Download NOTEBOO K #12 Reform and Unrest

N O T E B O O K #12
Reform and Unrest
AP European History
Mr. Konecke
Name_________________________
Period____
NOTEBOOK #12: REFORM & UNREST
1. The Challenges of Nationalism & Liberalism
The Emergence of Nationalism
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Nationalism was most powerful political ideology in Europe during 19th & early 20th centuries
o Nationalism is based on idea that nation is composed of people joined together by bonds of common
language, customs, culture, and history
o Behind the concept of nationalism usually lay the idea of popular sovereignty
 Because of these bonds, the people should be run by the same government
Opposition to the Vienna Settlement
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19th-century nationalism contradicted the principle upheld at Congress of Vienna that monarchies (not
ethnicity) are what unite a country politically
o Naturally, nationalists protested multinational states like Austria or Russia
Creating Nations
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Nationalists were ones who actually created nations in the 19th century
o Early in century, small group of nationalistic writers spread the concept of a nation
 Gave people a sense of their past & a literature of their own
o Teachers also spread nationalistic ideas by teaching a nation’s language and history
Nationalists always worried about what language to use in schools & government
o Language was such an effective unifier of people thanks to the development of print culture
 So many publications in one language made the “official” language of a country more
dominant
 In many countries, speaking & writing in the official language led to social & political
advancement
o Uniform language made people feel that they belonged to a nation
Meaning of Nationhood
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Nationalists used many arguments to explain what “nationhood” meant:
o Uniting people into one country would promote economic and government efficiency
o Nations, like biological species, were distinct creatures of God
A problem for nationalism was determining which ethnic groups could be considered nations (and thus
could claim territory & political autonomy)
o Nationhood came to be associated with groups large enough to support an economy, had a
cultural history, had an elite class, & had military strength
o Many small groups attempted to fulfill these criteria, but could not achieve recognition or
independence
 But they would create social unrest
Regions of Nationalistic Pressure
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During 19th century, nationalists challenged the political status quo in 6 areas of Europe:
o 1. England brought Ireland under direct rule in 1800
 Irish nationalists wanted independence or at least more self-government
o 2. German nationalists wanted political unity for all German-speaking people, challenging
multinational structure of Austria
o 3. Italians wanted unity for all Italian-speaking people & to drive out Austrians in area
o 4. Polish nationalists wanted to become an independent nation free from Russian control
o 5. In Eastern Europe, several national groups (Hungarians, Czechs, etc.) wanted independence or
recognition from Austrian Empire
o 6. In Balkans, national groups (Serbs, Greeks, etc.) wanted independence from Ottoman &
Russian control
All these areas had potential to erupt into turmoil at any time
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Nationalists changed the political map & culture of Europe
Early-Nineteenth-Century Political Liberalism
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Term “liberal” started in Europe & America in 1800s
o 19th-century conservatives thought of liberal as anyone or anything that challenged their own values
 They saw liberals as more radical than they really were
Political Goals
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19th-century liberals got many of their ideas from writers of the Enlightenment
o Also influenced by the 1789 French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
 They wanted legal equality, religious toleration, & freedom of the press
 Their general goal was a political structure that would limit the power of government
against ordinary citizens and their property
 Government should emanate from the consent of the people
 Government ministers must be responsible to the elected representatives – not the
monarchy
Economic Goals
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Economic goals of liberals divided them from working classes
o Wanted to get rid of economic restraints of mercantilism or regulated economies of absolutists
 Wanted to manufacture and sell goods freely
 Remove international tariffs & internal trade barriers
o Wanted to get rid of old paternalistic laws that set up wages & labor practices by government
regulation or guild privileges
Liberals also wanted people to be free to use whatever talents and property they had to make themselves
richer
o This would mean more goods at lower prices for everyone
Liberals also supported efforts to reform agricultural policies & techniques
2. Conservative Governments: The Domestic Political Order
Conservative Outlooks
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Major pillars of 19th-century conservatism were legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established
churches
o 18th century, these groups often fought each other
 French Revolution & Napoleonic Era turned them into allies
Execution of Louis XVI by radical democrats convinced conservatives that they could only trust aristocratic
governments
o They believed no form of representative government would protect their property & influence
o And conservatives hated idea of a written constitution unless they actually wrote it
After war & revolution, conservatives worried about their loss of privilege & the enemies surrounding them
o Problems of European countries sidelined temporarily because of the wars
o After 1815, those problems cropped up again, causing domestic unrest
o Conservatives felt they needed to repress those uprisings
Liberalism and Nationalism Resisted in Austria and the Germanies
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19th-century statesmen epitomized conservatism was Austrian prince Klemens von Metternich
He had most control over the forces of European reaction
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Dynastic Integrity of the Habsburg Empire
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Austrians could make no big compromises with new political forces in Europe
o Liberalism and nationalism were dangerous to Austria
 Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Czechs, & many other ethnic groups populated Habsburg
Empire
Metternich could not recognize any ethnic group – they would want independence
o If he allowed representative government, ethnic groups would fight each other – weakening
Austria
Austria had to dominate new German confederation to prevent Germany from becoming a united nation –
taking away German-speaking people from Habsburgs
o German confederation consisted of 39 states – Austria in charge
 Each state was autonomous – Austria wanted to prevent as many of them as possible
from adopting constitutional government
Defeat of Prussian Reform
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1815, Frederick Wilhelm III promised his people some type of constitutional government
o Then he stalled for 2 years & then formally took it back 1817
o He instead created a Council of State – responsible to him only
1819, king replaced his reform-minded ministers with conservatives
o 1823, they made king create 8 provincial estates (diets) – dominated by Junkers (nobles)
 These groups would oppose German nationalists
Student Nationalism and the Carlsbad Decrees
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To gain broader support, monarchs of 3 German states – Baden, Bavaria, & Württemberg – granted
constitutions after 1815
o None of them recognized popular sovereignty
o And they claimed all rights come from monarch
But after Napoleon’s defeat, many young Germans held nationalistic & liberal beliefs
o University students were most important of these groups
 Many had fought Napoleon and they dreamed of a united Germany
 They formed Burschenschaften – student associations
1819, student named Karl Sand (Burschenschaften member) assassinated August von Kotzebue (because
he criticized the Burschenschaften movement)
o Sand was tried & publicly executed – became nationalist martyr
 Metternich used incident to attack liberals & suppress their actions (Sand acted alone)
1819, Metternich convinced major German states to issue the Carlsbad Decrees – dissolved the
Burschenschaften
o Also created university inspectors & allowed press censorship
o For many years after, secret police harassed any potential rebels – basically anyone who wanted
change
Postwar Repression in Great Britain
