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WORLD WAR
I
R.WILLIAMS
Reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front
Faults with the Schlieffen Plan
The Schlieffen Plan had far too much reliance on speed yet not all transport could be
completed by rail. The deadline of 42 days for conquest was inflexible and unrealistic.
Germany’s Chief of Staff, von Moltke, took a passive approach to the plan and allowed it to
deviate from original plans, eg he weakened the right wing of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd armies and
strengthened the left of the 6th and 7th armies, with the 6th army having as many men as the
2nd army, of just over 200,000. This meant that instead of holding and trapping the French, it
let them regroup and reinforce their left wing. This was also seen in the battle of Mons when
the 2nd army (von Bulow) attacked before ordered, letting the BEF and French fight back
easily.
Faults with the French Plan XVII
The French underestimated the number of German soldiers available to the Germans,
especially with reserve troops, eg they attempted attack on Alsace-Lorraine failed due to lack
of men. There was a failure to coordinate effectively with the British and Belgians. Even then,
they were only small professional armies and were not considered important to the ultimate
French Plan.
Tactical and strategic problems
The movement by rail was only possible in areas where it was present, and delays occurred
due to inefficient tracks and poor station management. The implications of new technology
had not been understood yet, as army commanders hesitated in bringing them in. There was
still a sentiment of traditional tactics, using Napoleonic tactics of infantry and cavalry charges.
They also underestimated the ability of machine guns and defensive artillery.
Problems with communications
The high command were typically situated several kilometres behind the fighting, eg
Moltke’s headquarters were in Luxembourg. Telephone lines were unreliable and were
frequently cut down by artillery. There was a traditional mistrust between British and French
commanders. French and Joffre disliked each other and communications between each other
would often be sarcastic and misleading.
Entry of other nations
The entry of Britain and BEF was a main factor in halting the German advance and
encirclement of Paris. They were highly trained and were skilled in skirmishing and
marksmanship. It was just over 100,000 strong, and it basically decimated the German 2nd
Army at Mons, which had 260,000 troops. The British also controlled the High Seas and
English Channel, causing supply and trade problems for Germany. The Belgians also fought
with resilience and made it difficult for the Germans to pass over. The Russian mobilisation
faster than expected caused fear among Germans of a 2 front war. This made von Moltke
anxious and he sent troops to the Eastern Front, which effectively ended Germany’s chance
of sealing a quick victory against the Allies.
2
The nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches
The trench system
Trenches were established after the stalemate occurred and a war of attrition began. They ran
for about 780 kilometres, from the English Channel to Switzerland. They were up to 2.4
metres deep and 2 metres wide. The Allied had a system of 3 line trenches, with a front,
support and reserve line. These were supported by communication trenches to move in and
out of the front line.
The German trenches were typically more elaborate and concentrated on defence in depth.
This involved up to 10 lines of trenches, where the best trench positions were located and
defended. These were up to 12 metres underground, with comforts such as electricity,
running water and bunk beds. This made them permanent, resulting in better trenches as the
Germans realised the importance of trenches. This developed into the Hindenburg Line, a
trench line which remained unbroken until the very end of 1918.
Trenches reflected the terrain they were dug in and resulted in a zigzag pattern to contain
exploding shells and slow enemy advances. No-man’s land was filled with barbed wire to
make invasions more difficult.
Life in the trenches
Life in the trenches was monotonous and this combined with the mental strain of constant
physical danger brought more distress. Daytime brought few events so men resorted to card
games and writing. At night, more action occurred with the repairments of trenches, trench
raids and supplying of goods to the front line. Officers were granted much better lives than
ordinary soldiers, with better rations, sleeping quarters and leave. The casualty rate was
extremely high in trenches, as 13.6% of British men died, with 2 men wounded for every man
killed. Shell shock was also another major issue, as 50,000 men received war pensions after
the war for mental disorder and it accounted for 2% of all causalities.
