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German Unification
Problems of Unification:
 Lack of nationalism---39 German States under the rule of Prussia and Austria.
 Lack of leader--- either Prussia and Austria / Lesser Germany Or Greater Germany
 How to unify especially Austrian opposition for protecting her multi-racial empire.
Zollverein
 Economic unity led to political unity: currency, measurement, railway
 Rise of Prussia: economic growth led to the strengthening of Prussia and it upset the balance
of power with Austria.
 Prussia would be the possible leader.
Frankfurt Assembly
 Fundamental Rights of German
 Decided on Lesser Germany with Prussia as leader since Austria refused to give up her multiracial empire
 Prussia refused the offer and suppressed the revolt.
 Bismarck’s comment: not by speeches and majority vote but blood and iron.
Factors for unification:
 Military reform of William / Wilhelm I
 Foreign policy of Bismarck: isolated enemies
 Blood-and-iron policy of Bismarck: trapped the enemies / planned the wars
 International condition: Austria was isolated / Italian unification against France and Austria.
Italian Unification
Problems of unification:
 Lack of nationalism: divided into 8 parts, most of them were ruled by autocratic foreign ruler
 Lack of a leader: Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia, Pope Pius IX of Papal States, Mazzini
 How to unify with the opposition of Austria who did not want to give up her multi-racial
empire.
Risorgimento:
1. Carbonari: 1830 revolutions--- lessons on the need of organization for revolution and spread
nationalism.
2. Mazzini: Spread nationalism and trained leaders through the Society of Young Italy.
3. 1848 Revolution: Pope Pius IX refused to fight against Austria, Mazzini’s reforms in the
Roman Republic were too ideal while only Charles Albert was brave enough to challenge
Austria. Although he failed, Italians regarded him as trustworthy and hence chose Piedmont as
the leader.
4. Reforms of Cavour--- strengthened Piedmont
5. Cavour’s policy: -joined in the Crimean War for winning powers’ support
-Got French help in getting Lombardy
-Got French help in supervising the plebiscites in Tuscany, Parma, and
Modena.
-sent Garibaldi to Two Sicilies
6.
Garibaldi:
gave up Two Sicilies for avoiding civil war.
7. International condition: help of France, Britain and Prussia / neutrality of Russia and isolation
of Austria.
1.
Effects of the Two Unifications
Upset balance of power: France and Austria were weakened. Germany became a strong
power in Europe. Britain was still busy in Asia.
This led to :
i.
Austria and Hungary became Dual Monarchy
ii.
France wanted to take revenge for prestige and glory
iii.
Russia returned to Balkans since the powers that defeated
her in the Crimean War, i.e. Fr and Br. were either
weakened or busy in Asia.
iv.
Germany became the gravity of European diplomacy.
2.
Eastern Question became the conflict between Pan-Slavism and Pan-Germanism, between
Austria and Serbia. Russo-Turkish War (1877) and the Congress of Berlin were the turning
point which turned the Eastern Question from Anglo-Russian rivalry to Austro-Serbian rivalry.
3.
Germany build up the Alliance System for isolating France who wanted to take revenge against
Germany.
4.
The rise of Germany led to more conflicts in Europe because German expansion in colony,
armament and economy led to colonial rivalry, armament race and economic rivalry.
Eastern Question
1.
Cause:
i. Decline of Turkey
ii. ambition of powers
iii. independence movement of the slavs
2.
i.
Three periods:
1815-56 Anglo-Russian rivalry: Russia wanted to get warm water port in the Balkans and
supported Slavs there. Britain wanted to protect her sea
route there and hence prevented Russian expansion in the
Balkans.
- Greek independence 1825-30: Russia, Britain and
France helped Greece to get independence, therefore
Russian help was not so important: ‘intervention for
non-intervention.’
- Syrian Question 1830s-40: Russia got benefits by
signing the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi with Turkey
against Egypt. Britain helped Turkey against Egypt later.
Russia therefore gave up the treaty rights.
-
ii. 1857-70 Peaceful co-existence
Crimean War 1854-56: Russia thought that she could
defeat France because Britain was busy in China while
Austria would help Russia who had helped Austria in
the Hungarian Revolt in 1848. However, Fr + Br while
Austrian neutrality in the war. Russia was defeated and
signed the Black Sea Clause of the Paris Treaty.
