4
CHRONOLOGY OF CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY
July-October, 63:
Manlius collects troops at Faesulae in Etruria. Minor disturbances in other parts of Italy.
(Sallust Cat. 27.1)
October 20, 63 B.C.:
An anonymous letter, presumably drafted by Catiline or one of his conspirators, made its way
to Crassus and many members of the Senate. This letter contained a warning to the recipients
to leave the city, threatening death and destruction to the whole city—and mentioned the date
of October 27th, which was to be the day the attacker's forces would strike the city. (Sallust)
Crassus and other nobles deliver letters to Cicero warning of impending massacre in Rome
(Cicero Cat. 1.7)
October 21:
Cicero presented the letters to the members of the senate as proof that Catiline was indeed a
real threat to the safety of the Roman people. Cicero also argued that Manlius would initiate a
rebellion on the 27th and that Catiline would massacre the nobles burn the city on the
following day. These charges were verified by Quintus Arrius, who stated that he had witnessed
Manlius mustering troops in the area around Etruria. Cicero was charged with protecting the
city of Rome through the senatus consultum ultimum (ultimate decree of the Senate), which
made Cicero responsible for striking down the terrible conspiracy that threatened the city, and
gave him ultimate responsibility and latitude with which to deal with the impending problem.
He then gave Metellus the job of protecting Rome from external threat and put himself in
control of internal affairs. (Cicero)
October 27:
When the 27th passed uneventfully, the Roman people became suspicious of Cicero, surmising
that this may have been a simple plot on his part to rally support and power from the people,
inventing a time of need by means of which he could strengthen his political power. (Cicero)
Manlius raises in open revolt at Faesulae (Sallust Cat. 30.1)
October 28:
The Roman people's faith in Cicero was renewed, as reports came in from the countryside
warning of the buildup of troops. At this point, under the auspices of the lex Plautia de vi,
Cicero ordered the indictment of Catiline, which was filed by Lucius Aemilius Paulus. (Cicero)
Massacre of leading citizens in Rome thwarted (Cicero Cat. 1.7)
Following reports of military activity in the country but still playing the stunned innocent,
Catiline offered himself to the care of Cicero or Metullus (custodia libera) as a sign of his "good
faith." Both declined his offer. (Sallust)
5
Late October:
Cicero sends quaestor P. Sestius to secure Capua (Cicero Sest. 9)
November 1:
Attempt by conspirators to seize Praeneste (c. 20 miles southeast of Rome) fails (Cicero Cat.
1.8)
Senate learns of uprising at Faesulae. Military commanders dispatched to threatened areas.
Rewards offered for betrayal of conspiracy. (Sallust Cat. 30)
Early November:
L. Aemilius Paulus indicts Catiline under lex Plautia de vi. (Sallust Cat. 31.4)
November 6:
A meeting of the conspirators was called in the evening at the house of M. Porcius Laeca. It was
decided that Catiline would leave Rome and head for Etruria in order to prepare to march on
Rome with his army. Catiline and his men also decided how to split up Italy, choosing certain
sections to be attacked by specific men. The conspirators would also try to enlist the help of the
gladiators at Capua. The final plan of action was to have two men greet Cicero the following
morning and assassinate him, which also failed. (Sallust Cat. 27.3)
November 7:
Cicero avoided an morning assassination attempt made by the conspirators. He had been
informed of the attempt by Fulvia, the aristocratic mistress of one of Catiline's supporters, and
had his house well fortified. (Cicero & Sallust Cat. 28.1-3)
November 8:
Senate meets at temple of Jupiter Stator. Cicero delivers First Catilinarian, urging Catiline to
leave Rome. (Sallust Cat. 31.5-6)
Catiline showed up and sat in the senate that day as if nothing was wrong, but he ended up
sitting alone. He gave a speech in response to Cicero, calling for the senators to look at his
ancestry, which was extremely ancient and powerful, and to look as well at the lack of proof
that Cicero had. However, the Senate, angry at his actions, shouted him down. (Sallust)
Catiline fled Rome. Some of his fellow conspirators stayed in Rome, while others, such as
Tongilius, Publicius, and Minucius, traveled with him to Etruria. Along the way he stopped in
Forum Aurelium, and then in Arctium, and gave out weapons to the people. Catiline took up the
insignia of the consul, and also carried with him the silver eagle standard of Rome.
