Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
1 Are EBD Schools promoting a Learning Society: bridging the gap between real world and classroom education Margo Allison Shuttleworth Open University Doctorate project report submitted to University of Sheffield, November 2002 Table Of Contents 1. Introduction 2 2. Lifelong Learning with Its Focus on Human Capital 5 3. Learning Society with Its Focus on Social Capital 7 4. The Building Blocks Created Through Schools 11 5. But what about those children who are excluded? 13 6. EBD Schools’ Role in the Learning Society 16 7. The Hidden Agenda Behind the Policies 21 8. Conclusion 22 Bibliography and References 24 2 1. INTRODUCTION In this paper, I will examine the ideas of lifelong learning and the learning society1 to determine whether they are like or dissimilar ideals. I will draw parallels between lifelong learning and human capital, and the learning society and social capital. What values do they advocate and how is society able to support these values? I will then focus more closely on opportunities of children within an EBD school. How are they given opportunities to participate in the learning society? Does their education within school support their opportunities within the real life world more appropriately than that afforded within a mainstream environment? Tomorrow’s society will be a society which invests in knowledge, a society of teaching and learning, in which each individual will build up his or her own qualifications (CEC, 1995, p. 5). Lifelong learning and continued educational growth for members of society are central themes in both lifelong learning and the learning society. Though this educational growth must continue through a lifetime, there is still a need to begin with the educational building blocks produced through foundation schooling during the early years of its members. Children must be given opportunities where they learn how to learn. They must gain a self interest in their education and the value it will add to their lives. Education must be viewed as an investment in their future. School plays a major role in developing and shaping children’s attitude toward and view of learning. This is not to say that schools make children love to learn (as many children will never admit they enjoy school), however, it does provide a venue for social opportunities and can also give children strategies to organise their thinking. Schools 1 Lifelong learning and the learning society have been cited using both capital and lower case letters. For the purpose of this paper they will be referred to using lower case letters. 3 allow children to experience a social venue which expands their educational as well as social encounters within a wider audience. Not all children, however, are able to cope in a mainstream school environment. There is a population of children who are often excluded from mainstream schooling due to Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (EBD). These children have been viewed as ‘idle thieving bastards’ (Bagguley and Mann, 1992) who have little or no chance of success in later life. It is often the case that family disruption is the root of many of these children’s problems as they are raised without boundaries and come into contact with negative influences outside of school. These children are often unable to work in a large group situation, as they have learned to gain attention through disruptive and often violent behaviour. This anti-social behaviour limits their success as they often disrupt other’s, as well as their own, education. Some of these children are offered a second chance through enrolment in a special school for children with EBD. EBD schools are often seen as ‘sin bins’ of education, however, on closer inspection, these schools may be providing children with opportunities which allow them success in their journey through continual lifelong learning. Lifelong learning and the learning society are initiatives that the government has implemented since the 1970s. They were introduced to cope with the everchanging nature of the economy. People must continually educate themselves of the current innovations that continually change the shape of society and its economy. The economic market is in a constant state of revolution with new and innovative ideas changing how people approach work. These innovations make it necessary to have open learning opportunities available to all. Through these opportunities it is hoped 4 that all people will continue to have the education necessary to reduce inequality and social exclusion which may be created through these innovations and changes. Over the past thirty years, there has been a great deal of socio-economic change which has lead to the government’s focus on lifelong learning and the learning society. The problems of disaffection, non-participation and social exclusion of sections of the population… have resulted in a new relationship between education and work… with an increasing moral panic about the direction of society and particularly the plight and behaviour of young people and a deepening of social divisions (Hodgson, 1999, p.13). The government has instituted policies over the years beginning with a focus on compulsory schooling and moving towards further education and training institutions. In this shift of focus towards further education, has the role of foundation schools been forgotten? Both lifelong learning and the learning society are concerned with promoting economic success which is gained through the capital produced. There are noted differences between types of capital which are gained by society: financial capital having a product of wealth and/or money, human capital in which benefits are associated purely with the individual, social capital in which communities or groups benefit directly from the capital produced. Though each of these capitals has its foundations in economic factors, they each focus on the benefits in a slightly different manner. Social and human capitals, in particular, are addressed through lifelong learning and the learning society. How are these capitals beneficial to our future generations? 