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Theory: Cultural Dimensions Theorist: Geert Hofstede Biography: Geert Hofstede was born in 1928. He graduated with a degree in mechanical engineering from Delft Technical University. Later, he earned a doctorate degree in social psychology from Groningen University. He taught organizational anthropology and international management at several universities. His work at IBM Europe would later be important in the studies of cultural dimensions. Description of Theory: Collecting over 116 thousand questionnaires representing 72 countries, Hofstede (1998, 2001) identified five main dimensions on which countries differ. The dimensions include power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, and long-term versus short-term orientation. Hofstede’s original research only produced the first four dimensions. Researchers’ realized that the previous research had been developed by Westerners. For the next phase, the Chinese Value Survey was adapted for administration in Chinese and English. A fifth dimension emerged (Hofstede, 2001). Hofstede (1998) defines power distance “as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally” (p. 8). Power difference creates inequities. Some societies and organizations create and promote a system of power differences while other societies make an effort to reduce inequities. Hofstede contends that culture plays a significant role in the degree to which power distance is accepted with the society. The second dimension, individualism, is defined “as the extent to which the ties between individuals in a society are loose, so that everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family only” (Hofstede, 1998, p. 8). The families would be nuclear. In contrast, collectivism is defined “as the extent to which people in a society from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive ingroups” (p. 9). Extended families live together. How the families relate is not limited to how they live, but also influences other institutions: “education, religious, political, and utilitarian” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 210). The third dimension is masculinity versus femininity. Masculinity is “defined as the extent to which social gender roles in a society are clearly distinct” (Hofstede, 1998, p. 9). Males are viewed as assertive whereas females are considered to be the nurturers. The role difference extends outside the home into the political arena and economic life (Hofstede, 2001). Femininity is “the extent to which social gender roles in society overlap” (1998, p. 9). Uncertainty Avoidance is “defined as the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain and unknown situations” (Hofstede, 1998, p. 9). Cultures that tend to avoid uncertainty express emotion more. In those cultures that uncertainty is tolerated, people are not to express their feeling (Hofstede). The final dimension that was added later is Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation. Cultures with a long-term orientation are future-oriented. Short-term orientation focuses on the past and present. Long-term orientation has been associated with economic growth. This dimension arose from further study giving consideration to differences between Eastern and Western culture (Hofstede, 2001). Theory Measures/Instruments: Hofstede’s book, Culture’s Consequences, gives a detailed discussion of the extensive study conducted and methodology and measures used in the study. Report prepared by: Bethene Fahnestock References Hofstede, G. (1998). A case for comparing apples with oranges: International differences in values. International Journal of Comparative Sociology 39(1). Retrieved November 1, 2008, from Expanded Academic ASAP. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Suggested Reading Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company.