Download Chapter 21 Identifications By Alexis Cantillo

Alexis Cantillo
4/21/09
P.1
Ch.21 Key Terms
Enlightenment: The Age of Enlightenment or simply The Enlightenment is a term used
to describe a time in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth
century, in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for
authority.
Benjamin Franklin: Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United
States of America. A noted polymath, Franklin was a leading author and printer, satirist,
political theorist, politician, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As
a scientist, he was a major figure in the Enlightenment and the history of physics for his
discoveries and theories regarding electricity. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, the
Franklin stove, a carriage odometer, and the glass 'armonica'.
George Washington: George Washington (was the leader of the Continental Army in the
American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and served as the first President of the United
States of America (1789–1797). The Continental Congress appointed Washington
commander-in-chief of the American revolutionary forces in 1775. The following year,
he forced the British out of Boston, lost New York City, and crossed the Delaware River
in New Jersey, defeating the surprised enemy units later that year. As a result of his
strategy, Revolutionary forces captured the two main British combat armies at Saratoga
and Yorktown. Negotiating with Congress, the colonial states, and French allies, he held
together a tenuous army and a fragile nation amid the threats of disintegration and failure.
Following the end of the war in 1783, Washington returned to private life and retired to
his plantation at Mount Vernon, prompting an incredulous King George III to state, "If he
does that, he will be the greatest man in the world.
Joseph Brant: Thayendanegea or Joseph Brant was a Mohawk leader and British
military officer during the American Revolution. Brant was perhaps the most well-known
North American Indian of his generation. He met many of the most significant people of
the age, including George Washington and King George III. The American folk image
emphasized the wartime atrocities his forces committed against settlers in the Mohawk
Valley; in Canada, he was remembered for his efforts to regain land for the Mohawk
people.
Constitutional Convention: The Philadelphia Convention (now also known as the
Constitutional Convention, the Federal Convention, or the "Grand Convention at
Philadelphia") took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, to address problems in governing the United States of America, which had
been operating under the Articles of Confederation following independence from Great
Britain. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles of
Confederation, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison
and Alexander Hamilton, was from the outset to create a new government rather than
"fix" the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the
convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution. The
Convention is one of the central events in the history of the United States.
Estates General: The General States (or States-General) of 1789 was the first meeting
since 1614 of the French General States, a general assembly consisting of the French
collection of peoples. The independence from the Pope which it displayed paved the way
for the French Revolution.
National Assembly: The National Assembly is either a legislature, or the lower house of
a bicameral legislature in some countries. The best known National Assembly, and the
first legislature to be known by this title, was that established during the French
Revolution in 1789, known as the Assemblée nationale. Consequently, the name is
particularly common in Francophone countries, but is also found in some Commonwealth
countries. In Germany, a Nationalversammlung was elected following the revolutions of
1848-1849 and 1918-1919, to be replaced by a permanent parliament (Reichstag) later.
The legislature of the Estado Novo regime in Portugal was dubbed National Assembly,
while the Corporative Assembly was a purely advisory chamber.
Declaration of the Rights of Man: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining the individual and
collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of
natural rights, the rights of Man are universal: valid at all times and in every place,
pertaining to human nature itself. Although it establishes fundamental rights for French
citizens and all men without exception, it addresses neither the status of women nor
slavery; despite that, it is a precursor document to international human rights instruments.
Jacobins: In the context of the French Revolution, a Jacobin originally meant a member
of the Jacobin Club (1789-1794), but even at that time, the term Jacobins had been
popularly applied to all promulgators of revolutionary opinions. In contemporary France
this term refers to the concept of a centralized Republic, with power concentrated in the
national government, at the expense of local or regional governments. Similarly, it's
thought that Jacobinist educational policy had influenced modern France well into the
beginning of 20th Century, sought to stamp out French minority languages that it
considered reactionary, such as Breton, Basque, Catalan, Occitan, Franco-Provençal and
Dutch (West Flemish) but the essential fact was the influence of anti-clericalism
(following the Jules Ferry Laws which made primary education in France free, nonclerical and mandatory) instead of Jacobinism.