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1819-1820 saw big increases in conservative influence & repression
o After 1815, Britain had two years of bad harvests
o At same time, discharges sailors & soldiers were coming home to no jobs
Lord Liverpool’s Ministry and Popular Unrest
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Ministry of Lord Liverpool was not prepared to deal with these postwar problems
o Instead, it tried to protect interests of rich
 1815, Parliament passed Corn Law – high prices for home-grown grain – import taxes
on foreign grain
 1816, Parliament replaced income tax paid only by wealthy & replaced it with excise
(sales) taxes - both wealthy & poor paid
 1799 Combination Acts had outlawed labor unions
 Rich also wanted to get rid of Poor Law – gave public relief for poor & unemployed
Lower classes began to demand reform
o Government saw them as nothing but revolutionaries ready to hang any aristocrat
o Government began to denounce radical leaders as demagogues
1816, unruly mass meeting took place in Spa Fields (near London)
o Gave Parliament excuse to pass Coercion Acts - suspended habeas corpus & extended laws
against seditious meetings
“Peterloo” and the Six Acts
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Improved harvests (and the repression) calmed things down for a bit
By 1819, people were angry again
o August 16, 1819, meeting took place in Manchester at St. Peter’s Fields
o Royal troops & local militia there to keep order
o Then magistrate ordered militia to move into crowd – panic & death resulted
 11 in crowd killed – dozens injured – Peterloo Massacre
Peterloo was carried out by local officials – but Liverpool felt he had to support them
o Most radical leaders were arrested & jailed
o December, Parliament passed laws called Six Acts:
 1. Forbid large unauthorized public meetings
 2. Raised fines for seditious libel
 3. Speeded up trials for political agitators
 4. Increased newspaper taxes
 5. Prohibited training armed groups
 6. Allowed local officials to search homes
o Basically attempted to prevent radical leaders from agitating & gave authorities new powers
2 months later, Cato Street Conspiracy came out
o Group of extreme radicals planned to blow up British cabinet – prevented
 Leaders arrested, tried, & 5 hanged
Bourbon Restoration in France
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Napoleon abdicated 1814 – made way for restoration of Bourbons
o New king was brother of Louis XVI (his son – Louis XVII died in jail)
 So new king was Louis XVIII
 He was a realist – knew that France could not go back to way things were before 1789
 So Louis XVIII agreed to become a constitutional monarch
 But he made the actual constitution – the Charter
The Charter
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Charter called for hereditary monarchy & a bicameral legislature
o Monarch appointed upper house (Chamber of Peers)
o Voters (rich) chose lower house (Chamber of Deputies)
Granted religious toleration (Catholic being official religion)
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Also promised not to challenge property rights of current owners of land that had been taken from
aristocrats & church
Ultraroyalism
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People who were more royalist wanted revenge
o They rallied around the heir (Louis’ brother) – count of Artois
 Months after Waterloo, royalists carried out White Terror – attacking former
revolutionaries and supporters of Napoleon
 King could not stop the massacres
 Ultraroyalists soon dominated Chamber of Deputies – so king dissolved the chamber &
called for new election (more moderates)
o 1820, however, duke of Berri (son of Artois & heir to the throne after his father) was assassinated
 Ultraroyalists convinced Louis XVIII that his ministers & liberal politicians had planned
the attack
 King responded with new measures:
 New voting laws gave wealthy electors 2 votes
 Press was censored
 Suspected terrorists arrested
Constitutionalism was a mirage
o Liberals throughout country were being driven out of politics and into exile
3. The Conservative International Order
The Concert of Europe
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At Congress of Vienna, major powers – Russia, Austria, Prussia, Great Britain – agreed to talk about matters that
affected all of Europe
o Over time, differences among powers grew & meetings became more informal – Concert of Europe
 Made sure one country could not act without getting approval of other countries
 Initial goal was maintain balance of power against France & Russia
 They tried to keep the peace
The Congress System
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Early years after Congress of Vienna, system of mutual cooperation worked
o First congress took place 1818 – 4 powers agreed to remove troops from France (who paid its war
reparations) & readmitted France as major power in Europe
But congress still had problems
o Tsar Alexander I argued that the Quadruple Alliance should uphold current governments & borders of all
European countries
o Britain (Castlereagh) refused – said Quadruple Alliance should only prevent French aggression
 These arguments seemed unimportant until revolutions started breaking out throughout Europe
The Spanish Revolution of 1820
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After Napoleon’s defeat, Bourbon Ferdinand VII became king of Spain
o He promised to govern according to written constitution – but he would break that promise, dissolved
Parliament, & ruled alone
o 1820, army officers who were going to be sent to stop rebellions in Latin America revolted
 Ferdinand again promised to uphold the constitution
o At the same time, there were small revolutions (unsuccessful) in Italy
Metternich became nervous about all these revolutions
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He wanted Austria to dominate continent & prevent spread of revolution
Britain refused to help
So Metternich turned to Russia & Prussia
 Austria, Russia, & Prussia issued the Protocol of Troppau – stable governments can restore order
in countries facing revolution
Final postwar congress took place in 1822 – goal was to solve problem in Spain
o British Foreign Minister Castlereagh committed suicide before meeting
o His replacement – George Canning – decided Britain would withdraw from continental affairs
o Austria, Prussia, & Russia agreed to French intervention in Spain
 1823, French suppressed the rebellion
After their suppression of Spanish revolution, French did not try to increase their power or territory
o They were simply trying to restore conservative regimes – goal was to maintain international order
o This new form of international relations prevented major war until 1914
George Canning was much more interested in British commerce & trade than Castlereagh had been
o He planned to use South American revolutions to break up Spain’s trade monopoly
o So he supported Monroe Doctrine – prohibited intervention by Europe in Americas
o For rest of century, British dominated Latin American trade
Thus, Canning is said to have brought an end to the War of Jenkins’s Ear (1739)
Revolt Against Ottoman Rule in the Balkans
The Greek Revolution of 1821
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While major powers were planning conservative interventions in Italy & Spain, another revolt erupted in
Greece
o People everywhere hoped ancient Greek democracy was being reborn
o It became a struggle of Western Greek freedom against Asian despotism of Ottomans
Ottoman Empire had not changed its political or economic structures in 18th century
o Ottoman weakness troubled European diplomacy in 19th century – raising “the Eastern
Question”
 What should Europe do about Ottoman inability to maintain stability in its possessions?
 Most major powers were interested in these lands (Balkans, Mediterranean)
 Ottoman treatment of Christians in empire was also area of concern
Eventually, Britain, France, and Russia agreed that an independent Greece was good for them
o 1827, they signed Treaty of London – demanded Turkey recognize Greek independence
 They also sent joint fleet to help the revolt
 1828, Russia sent troops to Romania – took it from Ottomans 1829
 Ottomans then agreed to allow Britain, France, & Russia to decide future of Greece
o 1830, second Treaty of London declared Greece as an independent kingdom
 Otto I – son of king of Bavaria – became first king
Serbian Independence
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Since late 1700s, Serbia wanted independence from Ottoman Empire
o 1804-1813, Serbian leader – Kara George – led guerrilla war against Ottomans
 While unsuccessful, revolt helped build Serbian national identity & attracted interest of
great powers
1815-1816, new leader – Milos Obrenovitch – fought for & won more autonomy in some Serbian
territory
o But most Serbs lived outside these areas
1830, Ottoman sultan formally gave independence to Serbia
o By late 1830s, major powers recognized independent Serbia