5 2. Lifelong Learning with Its Focus on Human Capital Lifelong learning is an incentive to increase education throughout the life span of all citizens of a specific society. Many European governments, including Britain, have produced policies to promote this learning (The Learning Age, DfEE, 1998; Teaching and Learning, CEC, 1995). Lifelong learning offers something for everyone promoting understanding through active experiences. It looks at individualism as being key to advanced economic prosperity focusing primarily on an expansion of human capital. This focuses on the development of an individual’s educational experience and its benefit to the individual which, in turn, benefits the society at large. It sees society as growing increasingly individualistic with people focused on their own progression no matter the consequences they may hold to the greater society. “Human capital is created by changes in persons that bring about skills and capabilities that make them able to act in new ways” (Coleman, 1997, p 83). Human capital focuses on the good of the individual. It is a self-satisfying capital with an intention to benefit the person in question. “Human beings invest in themselves, by means of education, training or other activities, which raises their future income by increasing their lifetime earnings” (Woodhall, 1995, p.24). Lifelong learning and its focus on human capital draw a direct link between individual wealth and prosperity and education. Children are the starting blocks for lifelong learning, as it is from their early starts in school where lifelong learning begins as “the more education someone had, the more likely they were to earn above the national average” (Ball, 1991). Though lifelong learning’s focus is mainly concerning further education, foundation schools play an important role in shaping children’s perceptions of learning. Children attend schools and learn textbook knowledge assigned to them in order to achieve high 6 standards in national academic tests. They then have the option to progress onto university or college to receive their degrees and graduate into the outside world. Lifelong learning focuses on understanding through active experiences. How is it that schools provide these active experiences for children? With the increased focus on performance indicators, schools are being driven to conform to strict National Curriculum guidelines. Foundations schools are finding it hard to cope with the competing drives of the government. The government while espousing the values of lifelong learning does not always remember the pressures on schools to score well in National Tests. Some children with social and emotional disadvantages, who are unable to attend mainstream schools, are given a chance through attendance at an EBD school. Some people see EBD schools as a venue for children who are disturbing others individual achievements, therefore ‘getting rid’ of them, however it also allows for those children to gain some educational value no matter how limited. These children are still expected to study the National Curriculum, however, lower levels of achievement are expected. It is here where EBD schools have a slight advantage in the pursuit of lifelong learning. As the pressure is not so great for high performance in national testing, EBD schools have licence to focus more on practical skills which may benefit these children in the ‘real world’. However, through the concept of lifelong learning, are EBD children given a chance to be individually competitive or is their role in society diminished? The difficulty I encounter with lifelong learning focusing on human capital, is that it does not account for the importance of society and how it directly influences a person’s capital gains. Human capital… concentrates on individuals, since it is individuals who spend the years in school and to whom qualifications are 7 awarded, and to the extent that it does this it ignores wider social context within which much learning takes place, and the relationships- personal and institutional- which actually constitute the vehicles or channels through which learning takes place (Schuller, 1996, p.6) Human capital and its individualistic focus tend to neglect the institution of change that is inherent within our society. It looks at how we can change our own lives, however, it neglects the impact society has on these changes. Yes, of course we can benefit from individual trainings and education, however these benefits will always be seen in relation to their contribution to society. By focusing on our individual knowledge, the human capital aspect of lifelong learning tends to ignore new and innovative knowledge that people within our society may have which may enhance our own learning. It neglects the importance of communication. The learning society builds upon the human capital created through lifelong learning and changes it into social capital. For the purposes of this paper, I will look at the learning society as the next step to lifelong learning. 