Conditions
The conditions were appalling in the Western Front. It was wet and muddy for most of the
time. This resulted in trench foot which persisted throughout the war. The trenches were also
crowded and unsanitary, plagued with vermin such as lice and rats. Personal hygiene was
impossible to uphold. However, most hospital admissions came from exposure to the weather,
especially in the winter where it was the coldest and dampest.
3
Weapons, technology and tactics to break the stalemate
Traditional strategies and tactics
Traditional tactics were employed by the Allies to break the stalemate, namely ‘over the top’
tactics. This involved artillery bombing lasting for up to days in order to kill the enemy, cut
barbed wire and wipe out defensive artillery. A signal would then be given and men would
charge at the enemy in pre-arranged lines. Movement was slow with heavy packs and
survival was minimal with accurate machine gun fire, rifle and artillery fire. This tactic
resulted in vast loss of life and little land gain. Rifles and machines guns could both fire over
long distances (500m for rifle, 3km for machine gun) accurately. The machine gun was
particularly deadly, delivering up to 600 rounds per minute.
New tactics
The creeping barrage was a tactic used by the Allies (particularly Haig) in infantry advances
behind the cover of targeted barrages. It involved the guns firing on pre-set barrage lines for a
set number of minutes in support of an attack. The guns would target the 3 trench lines of the
enemy as the infantry wave moved forwards 100-150 metres behind the line of artillery fire.
However, this could result in friendly fire. The ‘All arms attack’ designed by the Allies was
used in 1917. It involved a coordination of artillery, infantry, aircraft and tanks. The Germans
developed a new technique called defence in depth. This system would temporarily yield
ground to the enemy attack in order to lure it into a series of killing zones. The lost ground
would then be regained through counter attacks. The Germans also used storm troopers to
break and hold positions. They were first used in the Spring Offensives in 1918 and were
very successful. They used grenades, mortars and flamethrowers to attack the enemy from the
flank. They were only lightly equipped and lived off the land in guerilla-like warfare.
New weapons
Gas was used profoundly starting in 1916, through gas filled artillery and mortar shells. It
was first used by the Germans in the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in October 1914. Chlorine was
a widely used gas, and it was initially successful. However, it was only a feared and not in
fact devastating. Gas also relied on favourable wind conditions. The Allies also began to use
gas with rubber face masks developed and used by both sides to negate the effect of gas. In
1918, the British planned for 33% of artillery shells to be gas filled, and the Germans 50%.
Flamethrowers were used firstly by the Germans in 1915. A portable model was operated by
2 men, with one carrying the oil and the other directing the hose and nozzle. However, the
range was limited to 20 metres, and like gas it was more feared than harmful. Yet they were
used effectively in Verdun. There were dangers for the users, with the flame only able to light
for a short period of time, hence it was used only in close combat. Tanks were developed by
the British as early as 1915, and used profoundly at the Somme in 1916. The initial effect on
the Germans was terrifying but soon the Germans adapted. The tanks were also prone to
problems, such as an inability to traverse through mud, provide covering fire and travel
quickly. They were easy targets for grenades and were often bogged. Eventually, these
problems persuaded Allied generals to use tanks in a massed charge. This was used in 1917
in Cambrai when 476 tanks moved forward after a brief artillery bombing. This attack proved
to be highly successful.
4
Key battles: Verdun, the Somme and Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres)
Verdun
Verdun was a German launched attack on February 21 1916. Verdun was picked as a possible
break through point because it was within a French salient and was a symbol of French
honour. It was also a diversion from the Somme and paved the way to Paris. Initially, it was
highly successful, using small group infiltration tactics, capturing Fort Douaumont. von
Falkenhayn then turned to artillery fire, trying to ‘bleed the French white’ with 2.5 million
shells. However, Petain reorganized the defences by making the defence deeper and
maintaining the supply road to Verdun. The road was repaved daily, as Joffre made almost
the entire army serve there. Counter attacks were made by the French, but only to the point
before the battle. Ultimately, both sides lost well over 300,00 troops. However, the French
succeeded in defending the town enabling Haig to launch his attack on the Somme.