Maximilien Robespierre: Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (6 May
1758 – 28 July 1794) is one of the best-known and influential figures of the French
Revolution. He largely dominated the Committee of Public Safety and was instrumental
in the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror that ended with
his arrest and execution in 1794.
Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon Bonaparte later known as Emperor Napoleon I, was a
military and political leader of France whose actions shaped European politics in the
early 19th century. Born in Corsica and trained as an artillery officer in mainland France,
Bonaparte rose to prominence under the First French Republic and led successful
campaigns against the First and Second Coalitions arrayed against France. In 1799, he
staged a coup d'état and installed himself as First Consul; five years later he crowned
himself Emperor of the French. In the first decade of the nineteenth century, he turned the
armies of the French Empire against every major European power and dominated
continental Europe through a series of military victories. He maintained France's sphere
of influence by the formation of extensive alliances and the appointment of friends and
family members to rule other European countries as French client states
Gens de Couleur: Gens de couleur is a French term meaning "people of color." This is
often a short form of gens de couleur libres ("free people of color"). In practice, it can
refer to creoles of color with Latin blood, and certain other free blacks.[1] The term was
commonly used in France's West Indian colonies prior to the abolition of slavery.
Francois Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture: François-Dominique Toussaint
Louverture, also (May 20, 1743–April 8, 1803) was a leader of the Haitian Revolution.
Born in Saint Domingue , in a long struggle for independence Toussaint led enslaved
Africans to victory over Europeans, abolished slavery, and secured native control over
the colony in 1797 while nominally governor of the colony. He expelled the French
commissioner Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, as well as the British armies; invaded Santo
Domingo to free the slaves there; and wrote a constitution naming himself governor-forlife that established a new polity for the colony.
Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of
European states chaired by the Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and
held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815. Its objective was to redraw the
continent's political map and settle the many other issues arising from the French
Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, and the dissolution of the Holy Roman
Empire.
Revolutions of 1848: The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as
the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals
throughout the European continent. Described by some historians as a revolutionary
wave, the period of unrest began on 12 January 1848 in Sicily and then, further propelled
by the French Revolution of 1848, soon spread to the rest of Europe.
Frederick William IV: King Frederick William IV of Prussia, the eldest son and
successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to
1861.
Louis Philippe: Louis-Philippe (6 October 1773 – 26 August 1850), was King of the
French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the July Monarchy. He was the last king
to rule France, although Napoleon III, styled as an emperor, would serve as its last
monarch.
Louis XVIII: Louis XVIII (Versailles 17 November 1755 – Paris 16 September 1824),
Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. The brother of
Louis XVI, and uncle of Louis XVII, he ruled the kingdom from 1814 (although he dated
his reign from the death of his nephew in 1795) until his death in 1824, with a brief break
in 1815 due to his flight from Napoleon I during the Hundred Days.
Metternich: Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich (German: Klemens Wenzel
Nepomuk Lothar, Fürst von Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein) (May 15, 1773 – June
11, 1859) was a German-Austrian politician and statesman and was one of the most
important diplomats of his era. He was a major figure in the negotiations before and
during the Congress of Vienna and is considered both a paradigm of foreign-policy
management and a major figure in the development of diplomatic praxis. He was the
archetypal practitioner of 19th-century diplomatic realism, being deeply rooted in the
postulates of the balance of power. For generations, Metternich was castigated as a blind
reactionary. After World War I, some historians suggested that one of the main reasons
for his opposition to giving power to the people was his apprehension that it would
eventually lead to the political dominance of German nationalism.
Girondist: The Girondists were a political faction in France within the Legislative
Assembly and the National Convention during the French Revolution. The Girondists
were a group of individuals who held certain opinions and principles in common rather
than an organized political party, and the name was at first informally applied because the
most brilliant exponents of their point of view were deputies from the Gironde.
National Convention: The revolutionary era’s most radical legislative body.
