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Progressivism
New Imperialism
In 1867 the United States agreed to purchase Alaska for $7.2 million
At the time the purchase was ridiculed and commonly referred to as “Seward’s Folly”
After the addition of Alaska the United States adopted an isolationist approach to foreign affairs
But with the industrial expansion of the Gilded Age there was a new interest in overseas expansion to
create new markets and to provide new raw materials
In 1890 Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783,
which documented the fact that all great powers had had a strong navy
The book started a naval race among the leading world powers, including the United States and was
supported by leading political figures like Henry Cabot Lodge, and Theodore Roosevelt
By 1900 the United States had the third largest navy (behind Britain and Germany)
Newspapers included stories of adventure from exotic locations and found that the public really had an
interest and curiosity about foreign affairs
Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) and William Randolph Hearst (New York Journal) developed a
style of writing known as “yellow journalism” in which stories were sensationalized to attract readers
All of this fit nicely with Darwin’s ideas of the survival of the fittest and manifest destiny
Hawaii
The islands of Hawaii had been of strategic importance for many years and because of the sugar and
fruit plantations they had been of economic concern too
In 1875 Hawaii and the United States agreed on a trade agreement under which Hawaiian sugar would
be sent to America free of duties and in return Hawaii promised not to lease land to a third power
The agreement resulted in a boom for sugar producers, most of whom were Americans
In 1887 the agreement was modified to allow the United States to maintain a naval base at Pearl
Harbor
The planter elite used immigrant workers and made fortunes from the sale of sugar
Also in 1887 the Americans forced the king to accept a new constitution, which created a
constitutional government dominated by Americans
In 1890 the McKinley Tariff put all sugar on the duty-free list and subsidized American sugar
The Hawaiian economy was devastated
In 1891 Queen Liliuokalani became the monarch and tried to regain power from the government
In 1893 the white elites on the island seized power, supported by American marines
Soon after representatives from the Hawaiian government approach Washington about the possibility
of being annexed by the United States
The newly elected President Cleveland sent a commissioner to islands to investigate the whole affair
It was reported to the commissioner that the marines had acted inappropriately and most Hawaiians
did not want annexation
Cleveland wanted to restore the queen, but on July 4, 1894 the government proclaimed the Republic of
Hawaii, which had a constitution that would allow for annexation by the United States
In 1897 President McKinley sent warships to the island to prevent a possible Japanese takeover
McKinley could not get the necessary two-thirds votes for annexation in the Senate so he went to both
Houses and received a simple majority
Hawaii was annexed in 1898
Pan-American Conference (1889)
Ever since the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 the United States had had a special interest in Latin America
Secretary of State James Blaine tried to initiate closer ties by calling for the Pan-American Conference
in 1889
Representatives decided to create an organization for international cooperation between Latin
American states and the United States
The Monroe’s Doctrine
When the Monroe Doctrine was approved it remained on the books was not used
In 1895 and 1896 President Cleveland sent Secretary of State Richard Olney to negotiate a border
dispute between British Guiana and Venezuela
Initially the British refused to recognize the role of the United States
The United States threatened to use force if Britain did not recognize the Monroe Doctrine
The British conceded because they did not war with the United States at a time when potential
problems in South Africa and with Germany were emerging
The issue was settled when the arbitrators ruled in favor of Britain and not Venezuela
Spanish-American War
In 1895, Cubans revolted against Spanish control of the sugar tariff, which had hurt their economy and
also against the Spanish government’s continually neglect of the island
American public opinion was with the Cuban rebels
The rebel leader José Martí was killed by Spanish troops
In 1896 the Spanish government sent General Valeriano Weyler to Cuba to crush the revolt
General “Butcher” Weyler put all the suspects in detention (reconcentrado) camps in which many
hundred died from disease
Yellow journalism sensationalized the events and the public cried out for action, but the American
government maintained a policy of non-intervention
The Maine
On February 15 1898, the U.S. battleship Maine mysteriously exploded in Havana Harbor with the
deaths of over 260 Americans
(Later investigations proved the explosion was an accident)
The American public demanded revenge against Spain, “Remember the Maine!” appeared everywhere
President McKinley did not want war
Assistant secretary of the navy Theodore Roosevelt called the president a coward
On April 10, the Spanish virtually surrendered and asked the American government to basically
dictate the terms
On April 11, 1898, the president asked Congress for war to protect American investment in Cuba
Congress declared Cuba independent and demanded the withdrawal of all Spanish troops
The Teller Amendment
Congress issued the Teller Amendment, which denied American claims on Cuban territory
On April 20 the United States started a blockade of northern Cuba – this was an act of war
On April 24 the Spanish government declared war on the United States
On April 25 the United States declared war on Spain but made it retroactive to April 21!