(Sallust Cat. 32.1 & 36.1)
November 9:
Cicero delivered his Second Catilinarian justifying his action before the People. He talked about
how great a victory it was to have Catiline out of Rome. He also assured the public that
6
everything was under control, and that the common people had nothing in common with
Catiline and his conspirators. He emphasized that he was on the side of the people and Catiline
was not, and said that he (Cicero) had sacrificed his popularity with certain nobles in order to
protect the common people from Catiline's plots. (Cicero Cat. 2.12)
Mid-November:
Senate declares Catiline and Manlius hostes (public enemies); dates set for amnesty for
deserters; consuls assigned to levy army, Antonius directed to crush rebellion. (Sallust Cat. 36.23)
Praetor P. Cornelius Lentulus attempts to recruit support of Allobrogian envoys, who betray the
negotiations to Cicero. (Sallust Cat. 40-41)
November 15:
Catiline and his army arrived in Faesulae, where they discovered that they had been
declared hostes, or public enemies. (Sallust)
End of November:
Disturbances in Gaul, Picenum, Bruttium and Apulia quelled. Toward the end of November a
few of Catiline's lieutenants started some small uprisings on the countryside, but they were
captured, tried, and imprisoned. Only Catiline's army in Eturia was large enough to march on
Rome, but only one quarter of it was armed. He had to wait. (Sallust Cat. 42.1-3)
Also at the end of November, the conspiracy had sought the help of the Allbroges, a tribe from
Gaul. Approached for support because they were in financial debt to Rome, the Allbroges
agreed to help by creating a diversion in Gaul, but secretly decided that it would be more
beneficial to act as spies for the government. (Sallust)
Catiline leaves Faesulae with his army to avoid Antonius' approach. (Sallust Cat. 56.4)
December 2:
After the Gauls reneged on their offer to aid the conspirators, they contacted the patron of
their tribe in Rome, Quintus Fabius Sanga, who notified Cicero immediately. Cicero instructed
the Gauls to continue playing along with the conspirators, but to ask for written information on
the plot. An envoy was created to meet with Catiline leaving the city on December 2, and two
letters were sent from Lentulus. Cicero, learning this, notified two praetors who formed an
attack squadron to ambush the posse on the Mulvian bridge that night. As soon as the Gauls
realized who the ambushers were, they surrendered themselves and the letters, the necessary
evidence. (Cicero & Sallust Cat. 45)
7
December 3:
The next morning the letters were delivered to Cicero. He brought the "big five" conspirators
remaining in the city, Lentulus, Cethegus, Statilius, Gabinius, and Caeparius to the temple of
Concord, where he and the patres conscripti had already gathered, and conducted an
inquisition that found the conspirators to be guilty. Cicero was hailed as a hero, is given a vote
of thanks and a supplicatio is declared. Cicero delivers his Third Catilinarian to the expectant
masses, and the city rejoiced. (Cicero Cat. 3.5 & Sallust Cat. 46.3-47.3)
On the same day, the house of C. Cornelius Cethegus, a conspiracy leader, was searched and
arms for the rebel army were found, and both the leaders of the conspiracy and the Allbroges
testified against Catiline in the temple of Concord. (Sallust)
December 4:
Further testimony against conspirators before the Senate. L. Tarquinius unsuccessfully attempts
to implicate Crassus. Rewards voted to the informers. (Sallust Cat. 48.3-50.1) Attempt to rescue
the conspirators under house arrest fails. (Sallust Cat. 50.1-2)
December 5:
Senate debates punishment of conspirators. The majority of senators agreed with the death
penalty for the currently incarcerated prisoners as well as those still to be apprehended until
Caesar spoke, warning against the implications of the oligarchy taking such drastic measures
against the populace. He argued against a rash decision while the senators were still full of
passion and instead suggested property confiscations and life imprisonments in Roman towns.