The Somme
The Somme was a largely British attack as most of the French army was serving in Verdun.
This attack was designed to wear down German forces until the main breakthrough at Ypres
several weeks later. The Germans were aware of such an attack and prepared by reinforcing
underground shelters and setting up barbed wire. The Allied lacked the experience as
Kitchener’s Army of volunteers lacked training. The attack began with a week long artillery
bombardment using 1.7 million shells on 24 June 1916. However, this did nothing to the
German army, as they decimated the Allied troops walking across No-man’s-land with 100
machine guns. There were 57,000 British casualties on the first day with 20,000 deaths.
France also experienced the worst winter weather in 40 years turning the battlefield into mud.
Tanks were also used to no benefit. Ultimately, the Germans lost 625,000 men, with the
Allied losing the same number. The Germans retreated to the Hindenburg line after the battle,
with the Allies gaining 13 kilometres.
Passchendaele
Passchendaele was a mainly British attack as the French were still recovering from Verdun.
The area around Ypres was important because German U-boats operated in the area, and
British planners believed that by capturing the high ground, they could drive the Germans out
of Belgium and cut off the supply routes. The Battle of Passchendaele began on July 31 1917
with 12 days of bombardment from 4.5 million shells. The effect of this on the ground, and
the heaviest rain in 30 years, was that the battlefield was a sea of mud, as everything became
bogged. The offensive was called off on 6 November when Passchendaele Village was
captured. The Allied lost 300,000 men, whilst the Germans lost 250,000. The British only
gained 8 kilometres in the process.
5
Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time
Outbreak of war
The outbreak of war in 1914 saw a militarist feeling towards war, with most people giving
full support. There was a nationalistic feeling about joining in the war effort. It also gave
many especially younger men release from the confinement from boarding school or factory
work. The belief that the war was to be finished by Christmas made soldiers even more
willing to participate as people feared they would miss out on the opportunity.
Allied soldiers
However, soldiers lost the illusion of a knightly crusade as newer weapons were introduced
that could cost more lives. They felt deceived and betrayed especially after the Somme in
1916, as the enthusiasm waned and conscripts were enlisted. Over the course of the war, 304
British soldiers were executed by firing squad, mostly for desertion.
Similar mutinies of higher scale were experienced from the French soldiers. In April-June
1917, the French Army on the Western Front complained over the high casualty rates, failure
of the Nivelle Offensive, low pay rates and cancelation of leave. Entire units deserted, 27,000
in total, whilst others threatened direct action against the government. However, the French
were able to keep this a secret from their allies and the public, as entire sections of the trench
line were left undefended. More than 400 soldiers in total were punished for deserting, with
some facing the firing squad.
German soldiers
By late 1914, the German army was already plagued by illness, poor lines of communication
and sheer exhaustion. Supply was low and the soldiers had low morale. Supply systems were
ineffective, medical facilities primitive and there was poor leadership from the commanders.
The Somme also played a significant part in German morale. By the middle of 1916, the
feeling that German soldiers were superior was an illusion. After the Spring Offensive in
1918, the early successes were followed by terrible losses.
6
Total war and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany
Total war
Total war involves a concentrated effort by a nation’s government to control all economic,
social and political factors in order to focus resources on the war effort. This involves social
restrictions, censorship and complete commitment to war. The industrialisation of nations
made the war more competitive as they fought for superior weapons. Countries which were
closer to the fighting, typically Germany and France, experienced greater aspects of total war,
whereas nations like Britain, America and Australia experienced far less. The longer the war
went on the more insistent the politicians became about achieving victory because the war’s
material, human and political costs were becoming too great.
Social impact
Ultimately, the extent of total war, coupled with the rising death toll increased negativity
about the war and the governments waging it. Citizens were mobilised into making weapons,
munitions, uniforms and food. Women became an extremely important aspect of society, as
work for them increased. More importantly, women over 30 were given the vote in 1918. In
turn, civilians were forced to face food shortages of their own as rationing was introduced.