The Philippines
In many ways the war was a “splendid little war”
It lasted only about 4 months and marked the start of the United States as a world power
Theodore Roosevelt had instructed Commodore George Dewey to move his fleet to a position near the
Philippines and to engage the Spanish in the event of war
On April 30, Dewey’s small fleet attacked the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay
Unable to take full control of the land, Dewey was forced to use Filipino insurgents led by Emilio
Aguinaldo
The Rough Riders
When the Spanish navy arrived at Santiago, Cuba the Americans immediately blockaded them
American soldiers were ill prepared for combat on the island
The most significant military unit was the “Rough Riders,” a volunteer regiment led by Theodore
Roosevelt who had left the navy to join the “fun”
The Rough Riders gained their greatest fame when they charged up San Juan Hill
The Spanish were no match for the Americans, especially at sea
The old Spanish navy proved to be easy targets for the newer and more powerful American battleships
On July 25 Santiago surrendered and Spain asked for peace
The Treaty of Paris
On August 12 an armistice was signed and Spain promised to give up Cuba, Puerto Rico would be
annexed by the United States, and Manila would be occupied until the issue could be settled
Over a quarter of a million men had served during the war – slightly more than 5,000 died
Only a few hundred died in battle, the majority died from diseases like typhoid and malaria
The Treaty of Paris addressed everything except the Philippines
America offered Spain $20 million compensation and added Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines
The Treaty of Paris was ratified in the Senate, but only because Democrat William Jennings Bryan
argued for its passage
The resolution to make the Philippines independent failed
Problems with Imperialism
Not everyone was happy with imperialism
Leading figures such as Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie joined the Anti-Imperialist League
They argued for isolationism and said intervention in Cuba was inconsistent with the American policy
of self-determination and foreign involvement would undermine the Monroe Doctrine
In 1899, British poet Rudyard Kipling wrote “The White Man’s Burden” espousing the fact that
imperialism was virtually a duty
Trouble in the Philippines
Almost as soon as the Spanish had been removed other problems arose
Aguinaldo led the Filipino resistance until he was captured in 1901
Even with Aguinaldo in custody the Filipinos continued a guerilla war, which was best remembered
for the brutality exhibited by both sides
In 1902 Congress passed legislation making the Philippine islands an “unorganized territory”
(In 1934 the Tydings-McDuffie Act offered independence after 10 years
Independence became a reality on July 4, 1946)
Puerto Rico and Cuba
Puerto Rico was intended to give the United States a footing in the Caribbean and afford protection to
an eventual canal across the isthmus
The Foraker Act of 1900 established a civil government on the island – the residents were not
American citizens
In 1917 the Jones Act granted the Puerto Rican people American citizenship
Imports from Puerto Rico were charged an import duty
Businesses claimed that these were unconstitutional since no state could levy a tax against another
state
In the Insular Cases, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution did not apply to the possessions
unless mandated by Congress
As soon as the Cubans gained their freedom they started to cause trouble for America
The Cuban government was weak and the economy was almost in ruins
McKinley created a military government to restore order
One of the biggest problems was disease – the island was unsanitary and yellow fever was rampant
In 1900 Dr. Walter Reed was named head of the Army Yellow Fever Commission and charged with
finding the source of the yellow fever and a way to eradicate the problem
His research helped find a cure
In 1901 the Platt Amendment to the Army Appropriations Bill passed Congress
The amendment required Cuba to guarantee never to sign a treaty with a third power and to allow the
United States the right to intervene in Cuban politics if the necessity arose
One of the most significant parts of the amendment was the requirement for the Cuban government to
lease land for a naval station on the island – this became Guantanamo Bay
China
In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry had “opened” Japan to the West
Quickly becoming the most technologically advanced Asian nation, Japan easily defeated China in the
Sino-Japanese War
As soon as it was revealed that China was weak other nations began to scramble for influence
European intervention in China concerned America, who saw a possible disruption of trade
In 1899 Secretary of State John Hay sent the European nations, which outlined American policies for
China, this became known as the Open Door policy
The agreement was that all countries would trade openly with China – no European accepted or
rejected the policy
Hay claimed that the policy had been universally accepted
In 1900, a group of Chinese nationalists, known as “Boxers” rebelled against foreign intervention in
China
They attacked the foreign embassies and threatened European and American interests