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Over time, however, Serbs wanted more territory
o Eventually, their demand for land created tension with Austria
o Status of minorities in Serbia, especially Muslims, also caused problems
Mid-1820s, Russia (like Serbia, was a Slav state and Eastern Orthodox in religion) became Serbia’s
formal protector
o 1856, Serbia protected collectively by great powers
o But the relationship between Serbia & Russia would last for decades – and would lead to
outbreak of WWI
4. The Wars of Independence in Latin America
Breaking Free from Europe
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Wars of the French Revolution (especially those of Napoleon) sparked movements in Latin America to break free
from European domination
o 1804-1824, France kicked out of Haiti, Portugal lost Brazil, & Spain lost all American colonies except
Cuba & Puerto Rico
 These wars marked end of European domination & exploitation of American continents
Revolution in Haiti
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1791-1804, French colony of Haiti gained independence
o This was important event for 2 reasons:
 1. It began because of policies of French Revolution spreading to New World Empire
 2. It proved that African slaves could lead successful revolt against white masters (& mulatto
freemen)
o This revolt terrified slaveholders throughout America
French colonial masters had often used racial divisions between black slaves & mulatto freemen to their
advantage
o Once French Revolution started, National Assembly declared that free property-owning mulattos in Haiti
should have same rights as white plantation owners
 Colonial rulers in Haiti resisted these orders
1791, huge slave rebellion erupted in Haiti
o Started from secret conspiracy by slaves
 Toussaint L’Ouverture – former slave – became leader
o Both sides suffered many casualties
o After slave rebellion itself failed, mulattos & free blacks then took up arms against white masters
o Revolutionary government in France soon sent officials to help them
 Slaves then joined the fight & in 1793, French abolished slavery in Haiti
Spain & Britain then intervened in Haiti (wanted Haiti’s sugar-producing lands)
o Toussaint & his ex-slaves helped French fight off Spanish & British
 By 1800, Toussaint was in charge (Governor-General)
Napoleon distrusted Toussaint & worried he would undermine French authority
o 1802, Napoleon sent army to Haiti & captured him
 He was sent back to France & died in prison 1803
o Other military leaders (ex-slaves) – like Jean-Jacques Dessalines – continued to resist
o But once Napoleon was at war with Britain in 1803, he abandoned his American empire
 Sold Louisiana to U.S. and took his men out of Haiti
Wars of Independence on the South American Continent
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Haiti’s revolution became exception in Latin American revolutions
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In South America, the Creole elite led the movements against Spain & Portugal
 Few Native Americans, slaves, mulattos, etc. took part in these revolts
Creole elite worried only about protecting their wealth & status (although they did want freedom)
Creole Discontent
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Creole discontent with Spanish colonial government had several sources:
o Latin American merchants wanted to trade more freely (especially with North America &
Europe)
o They wanted trade regulations that would help them instead of Spain
o They were also angry about increased taxation from Spain
Creoles hated policies that favored peninsulares – white people born in Spain – for patronage (to colonial
govt.), church, & army
o This patronage system seemed to Creoles like another way for Spanish crown to get rich at
expense of colonies
Napoleon invaded Portugal 1807 & made his brother king of Spain 1808
o This would turn Creole discontent into revolt
Creole elite worried Napoleonic monarchy in Spain would ruin their economic interests in colonies
o Also worried Napoleon might drain resources of Spain for his wars
1808-1810, Creole juntas (political committees) claimed right to govern different regions of Latin
America
o After this, Spain never reestablished its hold on South America
o Juntas also ended privileges of the peninsulares (who had depended on Spanish crown)
 Creoles now took positions in government & army
San Martin in Rio de la Plata
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Every Latin American country was different – would achieve independence differently
o First region to stand up for itself was Argentina (Rio de la Plata)
 Revolt took place mainly in capital – Buenos Aires
 1810, junta in Buenos Aires kicked out Spanish authorities & then sent forces into
Paraguay & Uruguay to free them from Spain
 Armies were defeated – but Spain still lost control
 Paraguay became independent; Brazil took over Uruguay
Buenos Aires government then tried to liberate Peru
o 1817, Jose de San Martin – leading general in Argentina – led army in march over Andes
Mountains & occupied Chile
o There, he organized a fleet to carry his army to Peru
 1821, San Martin drove royalist forces out of Lima & became Protector of Peru
Simon Bolivar’s Liberation of Venezuela
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Simon Bolivar got involved in a junta to liberate Venezuela in 1810
o He wanted independence in order to set up a republic
1811-1814, civil war broke out in Venezuela
o Royalist forces, slaves, and llaneros (cowboys) all challenged republican government
Bolivar went into exile but returned in 1816, capturing New Granada (capital of present-day Colombia,
Bolivia, & Ecuador)
o By 1821, Bolivar had captured capital and was named president of Venezuela
1822, Bolivar & San Martin joined forces to free Ecuador
o But the two disagreed about future of Latin America
 San Martin believed the people needed monarchies
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 Bolivar wanted a republic
Bolivar then went on to establish control of Peru 1823
o 1824, his army destroyed the main Spanish royalist forces – this ended Spain’s attempts to keep
empire alive
Independence in New Spain
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The drive for independence in New Spain (Mexico, Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico) demonstrates the
socially conservative outcome of Latin American revolutions
o Junta was organized 1808
o Before it got started, however, Creole priest – Miguel Hidalgo – issued call for rebellion to Indians in his
parish
 They, as well as black & mestizo urban & rural workers responded
o Soon, Hidalgo had 80,000 followers – captured several major cities & marched on Mexico City
 His forces (& royalist army opposing him) committed many atrocities
 1811, Father Hidalgo was captured & executed
 His replacement was more radical & was executed 1815 – ending 5 years of rebellion
Revolution in Spain forced Ferdinand VII to accept liberal reforms
o Conservative Mexicans worried he would impose liberal reforms on Mexico
o So they rallied around royalist general – Augustin de Iturbide
 He declared Mexico independent of Spain 1821 – then Iturbide became emperor
 His regime did not last long – but he had created an independent Mexico
Brazilian Independence
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Brazilian independent, by contrast, came fairly easily & peacefully
o Portuguese royal family had fled to Brazil 1807
o Their arrival made Rio de Janeiro a royal city
o Prince regent Joao started many reforms & in 1815 he made Brazil a kingdom (no longer colony of
Portugal)
 This change was long overdue – Brazil was bigger and richer than Portugal
o Revolution then erupted in Portugal & Joao returned to help
 He left his son – Dom Pedro – in charge
 By end of year, Dom Pedro was emperor of independent Brazil (remained monarchy until 1889)
2 other factors helped peaceful transition to independence in Brazil
o 1. Political & social elites wanted to avoid destruction a war would cause
o 2. These leaders wanted to preserve slavery
 Wars of independence elsewhere generally led to abolition of slavery
 A war of independence in Brazil might have ended slavery
5. The Conservative Order Shaken in Europe
Russia: The Decembrist Revolt of 1825
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Tsar Alexander I came to power 1801 after coup against his father, Tsar Paul
o For most part, Alexander turned away from reform
 At home & abroad, he attempted to suppress liberalism & nationalism
o There would be no real challenge to tsar’s rule until his death
Unrest in the Army
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As Russians pushed Napoleon’s army back & then occupied France, army officers were exposed to ideas
of French Revolution
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They realized how economically backward & politically stifled their country was
 Many army officers started wanting reform
 But because of Tsar, they could not be open with their ideas – so they set up secret