Additionally, as conscription and censorship was introduced, especially in Britain, the
glamour of war was truly gone. Like women, the low class gained much more social status
due to total war, as the working class was given a greater degree of freedom. This resulted in
several union movements and by 1918 6.5 million workers were involved in a union.
Revolutionary movements occurred in Germany in 1918 leading to left wing socialist
governments.
Economic impact
Britain resorted to extensive borrowing to fund its spending, especially from America.
Income tax rose by 150% and many other direct taxes were introduced to contribute to the
war effort. DORA (Defence of the Realm Act) increased the part played by the government
in all sectors of community life, including control over wages, work hours and the nature of
production. Britain was also surpassed by both Germany and the USA in many areas of
production including iron, steel and munitions. The Germans were less coordinated in their
economic planning because they believed in a short war. Germany had a 3 part plan to
maintain supply. This involved the regulation of production, synthetic manufacturing and
substitution of goods, particularly into Ersatz products.
7
Recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in Britain and Germany
Recruitment and conscription
Britain did not have conscription before the war, and relied on its small but well trained BEF.
As numbers in this force diminished, War Secretary Lord Kitchener launched a recruitment
campaign, initially in August 1914. By September, 750,000 men had volunteered. However,
this was insufficient and by the end of 1915, only 350,000 had joined under the Derby
Scheme which relied on persuasion to pressure men to attesting. In January 1916 the Military
Service Bill meant the passing of conscription, with all single men called up from 18-40. By
1915, there were a total of 2.5 million volunteers and by 1918, there were 2.5 million
conscripts, meaning 1/3 of all British men served in some way. Conscious objectors
attempted to avoid service, with a total of 16,000 objectors.
There was no need for conscription in Germany as it was essentially a way of life. This gave
Germany a large and well trained army. However, as the war dragged on, human resources
were severely drained. This made the government introduce the Auxiliary Service Law,
meaning any man 19-60 could be conscripted.
Censorship
DORA (Defence of the Realm Act) provided constraints on reporting on the war and
prosecuted those who offended against the act. There was an initial encouragement of the
circulation of rumours favouring the Allies but they were soon discounted. Images of the
wounded and killed were excluded from public eyes, and victory was emphasised. Soldiers
were forbidden to keep diaries and all mail from the front line was also censored.
The German High Command regulated all published information, with Ludendorff
commanding that bad news was not to be published. Even political leaders did not know the
true state of affairs leading to internal cynicism and distrust.
Propaganda
Propaganda was used extensively throughout Britain, with 54 million recruitment posters
printed by September 1915. Britain wanted to get America involved in the war effort and set
up many publications there. Stories of German atrocities were common in British newspapers,
for example the Lusitania incident was used to show how evil the Germans were. Such
propaganda measures were used to boost morale and encourage national patriotism. The
population hence remained generally supportive of the war effort throughout the war.
In Germany, propaganda for recruitment was unnecessary however propaganda was used
extensively in other areas. Germany also set up a war bureau in America to control print
matter including leaflets. Germany bought the New York Evening News to control what
Americans were hearing about the war. As the war progressed, Germany focused more on
victory in battle. Ultimately, there was little distinction between British and German
propaganda, as there were similar aims.
8
The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and
Germany
Britain
At the outbreak of war, there was a militarist feeling and high enthusiasm towards war. War
was romanticized and thousands enlisted into the military. There was general social
widespread support. However, after the initial support, there was negative reaction to the
losses in the Somme especially. As casualty lists increased, and shortages of food prevailed,
the public came to dislike it. When Zeppelin raids and other attacks brought the horror of the
war home, people’s attitudes changed dramatically. By the end of the war, war weariness
grew and by 1918, few people claimed the war to be morally uplifting. Peace movements
began to occur. The longer the war went, the more opposition gave from the public,
particularly from the trade unions. In 1914, there were 972 strikes involving 447,000 workers
compared to 1918 when there were 1,165 strikes with 1,116,000 workers. Women especially
began to voice their discontent with the war, as the Women’s International League for
Permanent Peace was established and had 2,458 members by the end of 1916.