( Effects of the Crimean War to the Two Unifications:
Russia did not help Austria later, Piedmont got Fr. Help,
Russia started the reforms in Emancipation of serfs and
Zemstvo.)
Russia turned to Asia after the defeat. Britain was also busy
in Asia. France, Austria, Piedmont and Prussia were busy in
the Two Unifications. Therefore, Eastern Question was not
a question to the Powers at that time!
iii. 1870-1914 Austro-Serbian rivalry: Austria wanted to expand in the Balkans for compensation.
(because she was weakened after the Two unifications) and
Russia did not need to observe the Black Sea Clause
(because France was weakened after the Two Unifications
and Britain was busy in Asia) and hence Russia became
active in the Balkans and supported Serbia, the strongest
Slavs state in the Balkans. Austria and Serbia had conflict
over the Bosnia-Herzegovina.
- 1877-78 Russo-Turkish War and the Congress of Berlin.
After the Russo-Turkish War, Russia created the Big
Bulgaria. The powers wanted to stop it and led to the
Congress of Berlin, Big Bulgaria was cut into three, but
Austria could administer Bosnia-Herzegovina which
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-
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Serbia wanted to combine with. This led to the AustroSerbian rivalry.
1908 Bosnian Crisis. Austria took Bosnia-Herzegovina
in the excuse of the Young Turk Revolution. Russia
supported Serbia if in case of war. Since France and
Britain did not show any support, Russia at last gave up.
1912-13 Balkan Wars. Serbia allied with other Slavs
states against Turkey. After the two wars, Serbia
expanded a lot in the Balkans. This alarmed Austria
who wanted to stop Serbian expansion and the spread of
Slav nationalism in her multi-racial empire.
1914 Assassination at Sarajevo. Serbian student killed
the heir of Austrian throne, Archduke Ferdinand.
Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia who rejected the
third demand. Austria declared war to Serbia. This led
to the outbreak of the WWI.
WWI
Factors leading to the outbreak of the WWI:
1. Alliance System
i. causes:
- After the Franco-Prussian War, France wanted to take revenge against
Germany for her lost of Alsace-Lorraine.
-Germany wanted to isolate France for preventing such revenge movement and
hence built up the Alliance System.
ii. 1873
Dreikaiserbund
Gr + Au + Ru
Ideal alliance to isolate Fr
1879
Dual Alliance
Gr + Au
Ru Vs Au in Balkans, Gr chose Au.
1882
Triple Alliance
Gr + Au + It
Fr Vs It over Tunisia
1894
Franco-Russian Fr + Ru
Gr gave up Ru. France lent loan to Ru.
1904
Entente Cordiale Fr + Br
Fr gave up Egypt to Britain during the
Fashoda Incident. Br also fear of Gr.
Naval rivalry.
1907
Triple Entente
Fr + Br + Ru
Br gave up Turkey because of the Suez
Canal. Ru was defeated by Japan in the
Russo-Japanese War, so Br. did not
fear Ru.
iii. Significance: - turned a local conflict into world war.
- led to tension and suspicion among powers.
2.
Militarism: the powers relied on armament & army to protect themselves and prepared for war.
i. causes:
the powers did not trust one another because of tension and suspicion.
ii. - Hague Conferences were suggested but failed in disarming the armament of powers.
- Naval rivalry between Germany and Britain after 1900 on the building of Dreadnoughts.
iii. Significance: - led to tension and suspicion among powers.
- Schlieffen Plan affected the course of the WWI.
3.
Economic and colonial rivalry (New Imperialism)
i. causes:
- the powers wanted to get raw materials and markets in Africa and Asia.
- the powers wanted to get more territory for balance of power.
ii. Moroccan Crises
Fr Vs Gr
Solved Peacefully, Gr got Congo.
Egypt
Fr Vs Br
Solved Peacefully, Fr gave up.
Berlin-Baghdad Railway
Gr Vs Br & Ru
Solved Peacefully, they invested in it.
Tunisia
Fr Vs It
Italy joined Triple Alliance against Fr.
But later Italy befriended with Fr again.
iii. Significance: - Most crises were solved peacefully. Not very important in causing war.
- The colonial crises affected Alliance System.
- led to tension and suspicion among the powers.
4.
Nationalism: the pursuit of national glory and prestige after independence & unification.
i. causes:
- the effect of Darwinism: Social Darwinism--- fought for survival
- the rise of Germany led to competition & rivalry
ii. Pan-Germanism:
Germany wanted to unify the Greater Germany.