3. Learning Society with Its Focus on Social Capital The learning society is an Investment in skills and ideas, together with the development of a culture of lifelong learning for all… [this is] ‘essential’ to continue to compete, to generate new wealth, and to equip individuals and organisations to cope with enormous economic and social change (Parry and Fry, 1999, p. 95) The learning society has the society as a whole in mind as its aim. It sees individual gain in relation to the larger society and what it produces. Whereas the human capital I associate with lifelong learning begins with the individual and extends itself to 8 benefit society, a learning society begins with society and looks at how an individual is able to make contributions to it. The learning society places a great emphasis on social capital. Social capital can be seen in a variety of levels: close family bonds, tight knit communities, good relations within the greater society. Social capital fosters a sense of responsibility for how individuals are viewed by others, giving a need for a good reputation to be maintained. Social capital can be seen as “the features of social life - networks, norms and trust - that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives” (Putnam, 1996, p. 66). It is important to remember that within a community which promotes high social capital ‘everybody knows everybody’communication is paramount to success. Through a learning society with a focus on social capital, a more collective vision is focused upon. People are seen as a member of a community or society which is interdependent upon its members. The ‘collective’ strand is seen as focusing on the internal resources of groups and communities and their engagement with society, socially, politically and economically, on collaborative learning and shared tasks relevant to their living and working circumstances (Johnston, 2000, p. 3) The social aspects associated with schooling allow children to begin to see the importance of a learning society. Schools often encourage group work for certain projects and through this, children are able to benefit by sharing their strengths with others. Schools aim to give children the confidence to go forward in the world with the knowledge that they are never alone. True, final exams and other schools tests are testing individual knowledge, however in preparation for these exams, schools focus on study groups and teacher’s input and advice. Communication within and across social groups brings maximum achievement. 9 At school, children are able to rely on their teachers and fellow pupils in order to succeed. Through communication and interaction children become aware that collaboration provides shared benefits for everyone. Sharing success with those around you is much more rewarding than celebrating alone. Success of the individual is important and though we must not lose sight of each child’s human capital, it must be viewed in relation to whom it is shared with, forming a link with society and affording social capital. Within an EBD school, children need re-introduction to the learning society. Their initiation into the learning society took an abrupt halt when they were excluded from their original mainstream environment. They may begin to view the world as an ‘us against them’ scenario therefore becoming hostile and violent to those around them. An EBD school attempts to bring children back into the social world. It provides a sense of community and tries to give children an understanding of the importance of education. The goal, for better or for worse, is to help young people cope with and adapt to society, not to give them the ambition or the tools to change it. Empowerment is seen as an individualistic concept, with no suggestion of disaffected young people working together as a group in order to understand and alter the conditions which lead to social exclusion and inequalities (Merton and Parrot, 1999, p.25) Children in an EBD school come into the school realising that the world can be a very lonely place. Though it is important to remember the human capital of each individual child, it is equally important to have each child feel an important member of a community. EBD schools provide children with an atmosphere of acceptance. This acceptance allows children to experiment with the knowledge they gain, learning how to relate it to their everyday experiences. A learning society does recognise that though learning should be viewed in relation to society; each individual has the responsibility for his or her own learning. 