A multi-national force arrived in China and suppressed the rebellion
Hay, worried about China being divided between the European powers, sent a second note asking all
the other nations to preserve Chinese territorial integrity
The Chinese were forced to pay an indemnity of $333 million (America received nearly $11 million)
The Election of 1900
The democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, who ran on a platform against imperialism
The Republicans re-nominated McKinley and named Roosevelt as the vice president nominee
Roosevelt, a staunch imperialist, took every opportunity to campaign for imperialism and
expansionism
The Republicans won the election
In September 1901 Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, assassinated McKinley
Roosevelt became the new president; he was the youngest president to occupy the White House
He was young but also politically very experienced
His saying was “walk softly, and carry a big stick”
Getting the Canal
When he was secretary of the navy Roosevelt realized that there was a serious need for a canal through
the isthmus
In 1898 the battleship Oregon had been forced to sail all around South America to get to Cuba
In the Clayton-Bulwar Treaty of 1850 Britain and the United States agreed to build a canal linking the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
In the 1880s the French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had built the Suez Canal, tried to build a
Panama Canal but after 20,000 lives and $300 million they quit
In 1901 by the Hay-Paunceforte Treaty, the British agreed to forfeit their right to build a canal
McKinley appointed an Isthmian Canal Commission to research and report on the viability of the
project
The Commission reported that a canal through Nicaragua would be cheaper
The French canal company, led by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, who had initially wanted $109 million,
lowered their price to $40 million
Secretary Hay negotiated with Colombia, who controlled Panama, for a six-mile wide canal zone at a
cost of $10 million and a rental fee of $250,000
Columbia and the Canal
On November 2, 1903, the U.S.S. Nashville arrived in Panama
The next day the Panamanians staged revolted against the Columbians
Columbians soldiers could not get through the jungle and the American warship intimidated the navy
On November 13, Roosevelt met with the first ambassador from Panama - Philippe Bunau-Varilla,
who signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which widened the Canal Zone to ten miles
The United States would pay $10 million and $250,000 a year to use the canal “in perpetuity”
In 1904, Congress created the Isthmian Canal Commission to supervise construction of the canal
Roosevelt told the Commission to “make the dirt fly”
The biggest problem was not political, it was because the Canal Zone was so unsanitary and because
of mosquitoes, a death trap to Americans
In 1906, Roosevelt became the first president to leave America when he visited the canal
The canal opened in 1914 and linked the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
Roosevelt Corollary (1904)
Because Roosevelt worried about possible European intervention in Latin America he issued the
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
The Corollary said that the United States was justified in intervening in Latin American affairs to
prevent the involvement of other nations
Russo-Japanese War (1904)
In 1904, Japan attacked Russia, but neither side had enough strength to win
Theodore Roosevelt helped negotiate the peace treaty at Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1905
Both sides felt betrayed by Roosevelt and the event cost America two possible allies
In 1906 Roosevelt received the Nobel Peace Prize
The Root-Takahira Agreement (1905)
In 1905 the United States and Japan signed the Taft-Katsura Agreement, which recognized Japanese
control of Korea - in return the Japanese stated they had no designs on adding the Philippines
In the Root-Takahira Agreement both countries agreed to respect each other’s territorial possessions in
the Pacific and to uphold the Open Door policy of China
The Reform Movement
The reform movement of the Progressive age grew out of frustration with the Robber barons and the
greed and social injustices of the Gilded Age
They had evolved from the Populist movements of the Gilded Age and their goal was to improve the
quality of life for the working class
Roosevelt called those who exposed and wrote about scandal and corruption muckrakers
In 1894, Henry Demarest Lloyd wrote about the corruption of the Standard Oil Company in Wealth
Against Commonwealth
Danish immigrant Jacob A. Riis, wrote about life in the slums of New York in How the Other Half
Lives
The most popular way to have a story published was in weekly or monthly magazines such as
McClure’s and Cosmopolitan
In 1902, Lincoln Steffens wrote a series of articles in McClure’s entitled “The Shame of the Cities,”
on corruption in local government
In 1904, Ida M. Tarbell wrote History of the Standard Oil Company
Articles appeared about all aspects of life from meatpacking to politics
The muckrakers were able to gain public support by exposing the ills of society, but few offered
solutions
What they did believe was that the cure for a weak democracy was actually more democracy