Pan-Slavism:
Russia wanted to lead the Slavs in the Balkans.
Greater Serbian movement: Serbia wanted to unite with Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Revenge movement of Fr:
Fr wanted to take revenge against Gr.
Naval Rivalry:
Gr wanted to challenge Br. naval power.
iii. Significance:
- led to tension and suspicion among the powers.
- nationalism could be the fundamental cause of all factors:
~ it led to the Alliance System because Gr wanted to prevent the
revenge movement of Fr who wanted to regain her prestige and
glory after the Franco-Prussian War.
~it led to armament race because Germany wanted to challenge
naval power of Britain and all powers wanted to build up their
weapons for survival.
~it led to colonial rivalry because all powers wanted to get more
colonies for glory and economic development. E.g. Moroccan
Crises.
~it led to Austro-Serbian rivalry because Serbia wanted to take
back Bosnia-Herzegovina from Austria. Hence, it led to the
Sarajevo incident in 1914 and finally led to the outbreak of the
WWI.
5.
Crises
i. Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911)
- they were the result of the conflict between Fr and Gr.
- in both crises, Britain helped Fr against Gr.
- Br + Fr as Br agreed to turn the Entente Cordiale into a military alliance.
- Gr was diplomatically isolated and Austria became her only friend.
ii. Balkan Crises / Austro-Serbian Rivalry (1878, 1908, 1912-3, 1914): refer summary on
Eastern Question.
6.
Responsibility of powers in causing war:
Germany:
- started and developed the Alliance System
(William II)
- started naval rivalry with Br./ planned the Schleffen Plan
- started colonial conflict with Fr on Morocco
- Pan-Germanism Vs Pan-Slavism
- Blank Cheque to Austria
France:
- developed Alliance System for breaking isolation.
- armament race and colonial rivalry, esp. with Italy that led to Triple Alliance.
Russia:
- Pan-Slavism in the Balkans and supported Serbia that complicated the
Eastern Qu. & Austro-Serbian rivalry.
Au & Serbia:
Br:
7.
Austro-Serbian rivalry that became the immediate cause of the WWI.
- Naval rivalry with Germany.
- did not warn Germany clearly on Br. protection of Belgium.
World War: Why did other powers join into the war?
i. USA:
Germany ‘s plot on Mexico and the sink of US ship by German submarine.
ii. Japan:
She wanted to get German interest in Shandong of China.
iii. China:
The warlord government in Beijing wanted powers’ recognition.
Russian Revolution
I. Causes of the revolution:
1. Tsardom: absolute rule of the Tsars who controlled all the power of Russia.
This was the fundamental cause of the revolution since the absolute rule of the Tsars led to:
i. discontent of the political parties
ii. no improvement on the livelihood of the common people even though there were
reforms which aimed at saving the Romanov dynasty and not improving the lives of
the common people.
iii. the character and policies of Nicholas II.
2. Alexander II’s reforms:
i. Emancipation of the serfs:
ii. Zemstvos:
3. Alexander III’s reforms:
Industrialization:
the peasants could not get real freedom as they could not
leave the Mir. Moreover, their lives were not better than
before as they need to pay the 49 years repayment to the
government.
the gentry and liberals asked for more political power, i.e.
Duma since the Zemstvos just had power in local
government.
Created a class of proletariat (workers) whose living and
working conditions were bad and hence they were
discontented.
4. Nicholas II’s character, reforms and policies:
i. Character:
He believed in Tsardom. He trusted Rasputin and
Czarina Alexandra. He did not take care the livelihood
of common people.
ii. reforms:
- Russification:
it forced all minorities to follow the Russian custom and
give up their own culture. It led to the reaction of the
Jews who joined in political parties against the
government.
- In 1905, there was an abortive revolution which nearly overthrew the Nicholas II.
Thereafter, Nicholas II carried out two reforms:
~ Stolypin’s reform:
It aimed at creating a group of rich peasant (Kulaks) by
allowing the sale of land. Yet, 9/10 of peasants were still
poor. Moreover, Stolypin did not improve the working
and living conditions of the workers. This led to
discontent of workers and peasants.
~ Duma:
Nicholas II did not want to share the power with people.