10 It is through this responsibility that learning is able to expand an individual’s potential within the structures of society. The individual explores the constraints and opportunities of the organizational context in which she works, while the organization similarly questions the limits of the wider society in which it is located. Learning continually extends the cycle of learning (Ranson, 1998, p. 14). EBD schools reinforce the boundaries and routines which a society sets for children. Though to the children, these boundaries may at first feel constricting, teachers and staff within an EBD school demonstrate to children the benefits which exist. Soon the children are able to realise that boundaries and routines are there to aid in social and economical development. It is with this focus on social capital that I feel we can see the true benefits for our future generation. It gives children a sense that although we are responsible for our own individual learning, working together achieves greatness for all. As can be seen, both lifelong learning and the learning society focus on learning for all, however, I feel that for children attending an EBD school, a learning society perspective including social capital provides more hope for their future. These children have been excluded from their regular community, they want to belong, to become part of a group again and have people whom they can rely upon. As seen in the diagram below, lifelong learning can be viewed as having an individual focus, reinforcing the ‘aloneness’ a previously excluded child may already feel. By focusing more on the group, the child is able to share his or her strengths and weaknesses whilst being able to share in a learning community. Lifelong Learning With a Focus on Human Capital Something for everyone Learning Society With a Focus on Social Capital Learning benefits society as a whole 11 Understanding through active experiences Understanding through active experiences Expansion of human capital, benefits to the self Expansion of social capital, benefits to the group Focus on individual benefits Collective vision Independence in learning Learning through communication and interdependence Personal change and advancement Shared objectives enhancing one’s skills within the group Responsible to oneself Responsible to others 4. The Building Blocks Created Through Schools Children begin their formal learning in schools. Though many children have supportive families who encourage learning, the beginning of their formal education usually begins outside of the home within the environment of a school. This in itself is a step towards participating in the learning society. Children go to schools to learn. They learn about maths, literacy and science. They learn all of the subjects prescribed by the National Curriculum. What we sometimes tend to forget are the other issues that are encountered in school through the learning process. As Armstrong (1998) points out “different kinds of knowledge and the values which underpin them are transmitted by schools in ways which support and promote differences between pupils” (Armstrong, 1998, p.56). Children learn how to relate to one another. Attending schools give children the opportunity to meet many different children from many different backgrounds, they are able to become part of a diverse community through the school. They are able to make friends and form relationships. Children come to understand 12 competition and participation, rivalry and camaraderie. Though they may be part of the same community, at times it may be an unsettled one. Effective schools show children how to solve disputes amongst peer groups. Schools show children the importance of values. They learn about fairness in game situations and, more importantly, everyday encounters. Schools show children the importance of communication with their peers. They show children how they are able to help each other out in work and play and “instead of working on your own, if you’ve got a problem you’ve got another person next to you to ask to help you out with it”. (Cocklin and Davis, 1996) The activities in which children participate in at school within a group begin to formulate how children view themselves in relation to one another. They begin to attach a value to their actions and realise that they are important in the greater scheme of life. They begin to understand that their actions do not only benefit themselves but also those around them. Most importantly, schools teach children to learn how to learn. It is often easy for people, such as myself, to think of learning as a natural activity, something that comes naturally to everyone. But this is not always the case. To learn, children must realise how to explore, create, question and discover ideas and events which occur in their lives. Schools allow children to experience new ideas and teachers enable children to look at different ways through which this knowledge can be understood. This gives them the essential knowledge necessary to progress in social, educational and work circles throughout their lives. 5. But what about those children who are excluded? As mentioned, there is a population of children who are socially and emotionally unprepared to function in a mainstream classroom setting. Whilst in the 13 mainstream classroom, they detract from other children’s opportunities to learn and are unable to gain a useful education themselves. But why is it that they are unable to cope? This question provokes a wide variety of answers depending on whom you ask. There are those who will assign blame to the children themselves. The children will be tagged as lazy, involved in criminal activities, or planning their disruptions to get themselves out of school. They will see these children as having no hope in the field of education as they have already decided to opt out. Colley (2001) quotes a woman interviewed as stating: [The government] are saying about tackling social exclusion… it’s too late. These people, they’ve experienced so much exclusion throughout…. They don’t stand a chance (Colley, 2001, p. 8) The blame is taken away from society and placed solely with the individual child. The view expressed above is one