Germany
There was also a high militarist feeling in Germany from the outset, which mirrored a belief
of rapid victory. Opposition to the war within Germany was limited and mute, with the
authoritative nature of the government. War weariness settled quickly, as the lack of victories
in a supposedly decisive war caused unrest. In the homefront, there were severe shortages of
everything and decreasing quality in the goods which were available. The strains ultimately
led to revolutionary activity and the collapse of the Kaiser’s government. October 1916 saw a
peace demonstration in Frankfurt by 30,000 workers. Yet large scale opposition was not
formed until the second half of 1918, as the Germans were willing to put up with the
suffering for victory. In January 1918, there was a strike by 250,000 workers in Berlin and in
October the German fleet refused to take to sea. On November 9, von Hindenburg advised
the Kaiser of the withdrawal of the army’s support.
9
The impact of the war on women’s lives and experiences in Britain
War provided women with enormous opportunities that were unprecedented for the time, as
men left the home front to serve their country. Firstly, war created huge demand for work in
all sectors of society. Primarily, this was from the industry sector, where many women began
working in munitions factories. In 1914, there were 175,000 women involved in war
production, and 750,000 by July 1918. Whilst there were many injustices with pay and
working conditions, it was a pay increase for those who had previously worked domestically.
This extended also to demand in secretarial, nursing, teaching, telephoning and white collar
work.
Women also entered other areas of employment to aid the war effort. Over 30,000 women
demonstrated in London in 1915 demanding for the right to serve. Consequently, auxiliary
braches were formed allowing women to partake in non combatant roles in the military,
including the Women’s Royal Naval Service, the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps and the
Women’s Royal Air Force.
Ultimately, this gave women more independence and self confidence in their lives. There was
a sense of freedom, that women could move away from their families and earn their own
money. This in turn changed their social habits as they became more socially active. This led
to women over 30 getting the vote in 1918.
After the war ended, in most cases women had to give up the male jobs they had assumed.
There was a widespread feeling that women should return to domestic service. Men felt that
their jobs needed protecting against women, yet often men were not physically and
psychologically able to return to work.
10
Impacts of the entry of the USA and of the Russian withdrawal
Entry of the USA
In 1914, Wilson had proclaimed American neutrality from the European war. This came
about due to good American relations with both sides. Yet President Wilson protested against
the naval blockade and German submarine campaign, and began aiding the Allies. This was
done through mainly economic support, providing supplies and war loans. In April 1917,
America officially entered the war, mainly due to the continual attacks on American ships
from German U boats, especially the Lusitania.
The American entry provided for greater strength in the Allied forces, with actual men and
more supplies. However, the impact was more psychological than physical. The American
entry boosted Allied morale on the Western Front, as French and British soldiers felt relieved
that aid was coming. On the flipside, the Germans were losing manpower, allies and political
support. The entry of America brought psychological fear towards the German troops.
Russian withdrawal
The Russian withdrawal provided a major benefit for the Germans, as they now had the
luxury of just a one sided battle front. The Russian people were beginning to dislike the rule
of Tsar Nicholas II. The economy was feeling the strains of the war, as trade routes were cut
off and exports fell by 86.7%. The Russians also had to print money, leading to inflation.
Thus in March 1917, revolution broke out in Russia and the Tsar was forced to abdicate. The
consequent withdrawal in November 1917 and the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in
March 1918 freed 52 Germans divisions fighting at the Russian border for transfer to the
Western Front. Close to 1 million troops were shifted from the eastern front to France, with
these reinforcements leading General Ludendorff to launching his offensive (Operation
Michael) in March 1918.