Therefore, he arranged the Fundamental Law in 1906
which allowed him to retain all power. He dissolved the
First and Second Duma which consisted of liberals. The
members of the third and forth Duma supported tsar only.
iii. policies:
Besides the reforms above, Nicholas II joined in the
Russo-Japanese War, which led to 1905 Revolution, and
WWI, which led to the Feb. Revolution.
II. Role of Nicholas II in causing the Feb Revolution.
1. He insisted on the Tsardom.
2. He worsened the condition of the peasants. The Emancipation of the Serfs of
Alexander II had already led to the suffering of the peasants because………. Nicholas
II’s Stolypin’s reform worsened the peasant’s condition since…….
3. He worsened the condition of the workers. The industrialization of Alexander III had
already led to the suffering of the workers because…… Nicholas II’s Stolypin’s
reform did not improve it because Stolypin did not aim at improving the working and
living condition of the workers and trade union was not allowed.
4. He intensified the discontent of the liberals and political parties. The zemstvos of
Alexander II had created a group of liberals who wanted more political power and
asked for Duma. Nicholas II introduced Duma after 1905. Yet, the Duma was
powerless as the First and Second Duma were dissolved by him. The third and forth
Duma just supported Tsar. This led to the discontent of the liberals and political
parties, especially when the Fundamental Law was passed in 1906.
5. His policy on Russification led to the discontent of the minorities, especially the Jews.
6. His character led to the general discontent on the administration of the government.
7. His decision to join in the WWI was a fatal mistake.
III. Factors of the October Revolution.
After the Feb. Revolution, Russia was controlled by Provisional government and shared
power with the Petrograd Soviet (Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries)
1.
2.
3.
The Provisional government decided to continue the fight in WWI led to
disappointment and hence discontent of the common people.
The return of Lenin in April and his slogan on ‘land, peace, bread’ led to the shift of
support from the Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries to the Bolsheviks in the
Petrograd Soviet. Then, Lenin asked for ‘all power to the Soviet’ which means the end
of Provisional government.
The Kornilov’s coup created an opportunity to arm the Bolsheviks since the
Provisional government asked for the help of the Soviet against the coup detat of
Kornilov. After the suppression of the coup with the joint effort of Soviet and
Provisional government, the Soviet turned against the Provisional government and
started the October Revolution.
China
Reforms
Self-strengthening Movement
Reasons:
 Internal: The Taiping uprising shaken the Qing government. The Tongzhi Restoration enabled
the rise of new leaders, such as Prince Gong.
 External: The defeat in the Opium Wars showed the need to reform.
Rationale:
 Chinese learning was to be the fundamental system whereas western learning were to be for
practical use: military reform supported by heavy industry.
Program:
 Provincial / National defence and mainly heavy industry / Foreign Affairs on Zongli Yamen
and Burlingame Mission / Communication and Transportation / Education on foreign language
only.
Failure:
 Proof: defeat in the Sino-French War and Sino-Japanese War. Tianjin Massacre and Margary
Affair. / But success in Burlingame Mission and defeating the Taiping Uprising.
 Reasons: mainly conservative opposition and inadequate conception of the west.
Significance:
 The first step in reform / Its failure induced revolutionary movement.
Hundred Days Reform
Reasons:
 Internal: Defeat in the Sino-Japanese War led to the Scramble for concession and the urge to
follow Japan’s example.
 External: Retirement of Cixi induced the power struggle between Guangxu and Cixi especially
on the argument on the speed of reform.
Rationale:
 More thorough reform on education and administration, together with other supplementary
reforms.
Program:
 Abolished sinecures / reformed civil service examination / university
Failure:
 Proof: Guangxu was detained and Cixi returned to power. Reformers were killed.
 Reasons: Conservative Opposition / the betrayal of Yuan Shikai / Inexperience and no power
of the reformers.
Significance:
 Ill feeling between the Manzhus and Chinese / Cixi adopted more radical anti-foreign policy /
Speeded up revolutionary movement.
Late Qing Reform
Reasons:
 The Qing government was discredited during the Allied Expedition. Qing government must
introduce reform for winning support from common people.
 The disobedience of the southern provinces alarmed the Qing court which needed to reestablish centralization of power.
Rationale:
 Centralization of power over the provinces and superficial reform for rallying support from
common people.
Program:
 Political:
choose Japanese model on the power of the throne. 6 Boards were
reorganized into 11 ministries for firm control over the provinces.