that gives no hope to these children. It is mentioned that ‘they don’t stand a chance’: is this the feelings of the children or society’s feelings imposed upon them? Others will see problems as being outside of a child’s control stemming from poverty, family difficulties, academic failure, emotional and psychological problems and other learning difficulties. There is a great difference in the placement of responsibility for these problems. Deviant children (those who are lazy, criminal or disruptive) are solely responsible for the excluded situation they find themselves in, whereas those children who are in deficit (victims of poverty, family difficulties etc.) are seen as a product of their environment (Colley, 2001). The deviant model places individual responsibility on the child. The deficit model calls upon all of society in helping these children in difficult situations. This can be associated with the learning society having all parties involved and active in the pursuit of social capital. 14 Having personal experience with children with EBD, I have a great difficulty understanding the deviance model. These children are just that – children. Though they are by no means ‘normal’ in relation to children within a mainstream environment, they still deserve the chance to succeed. The problem is, if they remain in a mainstream environment they are ostracised and labelled in a way that will reinforce the negative situation they are in. ‘Education cannot account for society’ (Bernstein, 1970) and children who are socially disadvantaged will not gain any valuable knowledge by being ‘thrown into a classroom’ where the social norms are foreign to them. It is often the parents who create their children’s problems. EBD children are often socially inept due to parents poor modelling of ‘socially acceptable behaviour’. Of the children with whom I have come into contact with, it is rarely I find parents who are able to provide these children with a stable and nurturing environment. Parents are often drug dependant, reliant on state support, involved in abusive relationships or quite often a combination of all of these. They have no role models to turn to and it becomes the responsibility of society to provide opportunities for these children to move forward in their lives. However, by being excluded from mainstream schooling, children with EBD are missing out on many valuable educational and social opportunities which will allow them to flourish within a learning society. They are not given the opportunities to create productive friendships or learn how to effectively deal with competition or disagreement. In these situations, they have their parents to look to and often there is no positive feedback. “[L]earning how to learn, and doing so with confidence and independence, has been identified as the single most important competence that citizens of a learning 15 society need to acquire” (Chrisholm, 1996, p.5). When children are permanently excluded from mainstream schools they, until recent government legislation, would not be guaranteed an education. This education is important in providing children with knowledge, but also the skills to obtain and organise this information to benefit their future. As mentioned, schools help children to learn how to learn: To learn, then, is to develop understandings which lead into, and grow out of, action: to discover a sense of agency that enables us, not only to define and make ourselves, but to do so by actively participating in the creation of a world in which, inescapably we live together (Ranson, 1998, p.20) Learning to learn allows children to make decisions about their future. Schools give them the knowledge to make choices about what they want to be, where they want to go, and how they want to do things. It defines people as individuals and their role within society. Those children excluded miss out on these decisions and in the case of children with EBD, they often have nowhere else to turn. If a child is brought up in a disruptive family environment it is difficult for them to gain any positive definition of whom they are and what their role in life should be. Children without the social and educational encounters provided through school are denied a chance to play a more pivotal role in the creation of their society. For some of these children, there is hope provided through an EBD school. 6. EBD Schools’ Role in the Learning Society EBD schools play an important role in the learning society. Children who attend these schools have often become social outcasts to society. As the learning society has a pledge towards an inclusive society, EBD schools works towards keeping children included in the education system and provide these children with 16 support in building relations within the greater society. In doing so, EBD schools provide children with social and educational opportunities which they have previously been excluded from. When speaking of EBD schools, my view may be a biased one. I have worked as a senior teacher in a day school for children with EBD, ranging in ages from eight to sixteen. It had been deemed as centre of excellence through government inspections. How I profile an EBD school is based on my experience and may not be the norm for all EBD schools across the country, however, it does provide an excellent case study for both the strengths and weakness of the roles associated with EBD schools within a leaning society. Children who attend EBD schools have experienced forms