11
Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied response
Spring Offensive
The Spring Offensive was the final offensive that the German Army could afford to break the
stalemate. It turned to war back into a war of movement on the Western Front. Ludendorff
and Hindenburg had calculated that they only had 6 months before the Americas arrived and
so it was pivotal to break the Allied trenches quickly. Code named ‘Michael’ was aimed
mainly at trying to drive a wedge between the British and French armies, targeting Britain
and driving them back to the Channel ports. The first offensive was launched on March 21
1918, when Ludendorff’s men smashed through Allied lines in northern France, forcing a
French retreat to Paris and British to Amiens. Storm troopers, which were lightly equipped
troops, were used effectively in surprising the Allied defence. Furthermore, the dense fog and
use of gas confused the Allied defenders. The outcome was dire for the Allies, as they lost 65
kilometres and Britain had 300,000 casualties.
However, the rapid advance proved to be quicker than expected, as supplies could not keep
up with the advancement. The arrival of the Americans in mid-1918 turned the tide as weary
German troops lost morale. The second offensive was halted at Marne as the Allies were
reinforced with the arrival of 300,000 American troops. Also, French Marshall Foch was
given supreme command over all Allied armies. He allowed the Germans to advance slowly
whilst assembling reserves who later counter-attacked. The following offensives brought
more gains for the German army, as siege guns were brought within range of Paris. More
offensives followed, yet a supply shortage hampered gains. Most of the troops were now
weary, overstretched, hungry and dispirited.
Allied response
On July 18, Foch launched his counter offensive that sent the Germans in to full retreat.
August 8 was later known as the ‘Black Day’ of the Germany Army where Germans lost
12,000 prisoners and 200 guns. The counter offensive used artillery bombardment, along with
aerial attacks from the RAF and 456 tanks. Ultimately, the German army lost all of the gains
from Operation Michael and was soon pushed beyond the Hindenburg Line, defences it had
held for most of the war. The 29th September signified the first of German recognition of
defeat, when Ludendorff suggested a ceasefire and a more democratic form of German
government.
12
Events leading to the Armistice, 1918
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
On 8 January 1918, American President Woodrow Wilson presented the ‘Fourteen Points’
which would provide a framework upon which ceasefire negotiations would take place later
in the year. Wilson called for the:
Renunciation of secret treaties between nations
Freedom of the seas beyond territorial borders
Worldwide reduction of armaments
Impartial arbitration of colonial disputes
Evacuation of all parts of the former Russian Empire under Central Powers
Restoration of Belgium to its pre-war status
Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France
Recognition of some of Italy’s territorial claims
Acknowledgement of the movements within the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Immediate evacuation of the occupied areas in Serbia, Romania, Montenegro
Breakup of the Ottoman Empire
Support for the existence of an independent Poland
Establishment of a general association of nations
German home front
Initially, the reaction to the Fourteen Points was mixed, yet over the course of the second half
of 1918, the demands seemed mild in severity compared to those wanted by Britain and
France. From the end of September, the Central Powers began to crumble, initially with the
surrender of Bulgaria. Meanwhile, domestically, Germany was also falling apart. The
German Chancellor, George von Hertling, soon resigned, as the two German commanders,
Hindenburg and Ludendorff, sought to begin peace moves. On October 3, Prince Max of
Baden was appointed Chancellor and he sent a message to Wilson, seeking a ceasefire and
peace negotiations based on the Fourteen Points. The reply on the 8th was for the Germans to
withdraw all forces from Allied soil and commence discussion on peace. Germany accepted
these terms on 12 October, with a suggestion of a multinational commission to oversee their
withdrawal. However, America replied by adding the conditions that the Allies alone would
determine the terms of the armistice and that the German autocracy would be replaced by a
democracy. Germany had to accept these furthered conditions.
Allied discussions
Wilson then entered into correspondence with the Allies who agreed to an armistice and
subsequent peace negotiations. However, Britain and France did not accept the second of
Wilson’s proposals in the Fourteen Points, and instead pressed that there should be
compensation in both money and material for all the damage done on their home soils.