By 1910 the muckrakers had lost most of their appeal because they could no longer sensationalize
stories
Plus banks and other investment companies were putting pressure on publishers to dilute the attacks
on the very industries that were keeping the country strong and rich
Feminism and Prohibition
In 1890 Elizabeth Cady Stanton organized the National American Woman Suffrage Association
Other women like Carrie Chapman Catt, soon joined the effort to gain the vote
Ida B. Wells formed the National Association of Colored Women in 1896 to improve the conditions of
black women
One of the main issues of the period was Prohibition
Many blamed the problems seen in society on alcohol
In 1869 the National Prohibition Party was formed, soon other organizations like the Women’s
Christian Temperance Union (1874) demanded the prohibition of alcohol
In 1893, the Anti-Saloon League was formed
While these organizations would not achieve their aim, they did focus the national attention on the
problems caused by alcohol and they laid the groundwork for the actual prohibition of alcohol
In 1913 the Anti- Saloon League endorsed the idea of an amendment to the Constitution prohibiting
alcohol
In 1919, the 18th Amendment prohibited the sale and drinking of alcohol
Social Reform
In 1905, in Lochner v. New York the Supreme Court invalidated a ten-hour workday
However, in 1911, after a fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York City, which killed 146
workers, local government began stricter enforcement of building codes and closer factory inspections
In Muller v. Oregon (1908) the Supreme Court upheld legislation for a ten-hour workday for women
In 1917, in Bunting v. Oregon that was expanded to include men and women
The Square Deal
Roosevelt was very different from his predecessors in many ways
One of the biggest differences involved his interaction with big business
Nearly all-previous presidents had supported big business, Roosevelt choose a middle course and
advocated a square deal for both sides
When coal miners went on strike in 1902, Roosevelt called the union representatives and mine owners
to the White House to mediate the dispute
When the mine owners refused to compromise Roosevelt threatened to use federal troops to extract the
coal
Eventually the mine owners were forced to make concessions including a wage increase
Roosevelt saw the trusts as being out of control and in need of regulation
The Interstate Commerce Act (1887) was ineffective against the trusts
In 1903 Congress passed the Elkins Act, which made it illegal for railroads to accept rebates for the
shipment of goods
In 1906 Congress passed the Hepburn Act, which enforced the Interstate Commerce Act and provided,
amongst other things, for the railroads to keep up-to-date records of transactions
Meatpacking
In 1906, Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle was published
It was a brutal story about immigrants set in the meatpacking districts of the Chicago
The story was horrible, but equally horrid were the unhygienic conditions in the factories
Roosevelt read the book and sent federal agents to Chicago to investigate
The agents found everything to be the same as Sinclair had described
The Meat Inspection Act of 1906, stated that meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal
inspection from “corral to can”
On the same day Congress also enacted the Pure Food and Drug Act aimed at preventing
misrepresenting or mislabeling of foods and drugs
Conservation
In 1872 Yellowstone National Park was created
In 1881 Congress created a Division of Forestry as part of the Department of Agriculture
People were becoming aware of the need to preserve the environment and one of the biggest advocates
of preservation was Roosevelt
The Forest Reserve Act of 1891, authorized the president to set aside land to be protected as national
parks –million of acres of forest were rescued or excluded from settlement
Roosevelt appointed Gifford Pinchot to head of the federal Division of Forestry
The Newlands Act of 1902 initiated irrigation projects for the western states
The 1908 Election
In 1908 Roosevelt felt it was time to move on and picked his Secretary of War Howard Taft to be his
successor
Roosevelt believed Taft would simply continue his policies
The Democrats chose William Jennings Bryan
Taft defeated Bryan 321 to 162
The Socialist Eugene V. Debs came fourth with nearly 421,000 votes
Roosevelt packed his bags and went to Africa to hunt lions leaving Taft, the heaviest president ever, in
the White House
Taft loved eating and having fun; he hated politics – the driving force was his wife
Unfortunately “Nellie” Taft suffered a stroke soon after they entered the White House
Dollar Diplomacy
Taft believed that the best way to stabilize foreign countries was with American investment
This policy was called “Dollar Diplomacy”
In 1909 Taft cabled the Chinese government offering to finance railroads in the Yangtze Valley
In 1910 American bankers invested in several Caribbean nations to support weak governments
Investors spent million on the national bank of Haiti
Congress provided loans to Nicaragua and Honduras – even when the Senate refused to agree to such
deals, Taft persuaded private bankers to step in
In 1912 the president of Nicaragua asked Taft for help in suppressing troublemakers on the island