societies
 Southern Society – led by officer named Pestel – wanted representative govt.
and end of serfdom
 Northern Society was more moderate
o Wanted constitutional monarchy & end of serfdom, but also wanted to
protect interests of aristocracy
 Both societies agreed to carry out a coup d’etat 1826
Dynastic Crisis
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1825, Alexander I died, creating 2 crises:
o First was a dynastic crisis – he had no direct heir
 His brother Constantine had married a woman not of royal blood
 Through secret instructions revealed only after his death, Alexander named his younger
brother, Nicholas, as new tsar
Once Alexander was dead, however, legality of his instructions was uncertain
o Constantine acknowledged Nicholas as tsar
o Nicholas acknowledged Constantine
 For 3 weeks, Russia had no ruler
 December, army told Nicholas about conspiracy among certain officers
 So Nicholas had himself declared tsar (Constantine happy)
Second crisis then began – Decembrist Revolt
o Young officers had planned to rally troops under them to demand reform
o December 26, 1825, army was supposed to take oath of allegiance to Nicholas
 Most regiments did – but Moscow regiment marched into Senate Square in Saint
Petersburg & refused
 Instead, they wanted a constitution and Constantine to be made tsar
 Nicholas ordered cavalry & artillery to attack the troops
 60 died in the attack
o 1826, Nicholas himself led committee to investigate the Decembrist Revolt & the secret army
societies
 5 plotters were executed & over 100 others exiled to Siberia
This revolt was first in modern Russian history in which rebels had political goals
The Autocracy of Nicholas I
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Nicholas I came to symbolize most extreme form of 19th-century
o He knew Russia needed reform – but he feared change
 For example, he knew serfdom was wrong – but he worried about ending it
 Might undermine noble support of him
o So Nicholas turned his back on reform
 Censorship & surveillance (secret police) were everywhere during his reign
Official Nationality
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Instead of reform, Nicholas started program called Official Nationality
o Its slogan – “Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism”
Russian Orthodox Church was to be basis of morality, education, and intellectual life
o Young Russians were taught to accept their place in life
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Autocracy meant power of tsar was only thing that could hold Russia together
o Writers used examples of Peter the Great, Catherine the Great and Alexander I to demonstrate
effectiveness of autocracy
And by glorifying Russian nationality, Russians were taught to see their religion, language, and culture as
separating them from corruption & turmoil in West
o This program seriously alienated Russian intellectuals
Revolt and Repression in Poland
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Nicholas I was also conservative in foreign affairs
o This was evident in case of Poland in 1830s
 Poland no longer independent state after Congress of Vienna – but had constitutional
government with a parliament (diet) with limited powers
 Under this arrangement, tsar ruled as king of Poland
 Tsar put brother Constantine in charge of Poland
 Over time, Polish nationalists fought for change
1830, small revolt of soldiers & students broke out in Warsaw
o It soon spread throughout the country
o 1831, Polish diet deposed Nicholas as king of Poland
o Tsar sent troops in to suppress revolt
1832, Nicholas issued the Organic Statute – declared Poland was important part of Russian Empire
o It guaranteed Poles liberties, but Russians ignored them
Nicholas became terrified of revolt
o All over Europe now, he was always ready & willing to send troops to stop liberal & nationalist
movements
Revolution in France (1830)
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Polish revolt was most distant of several uprisings that resulted from overthrow of Bourbon dynasty in France
1830
o When Louis XVIII died 1824, his brother (leader of ultraroyalists) succeeded him as Charles X
 Charles was firm believer in rule by divine right
The Reactionary Policies of Charles X
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Charles X’s first action was to have Chamber of Deputies help aristocrats who lost land in revolution
o How – lowered interest rates on government bonds to create fund to pay annual sum to survivors
of the émigrés who had lost land
 Middle-class bondholders – who lost income – resented this
o Charles also brought back rule of primogeniture – oldest son of aristocratic family inherited land
o To support Catholic Church, he punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death
 Liberals hated all of these measures
1827, liberals gained enough seats in Chamber of Deputies to get Charles to compromise
o He appointed less conservative ministry
o Laws against press & government control of education were eased
 Liberals still not happy – wanted a constitutional regime
1829, Charles replaced his moderate ministry with ultraroyalist cabinet led by Prince de Polignac
o Desperate, liberals started talking to liberal Orleans branch of royal family
The July Revolution
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1830, Charles X called for new elections – liberals gained power
o Instead of accepting new Chamber of Deputies, Charles decided to attempt royalist seizure of
power
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June & July, he sent naval expedition to Algiers (pirate state who stole from every nation)
News of the capture of Algiers & founding of French Empire in North Africa reached
Paris on July 9
o Taking advantage of this victory, Charles issued the Four Ordinances – basically a royal coup
 They restricted freedom of press, dissolved Chamber of Deputies, limited vote to
wealthiest people, & called for new elections
Liberal newspapers told people to reject the king’s ordinances
Workers of Paris built barricades in streets
o King sent in troops & although 1800 people died in the fighting, the army could not control Paris
August 2, Charles abdicated & went into exile in England
o Chamber of Deputies named new ministry made of constitutional monarchists
o And finally ending the rule of Bourbon dynasty, it proclaimed Louis Philippe the new king
(instead of Charles X’s grandson)
Monarchy under Louis Philippe
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July Monarchy – as new regime was called – was more liberal
o Louis Philippe was called “king of the French” rather than “king of France”
o Tricolor flag of revolution replaced white flag of the Bourbons
o New constitution was considered right of the people instead of concession made by monarch
o Catholicism became religion of majority instead of official religion
o Censorship was abolished
o Voting became more widespread
o King had to cooperate with Chamber of Deputies
Socially, however, Revolution of 1830 was conservative
o Everyday influence of landed aristocrats continued
o Corruption was widespread in the government – rich ruled everything
July Monarchy also showed no sympathy for lower and working classes
o Revolts & uprisings were suppressed violently with much bloodshed
New French government was happy to keep control of Algiers (that Charles X had taken)
o Occupation of Algeria gave French merchants in Marseilles economic ties to North Africa
o French also destroyed old Ottoman government there & set out to control country
 After constant warfare with Muslims, French took control of Algeria
France now had a big new empire – Algeria was considered part of France itself (not a colony)
o This would cause problems after WWII when pro-independence movement started amongst
Muslim Algerians
Belgium Becomes Independent (1830)
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
July Revolution also spread to Belgium
o Former Austrian Netherlands, Belgium had merged with Holland 1815
 Two countries differed in language, religion, economy & Belgian upper classes never liked Dutch
rule
1830, disturbances broke out in Brussels after performance of an opera about a rebellion in Naples against
Spanish rule
o To end riots, municipal authorities and wealthy formed a provisional national government
o When compromise between Belgians and Dutch failed, King William I of Holland went troops to attack
Belgium
o By November, Dutch were defeated
 Congress then wrote liberal Belgian constitution 1831
13
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December 1830, Lord Palmerston – British foreign minister – convinced government to recognize Belgium as
independent state
o 1831, Prince Leopold (married to daughter of Louis Philippe) became king of the Belgians
o Convention of 1839 guaranteed Belgian neutrality for decades
Belgium and Serbia both became free 1830
o Ironically, problems in both would lead to outbreak of WWI
The Great Reform Bill in Britain (1832)