Internal revolution was stirring in the German home front, as the navy mutinied and a
socialist uprising had broken out. Kaiser Wilhelm II was abdicated on November 9. The
resultant terms from Germany’s perspective would cause the Bolsheviks to gain complete
control in Germany, and so the terms were lessened to a degree. German forces were allowed
to remain in Eastern Europe and the number of armaments to be surrendered was reduced. At
5 am on 11 November, the armistice was signed at Rethondes, with the terms coming to
effect at 11 am that same day.
13
Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse
Manpower and firepower
Germans battalions were severely depleted by the end of the war, with only an average of 692
men to the recommended 1000 in September 1918. However, the Allies could draw on the
vast resources of the British and French Empires, leading to a steady supply of food, minerals
and men. Additionally, in the early years, American financial and material support was
directed more towards the Allies than the Central Powers. When America was finally
persuaded to enter war, the troops and resources it brought far outweighed the gains of the
Germans from securing victory on the Eastern front. At the time of the armistice, 32 nations
were at war with Germany, which was by then fighting alone. Even before this, Germany was
fighting war on two fronts, something which was too much for Germany to bear alone.
Whilst the support given to the allies of the French and British were substantial, little was
given to Germany by their allies in Australia-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. The blockade of
Germany by the British Navy also prevented access to many necessary resources.
Allied command
The Allied had more effective command structures than the Germans, as many of the poor
performing generals had been removed by 1918. Commanders such as Joffre, French, Nivelle
and Haig were replaced by juniors who had practical experience of battlefield command. One
of the best examples of this was the Australian general, Sir John Monash, who effectively
coordinated his troops. However, the most striking illustration of the superiority of Allied
command was seen in the appointment of Foch as Commander-in-Chief of all Allied forces in
1918. He mixed stringent organisation with flexibility to best fight the Germans.
British technology and equipment
The frontal wave assault was the primary tactic used by both sides for most of the war, until
changes slowly developed. It was not until late in the war that modern weapons were used to
advantage attacking soldiers, such as light machine guns, tanks and aircraft. The science of
artillery was also eventually refined after years of useless bombardment. Creeping barrages
could now be executed effectively and accurately.
Morale and condition of the Germans
After the initial success of Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive, the morale of German soldiers
began to wane. Many divisions were exhausted from the high level combat, as the rapid
advance meant that their supply trains were behind. Eventually, disciplinary problems arose
within the Germany army, especially from the storm troopers. Economic, financial and social
strains imploded the German army, as many German soldiers were aware of the significantly
better conditions experienced by Allied soldiers. This led to a decrease in spirit and morale
and ultimately the German collapse. There was also the theory that, especially from Hitler’s
viewpoint, that the Germans were never defeated on the battlefront, but was a result internal
revolution. Hitler called this the ‘stab in the back’ from the socialist civilians. The Allied is
fact did not set foot onto German soil throughout the war, with most of it being fought in
France and Russia. Hitler referred the politicians who signed the Armistice and the Treaty of
Versailles as the ‘November Criminals’, as he also blamed the communists and Jews for
Germany’s defeat.
14
The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in creating the
Treaty of Versailles
Clemenceau
Georges Benjamin Clemenceau was the Premier of France and was known as ‘The Tiger’ for
his tenacious and cynical character. He rejected Wilson’s Fourteen Points, but agreed to
accept them if America was to guarantee France of security against the Germans. To this
respect, he wanted to severely weaken Germany’s economy and military through
disarmament, restoration of Alsace-Lorraine, repayment of heavy reparations and the creation
of a separate state west of the Rhine. He also insisted that the treaty would be signed at the
Palace of Versailles, in the Hall of Mirrors, to add further humiliation to Germany, as it was
the same place where the German Empire had been proclaimed in 1871. Clemenceau was
after revanchism as he hated Germany and sought to make Germany the sole debtor for war
reparations.