 Military:
In 1907, all armed forces were put under the control of the central
government but it was ignored. Creation of the New Army.
 Educational:
Taught western subjects. Abolished Civil Service Examination and eightlegged essay.
 Economic:
Railway construction.
 Social:
Inter-marriage between manzhus and Chinese was allowed. Give up footbinding and opium-smoking.
Failure:
 Proof:
1911 revolution
 Reasons: Half-hearted and not sincere. The reforms just worsened the condition: educational,
military, political on Royal Cabinet and railway construction.
Significance:
 Paved the way for 1911 Revolution.
Mass Movement
Taiping Movement
Reasons
Boxers

Influenced by western ideas

hostile to western aggression

Natural disaster and people’s
hardship.
Modified christianity
Anti-Qing
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Influential in Nanjing

Natural disaster and people’s
hardship.
Traditional Chinese society
Supported Qing & encouraged
by Qing officials and Cixi.
Influential in Beijing
Led to the SSM
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Qing government allied with
western powers to suppress it.
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Origin
Development 
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Significance 
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Led to Allied Expedition
Neutrality of Southern province
and hence the Late Qing reform
Qing government used it to
expel the foreigners.
Showed nationalism and hence
discouraged partition of China.
1911 Revolution
1. The decline of Qing government.
2. The rise of revolutionary movement: Dr. Sun’s contribution
 Organized revolutionary activities: Xingzhonghui and Tongmenghui
 3 People’s Principles: justified and motivated the revolution.
 Spread revolutionary ideas.
 Avoid foreign intervention in 1911.
1919 May Fourth Movement
Reasons:
1. 21 demands and the Treaty of Versailles: students felt a sense of urgency in saving China from
Japan and powers.
2. Industrialization and the rise of capitalist: Capitalists expected the protection of Chinese
economy from imperialist’s control.
3. Industrialization and the rise of workers: workers were exploited by foreign companies.
4. New Culture Movement centred in the University of Beijing. Intellectuals called for new ideas
and new culture to save China.
Significances of the MFM:
1. Stood for the beginning of Chinese nationalism and anti-warlordism. Chinese students were
active in politics, especially leftist ideas.
2. Anti-western and pro-soviet atmosphere.
3. Dr. Sun reorganized Guomindang and allied with the communist party and USSR.
4. New language: baihua.
5. new publications and attack on Confucianism.
6. Social changes: woman liberation and rise of individualism.
Rise of Japan
Year
1871-3
1879
1894-5
Significance on the rise of Japan
Event
Iwakura Mission: tried to
revise unequal treaties
Took Ryukyu and renamed
it Okinawa Prefecture
Sino-Japanese War

Failed

First territorial gain from China

Defeated China and was the strongest among Asian
states.
Control Korea, yet Korea was independent in name and
it showed Japanese fear on powers’ response.
Triple Intervention on Liaodong Peninsula showed the
weakness of Japan in international diplomacy.
One of the Big 5 in the Scramble for Concession.
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1895-99
1900
1902
1904-5
1910
1914-19
1917-22
1919
Scramble for Concession:
Fujian
Supported Allied Expedition
during Boxer Uprising.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance

Russo-Japanese War
Renamed Korea as Chosen,
a Japanese province
Entry into the WWI and
21 demands
Siberian intervention on
the Russian Civil War
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Paris Peace Conference
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1921-22
Washington Conference
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Trusted by powers since most of troops were Japanese.
Still under German leadership
Friendship with Britain but Britain would not help
Japan in war if only another country help Russia.
Defeated Russia and controlled Manchuria and Korea.
Her position in Asia was secured.
Occupied Shandong and was the most powerful country
in Asia since the powers returned to Europe.
Japan was asked by powers to send a joint expedition to
Russia for helping the White Russian. Powers trusted
Japan and regarded her as an ally.
Got Shandong from Germany. US and Britain agreed
on that. Showed the rise of Japanese position.
One of the permanent members in the Council of the
League of Nations.
Japan’s demand on former German colonies in the
Pacific was also accepted.
Japan’s claim to racial equality was rejected. It showed
that Japan was still regarded by powers as ‘second
class.’
The strongest naval power in the Far East with the 5power Pact and 4-power pact in 1922. Yet, her naval
power was still checked by USA and Britain.
Needed to return Shangdong to China under British and
US pressure. .