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European Relations:: 1814 – 1856 Introduction: An Overview of European Diplomacy 1814 – 1856: European Themes a. War and Peace From 1792 through 1815, there were a near continuous series of wars, which plagued Europe. They stemmed from the French Revolution, and despite the attempts of the European monarchies to contain the Revolution, France retained its status as a superpower. Napoleon Bonaparte (crowned Emperor in 1804) solidified France’s status in Europe. By 1815 however, Napoleon had been crushed and France’s control lessened. Despite the fact that Napoleon was defeated and the Revolutionary threat temporarily quelled, the monarchist European nations still had to attempt to return Europe to its pre-Napoleonic state. The met at the Congress of Vienna and faced a few major decisions: o How far – or should – the old states of Europe be restored? o How could France – whose size, population and wealth had made it such a formidable enemy – be restrained from future aggression? o How could international relations as a whole be restructured so as to minimize the risks of future conflict? b. The Specter of Revolution Although there were many dangers posed by the violence of the French Revolution, in the long term it was the ideals that came from it, which would be more dangerous. Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity were the source of power for the rising people, and these ideals were not compatible with Europe’s old order, which had been nearly obliterated. The monarchist powers of the time attempted to restore the old order. They were driven by both strategic and ideological concerns. o Excluding France and a number of other German states, Europe was absolutist – the countries had no constitutions and were controlled by monarchs. Liberals would continue to challenge these ideals and they began making a difference through their active participation in the government. o Nationalism was inspired by the idea that political authority belonged to the people, an idea that was established during the Revolution. Many fragmented countries (i.e. Germany, Italy – all of whom were comprised of city states) began to join together under the influence of the liberals with minimal success. Diplomacy in this time period revolved around how and how far the liberal/nationalist challenge could be contained. The threat became so pronounced that international governments felt the need to act. They wished to avoid another French Revolution in one of their nations, and the fact that neither the 1830 or 1848 French uprisings caused any further rebellion reinforces the fact that the containment methods were effective. c. The Eastern Question 1 Between 1815 and 1848, the major issue concerning the powers was the one that had been ignored by the previous councils – the Eastern Question. Eastern Question: o The Ottoman Empire was in decline and all the powers believed that they had a right to claim portions of the land. Grecian Independence was a major headache for Europe (due to the fact that it had been a part of the Ottoman Empire) o Mehmet Ali, a subject of the Ottoman Sultan caused trouble in 1831 – 1833 and 1839 – 1841 while conflicting interest of the Russians/Turks caused the Crimean War (1853) o The massive size of the Russian Empire was also a cause of concern to the powers, as it was comparable to Napoleon’s Empire at its height. o Between 1815 and 1853 none of the major powers had been at war with each other. This was considered Europe’s “long peace” and despite the exclusion of the Eastern Question from the original pacemakers planning, this suggests that they succeeded in what they were attempting to do. I. Europe Makes Peace: The Treaties of Paris and The Congress of Vienna Timeline: March 9, 1814 March 31, 1814 April 6, 1814 May 3, 1814 May 30, 1814 Sept. 1814 Dec. 1814 – early Jan. 1815 Jan – Feb 1815 March 1815 June 9, 1815 June 18, 1815 July 8, 1815 Nov. 20, 1815 Treaty of Chaumont: Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain worked out terms of anti-French alliance Russian troops entered Paris Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to the Mediterranean island of Elba Restoration of Louis XVIII to the French throne First Treaty of Paris: very generous peace terms imposed on France Delegates begin to assemble for the Congress of Vienna Deadlock over the future of Saxony and Poland almost led to collapse of Congress Compromise reached over Poland and Saxony Napoleon escaped from Elba (March 1) and re-entered Paris (March 20) Louis XVIII went into exile again Final Act of Congress of Vienna signed Battle of Waterloo: Napoleon defeated Second restoration of Louis XVIII Second Treaty of Paris: terms harsher than in the first Treaty. Quadruple Alliance signed: Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria committed themselves to the containment of France ad lose future