of social exclusion. They have been expelled from their mainstream environment and some of these exclusions have involved long periods of time. As Corbett notes “unless they are highly resilient, they are likely to absorb these negative images of themselves and take on the roles of passive victim or social outsider (Corbett, 1999, p. 181). EBD schools take on the important role of giving their pupils a sense of social inclusion, which is one of the central tenets of the learning society. An EBD school provides children with a safe environment where they are able to work alongside their peers, giving each child a sense of importance within its society. It gives pupils a sense of security, allowing them to regain their confidence in their academic and social ability. A small class size allows trusting bonds to be formed between the pupils and their tutor. They are expected to work together to achieve weekly goals on both individual and group levels. Some people find it difficult to understand that pupils within an EBD school need to feel secure and safe, after all it was their ‘unsafe’ behaviour which got them 17 there in the first place. As mentioned, many people see these schools as ‘sin bins’ where ‘deviant children’ are banished. Though this is a crude and primitive interpretation, there is some truth to it which cannot be ignored. Children within EBD schools are there, in part, due to their inability to conform to societal norms. They often do not understand what acceptable behaviour is. Their violent or unacceptable reactions to social and educational situations have been negatively reinforced through the attention gained and poor role models they have been exposed to. Though it is negative attention, for some children it is the only attention they are able to achieve, which is better than being ignored. An EBD school individually targets its pupil’s behaviour with a focus on improvement. Children are guided to behave in a socially acceptable way. Teachers often address problems as a consequence of the children’s lack of exposure to socially acceptable behaviour, rather than purposively deviant. The children are made responsible for their behaviour to themselves and others in their peer group. Individual and group rewards and sanctions are used to reinforce socially acceptable behaviour and discourage deviant behaviour. Reshaping children’s behaviour can sometimes be difficult due to the influence these children are exposed to within their homes. Children’s inability to cope with mainstream schooling often stems from difficult home lives, with parents who exhibit similar unacceptable behaviour. EBD schools are faced with the role of not only teaching children skills for both in and outside of the classroom, but also the battle of external forces which combat against the school in its quest to teach children. EBD schools need to give their pupils the opportunity to succeed, and in order to succeed children must learn to act in a successful way. An EBD school provides images of success for its children; praise for achievement, a welcoming and safe 18 environment, a committed and caring support network of teachers and support staff and acceptance regardless of ability. Children within an EBD school have already been denied the right to a mainstream education. In some cases, children’s emotional and behaviour problems are compounded by learning difficulties they encounter within a mainstream classroom, while others learning capacity may be above and beyond that of his or her peers. In either scenario, an EBD school must make learning relevant to each individual child. The knowledge they gain should make a personal impact upon their lives, therefore showing the children the importance of learning. As Johnston points out: an approach to social inclusion which involves collective and proactive learning with an explicit focus on the development of ‘really useful knowledge’…[is] geared specifically towards influencing and changing our everyday lives (Johnston, 2000, p. 5). Social inclusion, in the long term, equates to inclusion within the labour market. Children within an EBD school often have limited options of work force participation. Teachers within the school must employ a multidisciplinary approach, working together with outside agencies to re-expand children’s options and choices. It is important for teachers to promote links within the greater society. Children are encouraged to take an interest in organising work experience for themselves. They are guided through the process of looking and applying for a job. Though this process occurs within a mainstream environment, an EBD school begins from a deficit position. Many of these children have been exposed to a negative image of work participation. All schools, in particular EBD schools, must work to discourage “a scenario where the learner/worker might easily become the object of training he does not want, from which he hardly benefits” (Johnston, 2000), as this would be an image 19 of failure rather than success. Children need to feel that they are valued and able to work to contribute to society in a way that benefits themselves as well as society. They should be given a sense of ownership about their work. Society has realised that in order for a learning society to flourish, the foundations must be laid through broad and well-balanced educational opportunities for all young people. Educationally, children with EBD need to understand the importance of learning. EBD schools