American soldiers were sent and stayed until 1925
Trust busting
Taft continued the trust busting started by Roosevelt, but he was far more aggressive
In 1911, the Supreme Court ordered the break up of the Standard Oil Company
Taft initiated legislation to bust U.S. Steel, even though Roosevelt had approved the merger
Roosevelt saw the move as a personal attack
The Mann-Elkins Act of 1910 gave the Interstate Commerce Commission power to oversee telephone,
telegraph and cable rates
In 1913 Congress passed the Sixteenth Amendment authorizing the government to collect income tax
Taft and the Republicans
In 1908 Taft had promised to lower the tariff
In 1909 when the Payne-Aldrich Tariff came to Congress the Republicans amended the legislation to
actually raise tariffs on imports
When Taft signed the act he angered the Progressives, but he further alienated himself when he
defended the act
The Progressives like Gifford Pinchot, the Head of the Forestry Service, a man appointed by
Roosevelt
Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger opened public land in Alaska to private developers
Pinchot criticized Ballinger, who had been appointed by Taft
Taft stood by Ballinger and fired Pinchot
After the elections of 1910 it was obvious the Republican Party was split:
The conservatives supported Taft and the Progressives who hoped Roosevelt would return
The Election of 1912
The Democrats nominated the one-time president of Princeton University and governor of New Jersey,
Woodrow Wilson
Wilson had endorsed progressive measures in New Jersey and the Democratic candidate denounced
political bosses and special interests in what he called a New Freedom platform
The Republicans re-nominated Taft, after excluding Roosevelt from the convention
Progressive Republicans considered nominating La Follette, but after he looked ineffective many
switched the support to Roosevelt
In February, Roosevelt officially entered the race as the Progressive candidate and wrote to all the
governors telling them that Taft had sold out the Square Deal and his New Nationalism platform
would achieve social justice
The fourth candidate was Socialist Eugene V. Debs
Debs had marginal support, even though the Socialists were gaining strength
Few people liked Taft
In reality the election was between Roosevelt’s New Nationalism and Wilson’s New Freedom
During the campaigning in Milwaukee, Roosevelt was shot by a would-be assassin
The bullet went through his spectacles case and stopped in his right lung
Roosevelt continued his campaign and delivered a speech before going to the hospital
He declared himself “fit as a bull moose”
When the popular votes were counted
Wilson had 42%
Roosevelt had 27%
Taft had 23%
Debs had 6%
Taft and Roosevelt had given the election to Wilson
In 1921 Taft was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by President Harding – the only
president to serve on the Supreme Court
Wilson: The President
In is inaugural address President Wilson promised to attack tariffs, banking, and trusts
On his first day in the White House he called a special session of Congress and addressed it in person
to lower the tariff
In 1913 Congress passed the Underwood-Simmons Tariff, which reduced import duties on nearly
1,000 items
The act also passed a graduated income tax, with the highest rate being 7% to increase internal
revenue
Wilson believed the banks spent too much time and resources trying to keep Wall Street happy rather
than serving the general public
In 1914 Congress passed the Federal Reserve Act, which created 12 regional banks supervised by the
Federal Reserve Board
In 1914 Congress also passed the Clayton Antitrust Act, which strengthened the Sherman Antitrust
Act and prohibited unions from being prosecuted as trusts and outlawed price discrimination
And, the Federal Trade Commission, which had the power the regulate trade and investigate unfair
practices
Wilson and Progressive Policies
Wilson supported the idea of women’s suffrage at the state level, but he refused to consider an
amendment
Equally, he did little for the African-American and even shared some of the racist views that were
prevalent – although he did denounce the Ku Klux Klan
In 1914 he signed the La Follette Seamen’s act, which improved the working condition on American
ships
Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 made credit available to farmers at low rates of interest
The Warehouse Act of 1916 permitted short-term loans on the security of staple crops
The Federal Highway Act of 1916 provided matching federal dollars for state dollars for highways
that met certain conditions
The Keating-Owen Child Labor Act prohibited goods made by children under fourteen from being
sold across state lines (later found unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Hammer v. Dagenhart in
1918)
The 1916 Adamson Act established an eight-hour workday with additional pay for overtime work
Foreign Policy
Wilson denounced “dollar diplomacy” and proposed a new policy named “missionary diplomacy”
He withdrew America from the Six-Power Consortium, which was preparing to give a massive loan
to China
In 1916 he signed the Jones Act granting full territorial status to the Philippines and promising
independence when a stable government was established (July 4, 1946)
Wilson sent American troops to Haiti in 1915