co-operation. In April of 1814, Emperor Napoleon was forced to abdicate, and Louis XVIII was made King of France. France was forced to subject to a number of war reparations including minor territory loss and they committed themselves to 2 accepting the new borders which would be established by the Congress of Vienna. The First Treaty of Paris is unique, in that it is very lenient towards the French. There were no considerations as to taking away territory and all lost colonies were restored. The allies allowed France to remain strong as they feared a weakened France would be unstable and vengeful, causing further problems. The Treaty established the framework that would eventually be applied to the rest of Europe. After the defeat of Napoleon, the allies found themselves having difficulty remaining cooperative and strong – the individual goals and interests of each country conflicted with others. They found themselves requiring England to act as mediator to ensure the equal and safe distribution of power and land amongst the allies. a. The Congress of Vienna Began in October 1814 with most of Europe’s rulers and aristocracy in attendance. Some considered the Congress to be a social occasion and a joke. It seemed to be guided by a sense of self-satisfaction worshipping the principle of legitimacy (the rights of the royalty) and ignored liberalism/nationalism. Poland and Saxony: o Resolution of this crisis considered to be one of the most important of the Congress (if not resolved, could have resulted in war in 1815) o Russia determined to control all of Poland (including Prussian/Austrian territory). Prussia would be compensated with the whole of Saxony. o Austria and Britain did not accept, and France supported them. Tense negotiation followed resulting in Prussia losing claim to ½ of Saxony, and keeping some Polish territory while gaining territory in the Rhineland. o Significant because: it weakened Prussia enough for Austria to gain control of the German Confederation, however Prussia’s gains in the Rhineland would eventually add to its power. The crisis also reveals the self-centeredness of the countries, however it also shows that the congress was capable of creating “political equilibrium” where no one had enough power to control Europe. The Netherlands: o Settlement on Low Countries was not a failure or a success. Britain wanted the territory to remain out of French control due to its close proximity. o The Dutch/Belgians were gathered into the Kingdom of the United Netherlands, however this solution was short lasting. Tensions among various groups (Catholics/Protestants, Dutch/Flemish/French) caused a revolt resulting in a separate Belgian state with other powers guaranteeing its independence (lasted until 1914) Italy: o Austria was made the major power in the area, regaining control of Lombardy and annexing Venetia, while also gaining control of the states of Italy, Parma, Modena and Tuscany (ruled by Emperor’s family). Papal States and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were sure to look to Vienna for help. 3 o o Domination of Italy used to secure three things: 1. Venetia was compensation for loss of Belgium 2. Austria could be relied on to suppress revolution 3. Austria’s presence guaranteed French exclusion Three Main Problems: 1. Austria’s strict policing against revolution discouraged the government to consider reforms (revolutionary ideas) 2. Austria became an easy target for Italian nationals giving their fragmentary movement focus 3. Through taxation of Lombardy and Venetia helped the treasury, the peninsula as a whole was a resource drain. b. Assessing the Congress of Vienna Austrian power was vital to the Vienna Settlement and this was considered to be a weakness. They had great influence in Italy and had a leading role in the German Confederation. They were tasked with maintaining a strong central Europe against French or Russian insurgence. Despite the fact that Austria now held a great deal of power, they were in danger of being overthrown as other nations had more economic and political organization and strength. Two strategies would have allowed Austria to fulfill its commitments: 1. Internal Reform: the Austrian government ignored Metternich’s advisories and so the government was left short of funds and could barely mobilize its army. 2. Metternich was able to convince other leaders at critical times that what was good for Austria was good for Europe as a whole. This provided a temporary solution, however the willingness of other countries to keep up this charade was unlikely. France remained a great power, but it was closely watched: o The first Treaty of Paris was fairly lenient to the French, however Napoleon’s escape and return disinclined the allies to be as lenient again. The second Treaty imposed much harsher indemnity along with occupation. o France’s borders and areas that were prone to trouble were