1830, House of Commons in Britain debated first major bill to reform Parliament
o Death of George IV & accession of William IV required calling a parliamentary election
Great Reform Bill stemmed from conservatism mixing with reform
Political and Economic Reform

Several factors led to this compromise:
o 1. Commercial & industrial class was larger in Britain than in other countries
 Government could not ignore them without hurting British prosperity
o 2. Britain’s liberal aristocrats traditionally favored moderate reforms – no need for major changes
o 3. British law, tradition, and public opinion all showed respect for civil liberties
Catholic Emancipation Act


English determination to maintain union with Ireland brought about another reform
o 1800, afraid Irish nationalists might rebel, William Pitt the Younger got Parliament to pass the
Act of Union
 Ireland now had 100 members in House of Commons
 But only Protestant Irishmen could be elected (majority of Irish were Catholics)
o 1820s, Daniel O’Connell led Irish nationalists to start the Catholic Association – wanted Catholic
emancipation
 1828, O’Connell got elected to Parliament – but could not sit (Catholic)
 Worried that Ireland might elect more Catholics (could lead to revolt), prime minister
(Duke of Wellington) got Catholic Emancipation Act through Parliament – Catholics
could now be in Parliament
Catholic emancipation was a liberal law passed by conservatives to keep order in Ireland
o Wellington’s move lost him favor in Britain
o King turned to leader of the Whigs - Earl Grey - to form a new government
Legislation Change



Whigs presented House of Commons with huge reform bill with 2 goals:
o 1. Replace “rotten boroughs” (few voters there) with representatives for manufacturing districts
and cities
o 2. Number of voters in England and Wales was to be increased by 50% through new franchises
1831, House of Commons defeated the bill
o Grey called for new election & won majority in favor of bill
o But House of Lords then rejected it
 Riots broke out all over country
o King William IV convinced House of Lords to pass the law 1832
Great Reform Bill increased size of English electorate – 200,000 more voters
o But it kept property qualification
 Some workers actually lost right to vote because certain old franchises were abolished
o New urban boroughs created – people hoped gave middle class more votes
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 But new rural boroughs also created – aristocrats expected to dominate rural elections
The Great Reform Bill brought people who sought change into the political forum
o By giving them access to legislative process, it made revolution unnecessary in England
6. Toward an Industrial Society
British Wealth

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Industrial Revolution began in 1700s Britain with advances in textile production
o British factories & new machines allowed producers to give customers more products of higher quality at
lower prices
o French Revolution & Napoleon’s wars had destroyed French Atlantic trade
o Latin Americans revolutions opened South America to British goods
o In North America, both U.S. & Canada wanted British goods
o By controlling India, Britain controlled markets of SE Asia
o British banks dominated international financial markets
British textile industry was worldwide network
o It depended on the labor of American slaves to produce cotton
o Finished textiles were then shipped across world (protected by British navy)
 Wealth British gained from textiles and other industries was invested everywhere, especially in
United States and Latin America
By 1830s, continental countries started making progress as well
o But they were slow to imitate the British example
 So in most European countries, peasants and urban artisans were more important politically than
factory workers
Population and Migration
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While industrialization spread, population of Europe continued to grow
o France: 32.5 million (1831) – 35.8 million (1851)
o Germany: 26.5 million – 33.5 million
o Britain: 16.3 million – 20.8 million
More & more people lived in cities
o Eastern Europe, however, remained mostly rural = little industry
So many people put pressure on resources of cities
o Existing housing, water, sewers, food supply, & lighting needed to be improved
o Slums (pollution) grew & disease (cholera) damaged population
o Crime increased & became way of life for some
Situation in country was not much better
o Landholding became commercialized (enclosures in England, land redistribution in France, emancipation
of serfs in E. Europe)
 Liberals hoped revolution in land ownership would turn peasants into progressive, industrious
farmers
 Instead, most peasants became conservative landholders without enough land to support
themselves
Prospect of bad harvests still worried Europeans
o Worst experience of century was Irish famine (1845-1847)
 500,000 Irish peasants (with no land or small plots) starved to death when disease destroyed
potato crop
 Hundreds of thousands emigrated
 Famine was so devastating because Irish farmers relied on one product & Irish people relied on
that same product (potato) for food
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 The population of Ireland before the Great Hunger was 8 million
 By 21st century, it is only 5.5 million
By mid-century, revolution in landholding led to increased farm production
o Also caused movement of large groups from farms to cities (and from Europe to rest of world)
o Countryside provided workers for factories (as well as people with little economic skill who moved to
cities in search of work)
Railways
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1830s & 1840s opened first age of railway building
o Railroads (plus canals & better roads) meant people could move away from place of birth more easily
o Also allowed cheaper & faster transportation of raw materials & finish goods
Railroads represented investment in capital goods rather than consumer goods
o As a result, there was a shortage of consumer goods at cheap prices
 This is why working class was often unable to buy much for its wages
Railways also brought about more industrialization
o They increased demand for iron & steel & a more skilled labor force
 This demand allowed for construction of ironclad ships & machinery made of wood
 These new industries created wealth = to be invested in newer enterprises
7. The Labor Force
The Emergence of a Wage-Labor Force
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1800s, artisans & factory workers eventually participated in a wage-labor force in which their labor became a
commodity – proletarianization
o In process of becoming wage laborers, artisans lost control of means of production (tools, equipment) &
control of their trades
o Factory owner provided money to build factory, buy machines, purchase raw materials
 Factory workers gave their labor for a wage
Factory workers also had to submit to factory discipline
o Working conditions were determined by how smoothly machinery was operated
o Factory closed to late workers, fines for lateness, fired for drunkenness, & public scolding used to make
factory run efficiently
 Factory workers had no direct say about product quality or price
Factory workers, however, had it better than textile workers who resisted factory system
o Weavers who worked from home grew poorer & poorer – could not compete with power loom
1700s, European workplace had a few artisans working for a master
o First they were apprentices and then journeymen – according to guild regulations
o Master owned workshop and large equipment – apprentices owned tools
o Journeymen eventually would become a master
This guild system allowed workers to have some control over price, product quality, etc.
o Guild protected integrity of work & prosperity of craftsmen
To keep up with factory system, masters started practice of confection – goods are made in standard sizes and
styles instead of special orders for individuals
o Less skill was required for this process – artisan’s skills became less valuable
 Over time, journeymen could no longer become masters – they became lifelong wage laborers
Working-Class Political Action: The Example of British Chartism

By mid-century, frustrated artisans became most radical part of European working class
o They tried to come up with new ways to protect their interests
16
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
By late 1830s, many British workers turned to political reform program called Chartism
o 1836, William Lovett formed London Working Man’s Association
o 1838, it issued the Charter, demanding 6 reforms – Six Points of Charter
 Universal male suffrage, annual election of House of Commons, secret ballot, equal electoral
districts, abolition of property qualifications for & payment of salaries to members of House of
Commons
Chartists fought for these reforms for 10 years
o Parliament refused to pass the Charter
o Petitions were signed by millions, strikes were called, speeches were made, & Chartists even started
newspaper
o Despite all this, Chartism failed
 They could never agree on tactics (peaceful or forceful)
o Nevertheless, Chartism was Europe’s first large-scale working-class political movement
8. Family Structures and the Industrial Revolution
The Family in the Early Factory System
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Factory production did not destroy working-class family
o Before late 1700s, individual family in textiles was main unit of production
o Mechanization of weaving led to change
 Father (machine weaver) then became employed in factory
In domestic system, father & mother worked with children in textile production
o They trained & disciplined children in the home
 Home life & economic life were the same
 In home, wife might earn as much as (if not more than) her husband
o Early factory owners allowed husbands to employ their wives and children as assistants
 Parental training & discipline could still be transferred from home to factory
o But families still had to face new discipline of factory
 And women often did less skilled work than their husbands
Shift in this family and factory structure started mid-1820s
o Size of factories & machinery grew
o New machines required fewer skilled workers – but many unskilled attendants (work of unmarried
women & children)
 Unskilled workers accepted lower wages & less likely to form unions
Wages were high enough for skilled adult males for some fathers to take kids out of work & put them in school
o Wives of skilled operators also stopped working in factory
o Men now supervised women & children who weren’t from his family for first time
Concern for Child Labor