Lloyd George
David Lloyd Georges was the Prime Minister of Britain who held a perspective in between
the total destruction of Germany from France and world peace from America. Lloyd George
was concerned on 5 specific concessions: the destruction of the German fleet, the destruction
of Germany’s Empire, increase in British colonies, re-establishment of European trade and
the prevention of any one country dominating Europe. Thus he did not support French
demands for the virtual destruction of Germany as a whole, as he believed that a strong
Germany economy would have benefits for all of Europe. He also didn’t support French
territorial demands as he feared it would lead to future conflicts. Lloyd George personally
knew that harsh penalties would result in German resentment, but the public wanted Germany
to be punished.
Wilson
Woodrow Wilson was the President of America who was a strong idealist who believed in
world peace, and ultimately set up the League of Nations, whilst ironically could not gain
acceptance in America. Wilson has the view that America should stay separate to European
affairs, whilst spreading democracy over the world. Yet his thinking was naïve and was not
welcomed by European politicians. Therefore he also opposed French demands for revenge,
but supported Britain’s stance of manageable reparations.
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The Treaty of Versailles*
Paris Peace Conference
In January 1919, the representatives of 32 nations gathered in Paris to discuss the peace
settlements that would be presented to the Central Powers. The delegates were
representatives of democratically elected governments, with the Central Powers and recently
turned communist Russia specifically excluded. The context of the time significantly
influenced the decision making. Post war Europe was in a state of political turmoil and
economic chaos. Revolution was brewing everywhere, especially in Russia, Germany and
Hungary. The Spanish influenza attack also was about to reach epidemic proportions, so the
aim of the peacemakers was to keep Europe functioning, with a sense of urgency and well
considered decisions. It is also important to note that the representatives did not have the
freedom to make personal decisions, as they were on behalf of their people. Even further, the
numerous secret treaties which had been negotiated meant that decisions often had ulterior
motives. Delegates had to grip with their own contradictory aspirations. The actual
conference was quickly abandoned, resulting in the ‘Council of Ten’ before this was too
cumbersome, resulting in the ‘Council of Four’ including Britain, America, Italy and France.
Soon, Italy withdrew and the essential decisions were made by the remaining ‘Big Three.’
Outcomes and results
The final peace treaty with Germany was completed within 4 months. The Germans delegates
were forced to sign the treaty, as there was no chance of resuming fighting. The treaty was
signed on June 28 1919, exactly 5 years after the assassination at Sarajevo of Franz Ferdinand,
at the Palace of Versailles. The main terms were: France regained Alsace-Lorraine, Poland
was recreated, East Prussia was separated from Germany, the Rhineland was demilitarised,
Germany was prohibited of uniting with Austria (‘anschluss’), military units were handed
over to the Allies, Germany was limited to 100,000 army personnel, 15,000 navy personnel, 6
battleships, 12 torpedo boats, and Germany was to accept responsibility for the war (Article
231) and had to pay 132 billion gold marks (6.6 billion pounds) plus interest.
Criticisms
The Treaty of Versailles has been criticised for its psychological, territorial and economic
impact as well as for its inconsistent application of the principle of national selfdetermination. It was harsh enough to cause German resentment, but not punitive enough to
stop Germany from actively seeking to overturn its clauses. The treaty was especially
criticised by J M Keynes, who believed it was vicious and short sighted. It left Germany with
few resources, a depleted population, a debt-ridden economy and low social morale. It was
vicious because of the sheer weight of blame placed upon Germany, and short-sighted as a
result of the tension and poor economic conditions which it allowed in the following years.
The League of Nations
The League of Nations was established as part of the peace settlement, an international
organisation which would have the aim of keeping peace, limiting armaments and arbitrating
between nations. Support for the principle was so strong it gained unanimous support from
the delegates in Paris. However, there were flaws as the defeated powers were left out, Soviet
Russia was excluded, and the American Congress refused to join.
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