Bourgeoisie: Bourgeoisie is a classification used in analyzing human societies to
describe a social class of people. Historically, the bourgeoisie comes from the middle or
merchant classes of the Middle Ages, whose status or power came from employment,
education, and wealth, as distinguished from those whose power came from being born
into an aristocratic family of land owners. In modern times, it is the class owning the
means for producing wealth.
American Revolution: The American Revolution refers to the political upheaval during
the last half of the 18th century in which the Thirteen Colonies of North America
overthrew the governance of the British Empire and then rejected the British monarchy to
become the sovereign United States of America. In this period the colonies first rejected
the authority of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them without representation,
and formed self-governing independent states. These states then joined against the British
to defend that self-governance in the armed conflict from 1775 to 1783 known as the
American Revolutionary War. This resulted in the independent states uniting to form one
nation, breaking away from the empire in 1776 with the Declaration of Independence,
rejecting not only the governance of Parliament, but also now the legitimacy of the
monarchy to demand allegiance. After seven years of war came effective American
victory on the battlefield in October 1781, with British recognition of the United States'
independence and sovereignty in 1783.
Articles of Confederation: The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union,
commonly referred to as the Articles of Confederation, was the first constitution of the
thirteen United States of America. The Second Continental Congress appointed a
committee to draft the 'Articles' in June 1776 and proposed the draft to the States for
ratification in November 1777. The ratification process was completed in March 1781,
legally federating the sovereign and independent states, allied under the Articles of
Association, into a new federation styled the "United States of America". Under the
Articles, and the succeeding United States Constitution, the states retained sovereignty
over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the central government.
Thayendanegea: Thayendanegea or Joseph Brant (c. 1743 – 24 November 1807) was a
Mohawk leader and British military officer during the American Revolution. Brant was
perhaps the most well-known North American Indian of his generation. He met many of
the most significant people of the age, including George Washington and King George
III. The American folk image emphasized the wartime atrocities his forces committed
against settlers in the Mohawk Valley; in Canada, he was remembered for his efforts to
regain land for the Mohawk people.
Common Sense: Common Sense was a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine. It was first
published anonymously on January 10, 1776, during the American Revolution. Common
Sense presented the American colonists with an argument for independence from British
rule at a time when the question of independence was still undecided. Paine wrote and
reasoned in a style that common people understood; forgoing the philosophy and Latin
references used by Enlightenment era writers, Paine structured Common Sense like a
sermon and relied on Biblical references to make his case to the people.Historian Gordon
S. Wood described Common Sense as, “the most incendiary and popular pamphlet of the
entire revolutionary era.”
The Stamp Act of 1765: The Stamp Act of 1765) was a tax imposed by the British
Parliament on the colonies of British America. The act required that many printed
materials in the colonies carry a tax stamp. The purpose of the tax was to help pay for
troops stationed in North America following the British victory in the Seven Years' War.
The British government felt that the colonies were the primary beneficiaries of this
military presence, and should pay at least a portion of the expense.
Seven Years War: The Seven Years' War (in Germany sometimes called the Third
Silesian War) lasted between 1756–1763 and involved all of the major European powers
of the period. The war pitted Prussia and Britain and a coalition of smaller German states
against an alliance consisting of Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony.
Carolus Linnaeus: Carl Linnaeus, May 23 1707 – January 10, 1778) was a Swedish
botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of
binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also
considered one of the fathers of modern ecology.
Denis Diderot: Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French
philosopher and writer. He was a prominent figure during the Enlightenment and is best
known for serving as chief editor of and contributor to the Encyclopédie.Diderot also
contributed to literature, notably with Jacques le fataliste et son maître (Jacques the
Fatalist and His Master), which emulated Laurence Sterne in challenging conventions
regarding novels, their structure and content, while also examining philosophical ideas
about free will. Diderot is also known as the author of the dialogue, Le Neveu de Rameau
(Rameau's Nephew) upon which many articles and sermons about consumer desire have
been based. His articles included many topics of the Enlightenment.