allow “pupils to have control over their own learning process, and ownership of the knowledge produced, which is relevant to their concerns” (Cocklin and Davis, 1996). Before entering the world of ‘really useful knowledge’, children must be taught how to use the knowledge they are imparted with. Key skills lessons play an integral part of the daily timetable. The acquisition of these key skills is reinforced through programmes of accreditation such as ASDAN, Trident and VTS. ASDAN (Award Scheme Development and Accreditation Network) was developed by practitioners involved in education and training and “offers a flexible, activity based programme of learning for all those within the 14 to 25+ age range” (ASDAN, 2001, p. 3). It allows children to prepare themselves for the move into adult life with an “emphasis on co-operation and collaboration, rewarding achievement and assisting progression of learning” with “the primary purpose of enabling students to have an increased sense of ownership and control over their own learning” (p.3). This programme is used in mainstream schools as well, and its institution within an EBD environment helps to give children an equal chance in the work environment Trident (2000) is a work experience programme used within many mainstream school environments. It gives students a step by step guide to prepare themselves for 20 work through target setting, planning and assessing their work experience. This programmes aims to give students ownership over their development in career orientated situations, making them more confident in the processes involved in job application and initiation. VTS (Vocational Training Services) is an outside agency which students within an EBD school in Southern Essex are encouraged to communicate with. It trains individuals in areas of Adult Care, Early Years and Playwork with training programmes designed to meet specific situations and requirements. They provide training and job opportunities for its students. This is an opportunity for young people still at school to choose a vocational course and … opens up further pathways for future learning opportunities and assists the transition between compulsory schooling and employment, making it smoother (Vocational Training Services, 2002, p.10). These programmes help to provide students with the active experiences and ‘really useful knowledge’ necessary for them to succeed in later life. There are able to feel valued as a contributing member of society. They are able to gain the confidence to go forward with the knowledge that they can make a difference and there is a place for them within society. It contributes to the aim of keeping children included socially and educationally. Chisholm (1996) notes the importance of having actively centred learning: To promote social inclusion effectively in the learning society of the future, we need to be much more courageous altogether in redefining the concept and practice of schooling as a field of action and organisation (Chisholm, 1996, p. 2). 21 These work related programmes take that step in redefining the concept of schooling. They move away from the textbook knowledge to the active experiences which truly add value to its pupils lives. 7. The Hidden Agenda Behind The Policies Both lifelong learning and the learning society appear to be for the benefit of society at large and its members, but there is a greater political and economic rationale which justifies both programmes. The government gains through a reduced dependency on social services, but also gains an amount of social control by only giving out the information they want people to learn. Cynics are able to accredit lifelong learning and the learning society with a great deal of negative press. They see the learning society and lifelong learning as forms of social control for the government to move people into areas of work necessary for a prosperous economy. “Lifelong learning is underpinned by a clear economic rationale, put[ting] an emphasis on human capital and employability appearing to flourish within an increasingly marketised and consumer-oriented world” (Johnston, 2000, p. 1) Though these are benefits for the government, are they not also benefits for individual societies and the people who make up these societies? Lifelong learning does, of course, benefit the individual through enhancing their earning potential through education and training. When looking at the full impact of lifelong learning, however, this individual benefit translates into mass relief on financial support given through the social service. Through focusing on benefiting the individual, the focus is taken away from any economic benefits lifelong learning may afford the country. It is automatic to assume that the person who makes the investment in increasing their qualifications gains the capital. With this self-centred viewpoint it is easy to forget that lifelong learning is an investment by the state to 22 relieve the burden of support for its uneducated members. It is in the best interests of the government to promote and support lifelong learning. Lifelong learning and the learning society do have benefits for individuals and for the government. So where do schools fit into the whole scenario and more specifically, where do special schools for children with EBD come in? Is their focus taking the positive slant of including children in the work force, or does it focus more negatively on a last hope to keep children off social income support and keeping these troublesome children off the street? EBD schools can be viewed as the ‘sin bins’ of education, or the emancipation of children with nowhere else to turn. I prefer to side with the latter stance. Though, when children enter into an EBD school they exhibit socially unacceptable behaviour and prescribe to way of life which may not be in their own or societies best interest. In most cases, however, they are able to leave the school with a more positive outlook on life. They understand the importance of making a contribution to society rather than taking from it. I think it is important that this positive outlook must be the focus of an EBD school’s role within the learning society. It looks at social inclusion of each and every child as an important member of society. 