By this point, workers worried about child laborers because parents were no longer watching over their
kids
o English Factory Act of 1833 outlawed employing children under age 9, limited hours of 9-13
year olds to 9 hours/day, & required factory owners to pay for 2 hours/day of education for these
kids
 Workday for teens & adults remained 12 hours
 Younger kids often worked in relays of 4-6 hours – breaking parental link even more
 Education began to remove nurturing and training from home to school
After English Factory Act, workers demanded shorter hours for adults
o Wanted to spend more time with their children
o 1847, Parliament mandated 10-hour workday
17
o
By 1840s, men were breadwinners and people became concerned about working conditions for
women (their place thought to be home instead of factory or mine)
Changing Economic Role for the Family

European family was becoming the chief unit of consumption, but no longer of production
o Parents & children now had to share wages from several sources
 This wage economy meant families were less close than before
o Children moved farther from home (sent wages to parents)
 Over time, they stopped sending money back home
o However, if a family lived in industrial city, young adults could work & live at home to save up
to get married & start own families
 As a result, children stayed with parents longer than in past
9. Women in the Early Industrial Revolution
Division of Labor

Industrial economy had huge impact on home & family life of women
o It took work out of home and allowed many families to live on husband’s wages
o This created new gender roles
 Women associated with domestic duties (housekeeping, cooking, child rearing)
 Men associated with supporting family
 Children raised to conform to these gender roles
o This division of labor used to apply only to middle & upper classes
 1800s, it spread to working class
Opportunities and Exploitation in Employment

Because Industrial Revolution began in textiles, women played an important part
o Women worked in all stages of production
 But spinning was always a woman’s task
 At first, when spinning moved into factories with large machines, men replaced women
 Also, higher wages for male factory workers allowed their wives not to work (or work only to
supplement husband’s wages)
Women in Factories


1820s, however, women factory workers increased rapidly with new machines
o Actually made up majority of workers
o New jobs, however, demanded fewer skills than women’s jobs used to
 This created a paradox for women – many new jobs were open to women, but the factory
lowered skill level they needed to have
Factory women were almost always young and single or widows
o After marriage, women usually stopped working (husbands made enough)
 Factory owners often didn’t want married women – pregnancy, influence of husbands, &
children
o Widows might go back to factory out of necessity
Work on the Land and in the Home

By midcentury, factory work made up less than half of employment for women
o The largest group of employed women in France continued to work on the land
o In England, they were domestic servants
18
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
o Rest of Western Europe, cottage industries (needlework, glove making) employed many women
All women’s work paid low wages & required few skill
o These women had no protection from exploitation
Low wages forced many women to become prostitutes to supplement their income
Changing Expectations in the Working-Class Marriage


Moving to cities & entering wage economy gave women more opportunities for marriage
o Cohabitation before marriage became more common
o Parents had less to do with arranging marriages than in past
o Marriage now meant woman would leave workforce to live on husband’s earnings
 If husband died or left his wife, however, she (at older age) would have to reenter workforce
Marriage became less of an economic partnership now
o Husband made most of the money – wife stayed home & took care of domestic duties
o As a result, number of births in marriages grew – children could work (valuable)
10. Problems of Crime and Order
New Police Forces
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1800-1860, crime increased slowly but steadily before reaching a plateau
From elite classes, 2 views about containing crime arouse in 1800s – better police & prison reform
o Europe now saw emergence of a paid, professionally trained group of law enforcement officers
 Kept order, protect people & property, investigate crime, and apprehend criminals
o Theory behind domestic law enforcement – presence of officers may prevent crime
Professional police forces did not exist until 1800s
o Differed from one country to another – but they created an orderly European society
Professional police appeared in Paris 1828
o 1829, police started in London thanks to law passed by Sir Robert Peel
 Police here called bobbies or Peelers (after Peel)
o Berlin started similar police departments after Revolution in 1848
Police were distinguishable by uniforms & guns (on continent, but not in Britain)
By end of century, most people saw police as protectors (not suspicious)
Prison Reform




Before 1800s, European prisons were local jails or state prisons
o Governments also sent criminals to prison ships – hulks
o Some prisoners sentenced to naval galleys – chained to benches, rowed until died or released
o In prisons, inmates lived in terrible conditions
 Men, women, children imprisoned together
 Minor & major criminals mixed together
Late 1700s, British sentenced serious criminals to transportation – sent to New South Wales in Australia
o Seen as alternative to capital punishment
o Used until mid-1800s when colonies started to object
o Thereafter, British housed long-term prisoners in public works prisons
Early 1800s, reformers exposed terrible prison conditions & demanded change
o Reform came slowly – too expensive to build new prisons & no sympathy for criminals
1840s, however, Britain & France made big prison reforms
o Crime came to be seen as character fault instead of attack on order & authority
o Part of goal of imprisonment became rehabilitation
19
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

Europeans used various prison models started in U.S.
o All depended on separating prisoners from each other
 EX: Auburn system (named after Auburn Prison in N .Y.)
 Prisoners here were separated from each other at night but were together while working
during day
 Philadelphia system was different – prisoners kept isolated at all times
These systems required one cell for each prisoner & long periods of isolation & silence
o Most famous example in Europe was Pentonville Prison (near London)
 Prisoners all had separate cells & could not speak to each other
 Even wore masks while together in yard
 Trying to promote self-reflection – think about your crimes & decide to live a good life
 System changed over time – so much isolation led to mental problems with prisoners
France tried a similar system, but they noticed increase in repeat offenders over time
o So they began using transportation (especially to Devil’s Island off coast of South America)
 Idea was to rid country of horrible criminals forever
11. Classical Economics
Classical Economists

Classical economists (whose work comes from Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations) advocated economic growth
through free enterprise
o Believed market should govern economic decisions – governments were all corrupt
 Government should maintain sound currency system, protect property, and impose low taxes –
and then stay out of economy
 With emphasis on thrift, competition, and industriousness, political economists appealed
to middle class
Malthus on Population


Classical economists were pessimistic about working class
o Thomas Malthus & David Ricardo argued that nothing could improve conditions for working class
 1798, Malthus published Essay on the Principle of Population
 Argued that population would eventually outgrow the food supply
 Therefore, famine, disease, and war were necessary to control population numbers
 Only thing humans could do to prevent starving was late marriage, chastity, &
contraception
Malthus also argued that situation for working class could only get worse
o If wages were raised, they would have more kids – who would consume extra wages and food
Ricardo on Wages

I817, David Ricardo published Principles of Political Economy
o Came up with the “iron law of wages”
 If wages raised, parents would have more kids
 The kids would enter the labor market – increasing number of workers = lowering wages
 As wages fell, parents would have fewer kids
 Wages would then rise, and the process would repeat itself again
o Employers liked these ideas – meant they didn’t have to raise wages
 These ideas also supported opposition to labor unions
20
Government Policies Based on Classical Economics