strengthened and buffer states were put into place, quelling French expansion ambition. o The institution of a constitutional monarchy provided stability as it sated both the desires of liberals and monarchists. The government became stable and cautious. The Quadruple Alliance (1815) was created and devoted itself to 20 years of upholding the Second Treaty of Paris and preventing the return of Napoleon. Instituted the holding of conferences between the nations to consider and take action for the benefit of all European nations. II. The Age of Metternich – 1: 1815 – 1824 – Conducting the Concert of Europe Timeline: 4 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle Carlsbad Decrees Congres of Troppau; Troppau Protocol Congress of Laibach Greek Revolt began Congress of Verona French intervention in Spain a. Metternich Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1821 only falling after the 1848 revolutions (he was a prominent member of European politics for nearly 40 years) He was able to control Europe and shape politics to suit Austrian needs. He imposed a system of government that was absolutist, aristocratic and repressive so as to frustrate the desires of the people for freedom. His strongest personal attributes were being able to convince the other leaders of Europe to see things through Vienna’s eyes through his charismatic diplomacy. His greatest successes were between 1815 and 1821. b. The Holy Alliance But for the brief crisis in Vienna during 1814 – 1815, the last few years of the war held cooperation between the powers (Russia, Austria, Britain and Prussia). The leaders were convinced that cooperation must be continued throughout peacetime. Alexander I (who was a religious fanatic) brought forward the concept of a Holy Alliance in 1815. He aimed to create peace and harmony in Europe through religious intervention, however the more politically minded diplomats were disinterested in this idea. Austria was caught in the middle of this debate over the Alliance: the Alliance stated that the best way to bring about peace was through sweeping liberal reform (something undesirable), however they could not risk offending one of their most powerful allies. The Holy Alliance would become simply a group of powerful Christian nations who strove to protect their subjects. Metternich once again took a radical idea and channeled it through conservatively. c. The Congress Was intended to be as inclusive as possible of all nations in Europe. This appeared to be one of the aspects of the Congress System being carried out. The word “system” is misleading as the meetings occurred in no planned order: o Aix-la-Chapelle, September – November 1818 o Troppau, October – December 1820 o Laibach, January – May 1821 o Verona, October – December 1822 5 The first meeting was the only one considered to be a real success. France had paid off its indemnities and was welcomed as a powerful nation, however tension existed between the other major powers. The Congress of Troppau: o The most significant of the meetings as it was during revolution in Germany, France, Italy and Spain. o Russia’s Position: The great powers should act collectively and quell the uprisings by imposing settlements or constitutions on troubled areas. o Britain’s Position: Did not want to fix situation with a standard set of principles – each situation was unique and should be dealt with accordingly. o These differences were a source of tension throughout, as Austria recognized the need to take action, however they did not want to risk offending Russia by operating on their own (Italy was considered to be Austrian territory). o They also had to consider whether they wanted to risk the spread of liberal constitutionalism by allowing Russia to intervene in any and all areas of Europe in the name of peace. o Metternich was able to move around this situation by introducing the idea that Europe was revolutionizing, convincing the other leaders that conservative action was the answer. The Troppau Protocol worked in Austria’s favor – it was conservative and anti-revolutionary, and limited Russia’s power. o This also succeeded in creating a gap between Russia and France, an alliance between whom would have been disastrous. Metternich continued controlling politics in Europe and was able to suppress revolution and liberalism. He persuaded the Tsar not to intervene in Greece (independence against Ottomans) and he gained the right for Austria to police Italy. The Congress System was a failure past this point – it became a way in which Metternich attempted to reconcile international differences while retaining control and suppressing revolution. He succeeded with this for a brief time, however his influence was wearing thin. III. The Age of Metternich – 2: 1825 – 1841 – Decline? Timeline: 1827 1829 1830 1831 Battle of Navarino Treaty of Adrianople Revolution in France (July) ‘Chiffon de Carlsbad’ Belgian