8. CONCLUSION Lifelong learning and the learning society have an increasingly important role in the education of children. EBD schools, in particular, need to recognise the important role they play in promoting a learning society. Though human capital and the importance of each individual child must not be forgotten, social capital must play a central role in shaping children’s images of themselves and their role within society. The learning society reinforces this ideal through its collective focus on social capital. 23 The role of an EBD school is important in including children both educationally and socially. They allow children to learn how to learn, giving them valuable information which is essential to their success in later life. This is done not only through exposure to the National Curriculum but through practical programmes which emphasise the importance of ‘really useful knowledge’. Though lifelong learning and the learning society are programmes which the government institutes in order to gain financially through lessening dependence on the state, the benefits for individuals must not be forgotten. A learning society is a place where people are able to depend on one another, feeling included in their contribution towards a better society. EBD schools must be seen in this positive focus of the learning society. They allow children to remain included within a society which they were formerly excluded from. They give children a chance to feel valuable in the role they define for themselves within the learning society. 24 Bibliography and References Armstrong, F (1998) ‘Curricula, ‘Management’ and Special and Inclusive Education’ in Clough, P Managing Inclusive Education: From Policy to Experience, London: Paul Chapman, pp 48-63. ASDAN (2001) The Award Scheme: Guidelines, Bristol, ASDAN. Bagguley, P and Mann, K. (1992) ‘Idle thieving bastards? Scholarly representations of the ‘underclass’, Work, Employment and Society 6 (1) 113-26. Ball, C (1991) Learning Pays, Royal Society of Arts, London. Berstein, B (1970) ‘Education cannot compensate for society’, New Society, 387, pp.344-47. Chisholm, L (1996) Lifelong learning and Learning Organisations: twin pillars of the learning society, European Year of Lifelong learning International Conference, University of Newcastle, (ONLINE: http: www.leeds.ac.uk/edcol/documents) Cocklin, B. and Davis, K. (1996) ‘Creative Schools’ as Effective “Learning Communities, Annual BERA Conference, (ONLINE: http: www.leeds.ac.uk/edcol/documents) Coleman, J.S. (1997) ‘Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital’ in Halsey A.H., Lauder, H., Brown, P., and Stuart Wells, A. (ed.) Education: Culture, Economy, and Society , Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 80-95. Colley, H (2001) ‘An ABC of Mentors’ Talk About Disaffected Youth: Alternative lifestyles, Benefit dependency or Complete dunces?, Youth and Policy (72) 115. CEC (Commission of the European Communities) (1995) Teaching and learning: Towards the learning society. Brussels: Office for Official Publications, (ONLINE: http: www.leeds.ac.uk/edcol/documents) Corbett, J (1999) ‘Special Needs, Inclusion and Social Exclusion’ in Hayton, A., Tacking Disaffection and Social Exclusion, London: Kogan Page, pp 178-190. DfEE (1998) The Learning Age: A Renaissance for a New Britain, London: HMSO. Hodgson, A (1999) ‘Analysing Education and Training Policies for Tackling Social Exclusion’ in Hayton, A., Tacking Disaffection and Social Exclusion, London: Kogan Page pp11-32. Johnston, R. (2000) Education for Inclusion or Imprisoned in the Global Classroom?, SCUTREA, 30th Annual Conference, University of Nottingham, (ONLINE: 25 http: www.leeds.ac.uk/edcol/documents) Merton, B. and Parrot, A. (1999) Only Connect, London: NIACE Parry, G and Fry, H (1999) ‘Widening Participation in Pursuit of the Learning Society: Kennedy, Dearing and The ‘Learning Age’’ in Hayton, A., Tacking Disaffection and Social Exclusion, London: Kogan Page, pp. 95-114. Putnam, R. (1996) ‘Who Killed Civic America’, Prospects, March, pp. 66-72. Ranson, S (1998) ‘Lineages of the Learning Society', in S. Ranson (ed.) Inside the Learning Society, London: Cassell, pp1-24. Schuller, T (1996) Social and Human Capital: Twins, Siblings or Rivals? ESRC/EU Conference on Lifelong learning, Newcastle, (ONLINE: http: www.leeds.ac.uk/edcol/documents) The Trident Trust (2000) Trident: Skills for Life, London (ONLINE: www.thetridenttrust.org.uk ) Vocational Training Services (2002) Effective Training Solutions- The VTS Way, Vocational Training Services, Westcliff, Essex. Woodhall, M(1995) ‘Human Capital Concepts’, in M.Carnoy, Encyclopaedia of Economics of Education (2nd ed), Pergamon Press, Oxford.