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Working classes resented ideas of economists
o But governments loved these ideas
 Louis Philippe told French to go forth and enrich themselves – anyone who worked hard enough
did not have to be poor
After Napoleonic Wars, German reformers thought abolishing internal tariffs would help economic growth
o 1834, all major German states formed the Zollverein – free trading union
Classical economists accepted in Britain
o Utilitarian thought of Jeremy Bentham increased their influence
 Utilitarianism did not start with Bentham, but he tried to create codes of scientific law founded
on principle of utility – greatest good for the greatest number of people
 He wanted this principle to be applied to government & legal system
Bentham’s ideas influenced British in 1834 – passed new Poor Law
o Made poverty miserable for the poor (life in workhouses was nightmare – bad food, families separated,
etc.)
 Idea was to make people afraid of poverty
 This presupposed that people were poor only because they were lazy – not always case
Another example of applied classical economics was repeal of Corn Laws (1846)
o Anti-Corn Law League wanted to abolish tariffs protecting domestic price of grain
 This would cause lower food prices = lower wages at no cost to workers
 Price of British manufactured goods could be lowered – making them more competitive in world
market
12. Early Socialism
Utopian Socialism


Early socialists did not agree with classical economists that free market could successfully produce & distribute
goods
o To socialists, capitalism entailed mismanagement, low wages, misdistribution of goods, & suffering
o Socialists also thought society should be organized like a community instead of mass of selfish
individuals
Utopian socialists were considered utopian because their ideas were visionary and they argued for ideal
communities
o They were called socialists because they questioned existing values & structures of capitalistic society
o Many also had radical ideas about sexuality & family
 Even people who accepted their economic views had hard time accepting their ideas of free love
and open family relationships
Saint-Simonianism


Count Claude Henri de Saint-Simon was earliest socialist pioneer
o As young French aristocrat, he fought in the American Revolution
o Then he made & lost fortune during French Revolution
o By time of Napoleon, he became a writer & social critic concerned about order
Most importantly, Saint-Simon believed society required rational management
o Private wealth, property, and enterprise should be subject to administration other than that of its
owners
o His ideal government – large board of directors organizing activity of individuals & groups to
create social harmony
 Wealth did not need to be redistributed – it needed to be managed by experts
21
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 This would lessen poverty and social dislocation of time
1820s & 1830s, Saint-Simonians became known for advocating sexuality outside marriage
Owenism



First major British socialist was Robert Owen
o In early twenties, Owen became partner in one of largest cotton factories in Britain
o Owen agreed with Locke that if humans were placed in best surroundings, they could become
better people
o And Owen saw no conflict between creating a humane industrial environment and making a
profit
At his factory, Owen put his ideas into practice
o Workers were given good quarters
o Recreation was provided
o Children received an education
o There were several churches
o Rewards were given for good work
 His plant made a nice profit and attracted attention for using enlightened management
Owen wanted reorganization of industry based on his model
o He envisioned communities shaped like parallelograms
 Factory & farm workers live together & produce goods in cooperation
 1820s, Owen sold his factory & went to U.S. to start community of New
Harmony, Indiana
 Fighting amongst members destroyed community – but Owen refused to give up
o He returned to Britain and organized the Grand National Union – attempt to bring all British
trade unions into one body
 It collapsed with all other labor groups in 1830s
Fourierism
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
Charles Fourier was French commercial salesman
o He wrote his books & articles, but no one ever agreed to undertake his programs
 Fourier believed industrialism ignored passionate side of human nature
 Social discipline ignored all pleasures human beings want
He argued for building of communities called phalanxes in which free living would replace boredom of
industrial life
o Farming, not manufacturing, would dominate here
o Sexual activity would be free – marriage was only for later in life
o Also said no person should day one job all day long – people would be happier doing multiple
tasks throughout the day
Anarchism

Other writers of 1840s rejected industry and government dominance – anarchists
o Some favored violence and terrorism; others were more peaceful
 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was most famous anarchist
 Most famous work – What is Property? – Proudhon attacked banking system (rarely gave credit
to small-property owners or poor)
 Society should be organized into system of small businesses and cooperatives
 This would lead to peaceful cooperation & exchange of goods
 State as protector of property wouldn’t be needed
22
Marxism


Socialist thought that had more influence on European history than any other was Marxism
o Marxism differed from its competitors in its claims to scientific accuracy, rejection of reform, and its call
for revolution
Karl Marx was born in Germany in Prussian Rhineland
o Family was Jewish, but father converted to Lutheranism
o Went to University of Berlin where he became involved in radical politics
o 1842-1843, he edited the radical Rhineland Gazette – causing Prussian authorities to exile him (to Paris,
Brussels, and London)
Partnership with Engels

1844, Marx met Friedrich Engels, another young middle-class German
o 1845, Engels published The Condition of the Working Class in England
 Painted devastating picture of industrial life
o 1847, they were asked to write a pamphlet for secret Communist League
 Communist Manifesto appeared in 1848
 Communism called for abolition of private property
 This short work would have huge impact on later European society
 But had no effect on revolutions of 1848
Sources of Marx’s Ideas


Marx got his ideas for the Manifesto from German Hegelianism, French utopian socialism, and British
classical economics
o (Hegel) For Marx, conflict between dominant & subordinate groups led to emergence of new
dominant social group
o (Saint-Simon) He saw society as developing through historical stages
o (French utopian socialists) Marx saw problems of capitalist society
o (Classical economists) Marx believed he had a way to scientifically examine industrial capitalist
society
With these influences, Marx created a philosophy that gave a special role to the new industrial work force
o He equated fate of the proletariat (industrial work force) with fate of humanity
o As proletariat freed itself from capitalism, it would free all humanity
o This freedom is what attracted so many people to Marx’s ideas
Revolution Through Class Conflict
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

In Manifesto, Marx argued human history must be understood rationally and as a whole
o Historically, the organization of production has always created conflict between classes
o That conflict is what creates historical development
o Thus limited reforms cannot end the social & economic problems of production
o Instead, a radical social change is needed
1800s, class conflict simplified into struggle between bourgeoisie (middle class) & proletariat (workers)
o Capitalist production and competition would increase size of proletariat
o As competition increased between owners, proletariat would suffer even more
o Eventually, the workers would rise up in revolution & overthrow owners
o For a time, workers would organize production through a dictatorship of the proletariat
 This would then lead to a propertyless and classless communist society
The proletarian revolution was inevitable, Marx believed
o But the proletariat could not be the new oppressors – for first time in history, humans would not
be oppressing each other
23
13. 1848: Year of Revolutions
Revolution…Again
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
1848, series of liberal and nationalistic revolutions started all over Europe
o No single factor caused the revolutions – similar conditions simply existed in several countries
 Food shortages had been widespread since 1846
 Economy was depressed
 Unemployment was growing
 Terrible living conditions in cities only added to frustration and anger of urban working classes
The impetus for change came not from working class, however, but from middle class (political liberals)
o Liberals everywhere argued for more representative government, civil liberty, and unregulated economies
o To pressure government, liberals began to appeal for support from working classes
 But they wanted better working & economic conditions (and they were violent)
o Temporary alliance of liberals & workers in several areas overthrew old order – then allies fought each
other
Outside France, nationalism was important factor in these uprisings
o Germans, Hungarians, Italians, Czechs, & smaller groups wanted to create national states to replace
existing governments
 Austrian Empire was state most in danger in this regard
Results of 1848 revolutions were incredible
o French monarchy fell & others were threatened
o But they all failed to establish liberal or national states
 Conservative governments were stronger than expected
 Liberals refused to follow political revolution with social reform – alienating working classes
 Without mass support, liberal revolutions could not succeed
France: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon

The 1848 revolutions began in Paris
o Liberal opponents of corrupt regime of Louis Philippe organized series of political banquets
 Used them to criticize government & demand more political power for themselves
o Bad harvests of 1846-1847 (high food prices & unemployment) brought working class support
o February 21, 1848, govt. outlawed banquets
 A big one was scheduled for the next day
o February 22, Paris workers marched in streets demanding reform
 As crowds grew, workers & municipal guards fought
 February 24, Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to England
 Angry mob in Paris burned his throne
The National Assembly and Paris Workers


Liberal opposition organized provisional govt. – wanted to elect assembly to write constitution
o Workers, however, wanted a social & political revolution
 Led by Louis Blanc, they demanded representation in the cabinet
 Blanc & two other radicals became ministers – helped set up workshops to provide work
& relief for unemployed
April, election (based on universal male suffrage) chose new National Assembly – dominated by
moderates & conservatives
o Many people feared radicals and their ideas
o The church still had lot of power
24
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o Peasants worried socialists would steal their small plots of land
But the new conservative National Assembly had no sympathy for plight of poor
o May, troops fought with unemployed in Paris
o Assembly closed workshops
o June, troops killed more than 400 people
 They hunted down another 3000 in street fighting – social revolution was over
Emergence of Louis Napoleon
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New president was Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon)
o Was an adventurer outside of France most of his life
o He attempted to lead a coup twice against July Monarchy
o Revolution of 1848 gave him his chance to enter politics
 After uprisings & corruption of Louis Philippe, people attracted to name Napoleon
(stability & greatness)
Election of the “Little Napoleon” doomed Second Republic
o Louis Napoleon only cared about his own fame – not the government
 He fought with Assembly – claimed he knew what people wanted
o 1851, Assembly refused to let him run for reelection
o So Louis Napoleon took power by force
 Troops broke up the Assembly & president called for new elections
 200 were killed & 26,000 arrested
In the new vote, 7.5 million voters supported Louis Napoleon & approved constitution that consolidated
his power
o Only 600,000 people voted against him
o Next year, empire was claimed and Louis Napoleon became Emperor Napoleon III
Frenchwomen in 1848
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At this time, feminist activity increased in France
o Women used the revolution to call for reform of their social condition
o Both middle and lower class women joined political clubs and even tried to vote (not allowed)
 Most radical group of women were the Vesuvians (after volcano in Italy)
 Claimed it was time for demands of women to erupt like a volcano
 Demanded full domestic household equality with men, right to serve in military,
& similarity in dress for both sexes
 Their radical behavior & demands lost them support of moderate women
Some Parisian women organized the Voix des femmes (The Women’s Voice) – daily newspaper addressing
women’s issues
o Soon set up society of same name – most were conservative feminists
o They cooperated with male political groups, urged integrity of family & marriage, embraced
maternal role for women – but tried to use that role to make themselves more important in society
But after elections in 1848, new govt. expressed no sympathy for women’s issues
o Govt. closed down workshops – women used these places to spread their ideas
o Govt. also forbid women to join political clubs – silencing them even more
By 1852, entire feminist movement in France was gone
The Habsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted
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Revolt in Paris spread to Habsburg empire
Regime had to deal with rebellions in Vienna, Prague, Hungary, and Italy
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The Vienna Uprising
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Trouble began March 3, 1848 – Magyar nationalist & member of Hungarian diet (Louis Kossuth)
attacked Austrian domination, called for a free Hungary, and demanded responsible ministry under
Habsburgs
o 10 days later, inspired students led series of disturbances in Vienna
 Metternich resigned & fled
 Emperor Ferdinand promised a moderately liberal constitution
o Unsatisfied, students formed democratic clubs to push revolution further
 Emperor & his court then fled to Innsbruck
 Government of Vienna in hands of 200 people concerned only with working class
Habsburgs were most afraid of uprising of serfs in country (not urban uprisings)
o So after Vienna uprising, imperial govt. emancipated serfs in most of Austria
o Hungary also abolished serfdom 1848
o Emancipated serfs now had little reason to support revolutionary movements in cities
The Magyar Revolt
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Vienna revolt inspired Hungarians
o Magyar leaders of Hungarian March Revolution were liberals supported by nobles (who wanted
privileges guaranteed)
o Hungarian diet passed March Laws – mandated equality of religion, jury trials, free press, &
taxation of nobility
 Emperor Ferdinand approved
Magyars also wanted to set up separate Hungarian state
o They would have local autonomy while Ferdinand remained emperor
o So Hungarian attempted to annex Transylvania, Croatia, and other eastern areas
o But local ethnic groups resisted the annexation, especially having Hungarian language forced on
them
o March, Vienna govt. sent troops to stop rebellious Hungarians
Czech Nationalism
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Czech nationalists then demanded that Bohemia & Moravia be allowed to set up autonomous Slavic state
o Conflict soon erupted between Czechs & Germans in these areas
o Czechs summoned congress of Slavs (Poles, Czechs, Slovacs, Croats, Serbs, etc.) – first PanSlavic Congress
 Wanted national equality of Slavs in Habsburg Empire
 Also protested against repression of Slavic people under Habsburg, German, Ottoman
rule
o June, radical uprising broke out in Prague
 Troops sent to put them down – middle class happy to see radicals silenced
Germany: Liberalism Frustrated
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Revolution also spread to German states
But the major revolution occurred in Prussia
Revolution in Prussia
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By March 1848, large riots erupted in Berlin
o Frederick William IV refused to use troops to stop them
o He even announced limited reforms
o King then called for Prussian assembly to write a constitution
 Next day, angry Berliners gathered around palace
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Frederick William came out to address the people – told them Prussia would attempt to
unify Germany
 He appointed a cabinet led by respected liberal
 But the cabinet became too radical & king decided to ignore it
By 1849, Frederick William declared his own constitution
o Allowed all adult males the vote
o But they voted according to three classes arranged by ability to pay taxes
 Largest taxpayers (rich – only about 5% of population) elected 1/3 of the Parliament
 This system stayed in place until 1918
The Frankfurt Parliament
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May 1848, representatives from all German states met in Frankfurt to revise German Confederation
o Intended to write constitution for united Germany
 Liberal Frankfurt Parliament alienated both German conservatives and the working class
 Conservatives hated the Parliament simply because it was trying to change things
 Workers hated the Parliament because it refused to restore protection the guilds
once gave them
Frankfurt Parliament also attempted unification
o They could not agree on whether to include Austria
 “Grossdeutsch solution” – include Austria
 “Kleindeutsch solution” – exclude Austria
 Austria refused to become part of united Germany
March 1849, the parliament presented its constitution & offered crown of united Germany to Frederick
William IV – he refused
Frankfurt Parliament began to dissolve shortly after
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