Cicero delivered the Fourth Catilinarian, followed by a rousing speech from the young Marcus
Cato. The senators were then fully persuaded that a harsh sentence would dissuade Catiline
from marching against Rome on the 17th. (Sallust Cat. 50.3-53.1)
Those conspirators who had been arrested were executed. Lentulus was forced to resign as
praetor before he was executed. Catiline's conspiracy in Rome had failed. (Sall Cat. 55) Cicero
makes a brief speech to crowd, given triumphal escort home by torchlight.
December 15:
Massive desertions in Catiline's army following news of conspirators' execution in Rome.
(Sallust Cat. 57.1)
December 25:
Q. Metellus Celer blocks Catiline's attempt to break out of Etruria into Cisalpine Gaul.
(Sallust Cat. 57.1-3)
December 29:
Cicero is prevented by tribunes Bestia and Metellus Nepos from addressing People when laying
down office on grounds that he had executed Roman citizens without trial.
8
January 3, 62 B.C.:
Tribune Q. Metellus Nepos proposes law recalling Pompey to put down Catiline. The proposal is
vetoed and rioting follows. The Senate passes the senatus consultum ultimum and Nepos leaves
Rome to join Pompey in the East. (Dio 37.43; Cicero Fam. 5.2.8)
Early January 62:
Catiline tried to move his troops through the Apennines but was met there by Metellus Celer,
with Antonius and his army coming from the rear. Catiline arrives near Pistoria (with about
3,000 men - Dio 37.40.1) and is crushed by Antonius' army under command of legate M.
Petreius. (Sallust Cat. 57.5-61)
After the death of Catiline on the battlefield, Cicero left his office at the peak of his political
power and popularity. He was honored with the title pater patriae for having saved the country
from ruin with his oratory and swift action. (Cicero)
Cursus Honorum
The cusrus honorum, or course of honors, was the sequence of elected offices, or magistracies,
which could be held. It seems to have been customary since the early Republic, but in 160 BC
was written down as law.
The Magistracies:
The numbers in parentheses represent number of the office in the late Republic. Those in bold
are part of the standard cursus honorum for rising politicians.
(1) Dictator- A sole leader, appointed by the Senate in times of crisis to rule for a period of no
more than six months. As his second in command, he would choose for himself a 'master of
cavalry' As this was a command of exceptional power only used when absolutely necessary, it
is not truly part of the cursus honorum.
(2) Censors - The main duty of the censors was to act as the registrar of Rome , and therefore
oversee the public census. The true power of the censor, however, lay in his ability to oversee
the enforcement of public morality. He could cause equestrians and patricians to lose their
rank, and even remove a senator from office. Due to the potential power of of the censor,
most achieved this rank only after they had already become consul, thereby already proving
their good character.
9
(2) Consuls - They were always two in number, and elected yearly in order to limit their
power. They had imperium, the ability to command the armies of Rome. They presided over
the senate, and enforced its legislation. At the end of their term, they would typically serve as a
proconsul, where they would often govern an important province with its own military forces.
(8) Praetors - Originally, the term praetor was used to designate those with imperium, and so
referred to the consuls. As Rome grew, however, the need for more judges arose. The office of
praetor was created, but originally there was only one. The number grew with the size of the
empire, and Sulla eventually settled the number at eight. The primary duty of the praetor was
to act as a judge. Like the consuls, they also possessed imperium, though they seldom were
called upon to use it. When there term was over, they were sometimes appointed as
propraetors. While technically this office was open to all men, members of the plebeian class
rarely rose this high on the cursus honorum.
(4) Aediles - These men oversaw the public games held in Rome. Each year, two were required
to be elected from the plebeian class, and two usually came from the patrician class (called the
curule aediles). Although it was not required to become aedile to achieve the rank of praetor, it
was highly beneficial for a patrician to so. It was an easy way to curry favor with the people, if
during his year in office he held magnificent games. For plebeians, this was as high an office as
could normally be held.
(10) Tribunes - This office was created to protect the rights of the plebeian class, and so all
elected Tribunes were required to be of that class. First created during the early Republic, they
had the extraordinary power of veto (in Latin, I forbid) over any action of the Senate. The office
of Tribune was considered sacred, and so anyone who harmed one would immediately be put
to death.
(10) Quaestors - Originally there were only four, but in the fifth century the number was raised
to ten. This was the lowest office on the cursus honorum. They were in charge of the running
the treasury in Rome, as well as the public records.
10