In 1916, he sent marines to the Dominican Republic to help suppress troublemakers
Mexico
In 1810 Father Hidalgo led Mexico to independence from Spain
But once independent the country was plagued by incompetent leadership and revolution
In 1910 President Porfirio Díaz controlled the country as a military dictator who suppressed opposition
and treated his followers with favors
In 1911 revolutionary forces led by Francisco Madero took over the capital and Díaz fled
Quickly General Victoriano Huerta replaced Madero
Wilson was caught in a dilemma – intervene and help overthrow Huerta, which would contradict his
principles; or acknowledge Huerta and his immoral regime
In 1914 Wilson agreed to allow the sale of arms to insurgents led by Venustiano Carraza of the
Constitutionalist party
When a group of American sailors were arrested in Tampico the American government demanded an
apology, even though the sailors had walked into a restricted area
The Mexican commander issued an apology and released the prisoners almost immediately
The American naval commander then demanded that the Mexicans salute the American flag
Congress authorized the naval commander to use force to make Huerta comply
Marines landed at Vera Cruz to stop the shipment of arms from being delivered to Huerta
19 marines were killed; approximately 200 Mexicans were killed
The ABC powers—Argentina, Brazil, and Chile— offered to mediate the situation
Huerta refused but was forced from office
Carranza succeeded Huerta
As the trouble spread groups of bandits tried to take advantage of the situation
The most notorious bandit was Pancho Villa
In 1916, Villa hijacked a train and murdered 16 Americans to establish his reputation as anti-American
When that did not work he crossed the border into New Mexico and killed some more
Wilson asked Carranza for permission to cross the border and sent General John J. Pershing to capture
Villa
In 1917 Pershing, unable to capture Villa, was ordered home
World War One
In 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia to start the First World War
Because the alliance system, within days most countries in Europe are at war
Wilson issued a neutrality proclamation and urged Americans not to get involved
Many Americans were from Germany and others were from Ireland – both hated the English
However most Americans supported the Allied Powers (Britain etc.)
At the start of the war the conflict seriously damaged the American economy and threatened to cause a
depression
But gradually the Allies purchased more and more goods from the United States
When the British asked for loans, William Jennings Bryan said that complying with such a request
would violate America’s policy of neutrality
Yet Wilson secretly approved short-term loans
In 1915 the United States openly extended long-term loans and the financier J. P. Morgan loaned the
British government $500 million
Still American hoped to remain neutral
Submarine Warfare
As the war progressed the Germans became more desperate to stop supplies reaching Britain
In 1915 the Germans declared the waters around Britain a war zone, and ships would be subject to
attack
The German use of U-boats proved deadly
After the Germans sank some American ships and several Americans had been killed, Americans were
warned not to enter the war zone
In May, 1915 the British liner Lusitania was attacked by a submarine and over 1,000 people were
killed including 128 Americans
The American public screamed for war
The German government warned the submarines not to sink passenger liners
In March 1916 the Germans sank the French steamer, Sussex, injuring two Americans
When Wilson threatened to break off diplomatic relations with Germany the German government
promised, in the Sussex pledge, not to attack passenger or merchant ships – meaning the submarine
policy was basically finished
The Election of 1916
In 1916, Republicans would have liked to have Roosevelt back, but when he left the party in 1912 he
sealed his fate
Instead the Republicans chose Charles Evans Hughes, who was conspicuous by his evasiveness on the
issues
The Democratic again chose Wilson, who ran on the platform of social reform and neutrality using the
slogan “He kept us out of war”
Wilson just beat Hughes, 277 to 254 – the popular vote was decided by a difference of half a million
votes
In 1917 the German government once again started unrestricted submarine warfare
On February 3, 1917, Wilson told Congress that the United States had broken off diplomatic ties with
Germany
Zimmerman Note
In February word reached the American government that the British had intercepted a note from
German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmerman to his minister in Mexico offering Mexico the
possibility of an alliance
If Mexico caused problems for the United States then Germany would return Texas, New Mexico, and
Arizona
When the note was published in the newspaper the American public demanded revenge
In March 1917 the Tsar of Russia was overthrown in a revolution, in November the Bolsheviks
established their control
On March 20, 1917, after the Germans had sunk five American ships, Wilson asked his cabinet if war
was an option
On April 2, at a special session, Wilson asked Congress for a war resolution against Germany
The measure passed in both Houses and was signed by the president on April 6, 1917