Revolt Polish Revolt Austria crushed Revolution in Papal States 6 1833 1834 1839 1840 1841 Belgian independence confirmed by Treaty of London Mehmet Ali invaded Syria Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi Münchengrätz agreement Quadruple Alliance Mehmet Ali at war again with Turkey Four Power Ultimatum to Mehmet Ali; Thiers threatened war in Europe Straits Convention Between 1825 and 1841, a series of crisis caused this period of peace to collapse. The Tsar refused to recognize Metternich’s authority and as revolutions began breaking out across Europe, Metternich lost power. a. The Eastern Question Some considered the Ottoman Empire to be one of the great powers of Europe. The Sultan was considered ineffective and corrupt and it was predicted that the Empire would soon collapse due to: o The Viceroy of Egypt rebelling against Ottoman authority o A rise in nationalism among Christians in the Empire o Pressure from Russia to acquire Constantinople The collapse of the Ottoman Empire was considered significant as many of the European powers had stakes there and wanted to profit should the Empire collapse. Austrian Concern: o Collapse of Ottoman power would lead to Russian expansion into the Balkans (an unstable area on the edge of Austria) French Concern: o The Congress of Vienna tightly locked their eastern borders and so they wished to expand their territory across the Mediterranean, and Egypt (whom the French had helped in the past) was their key into the area. British Concern: o Had vital imperial/naval interests in the eastern Mediterranean. Although it had no interest in actually controlling the Ottoman Empire, it wanted to ensure that no other nation could either (trade routes could be blocked or naval dominance diminished) Russia: o At minimum they wished to ensure that the trade route from Russia through the Black Sea into the Mediterranean was left open. At most, they wished to assist in the disintegration of the empire allowing Russia to send warships to the Mediterranean and gain control of Constantinople. The Greek Revolt: o Russia was relatively restrained during the Revolution. The Greeks had counted on the Russians as allies, however Metternich managed to convince them that the Greeks were rebels. 7 o After the death of Alexander I, Nicholas I changed Russia’s policy and struck a deal with Britain for Grecian independence. As a result of their joint attack on the Ottoman Empire, the Turks declared war on Russia. o Although the Russians were able to near Constantinople, the Tsar on advice from his advisors pulled back and allowed the Empire to remain. They did however gain some territory in the area and more control over politics. o Greece gained independence as an autonomous state. o This was a disaster for Metternich as all his predictions were wrong – Britain, France and Russia all worked for Greek independence, and the Ottoman Empire remained standing. b. Further Problems The fall of the Bourbons in France in 1830 was disastrous for Metternich’s career. It threatened to overthrow everything he had done and cause the spread of revolution and liberalism across Europe. It became evident that Metternich over reacted to this situation: o Louis-Phillipe, the new king of France, stopped France from becoming a republic when he claimed the throne, preventing revolution from spreading. Metternich attempted to convince the allies to restore the Bourbons, however he had to settle with issuing a warning to the government to behave. o The German and Italian revolutions made no progress – Germany was complacent and only pushed for publications bans to be lifted. Italy was bloodier, however Austrian arms and lack of French support doomed it. o The Polish revolution was more serious as army officers revolted against Russia for fear of being deployed. They declared national independence, however the absence of the French and the lack of enthusiasm by the peasants caused the revolution to fail (may have dissuaded Russian intervention in Belgium). o The Belgian revolution was the most dangerous of them all as rioting broke out over religious and political differences between different groups as well as economic hardship. The Dutch and the Belgians failed to contain the situation; so international assistance was called for, however no one was willing to intervene due to reactions from other nations, possibly causing a major war. o Palmerston (Britain) ensured war did not break out by proposing that Belgium be granted independence in 1830. He convinced the other powers to sign off on this and so Belgium was made an individual and neutral country. This was a victory for revolutionary liberalism/nationalism, and Metternich was appalled by Palmerston’s policies. c. The Eastern Question again: the adventures of Mehmet Ali: While the allies were occupied with the Belgian crisis, there was a series of events that occurred in the Ottoman Empire. 8 Mehmet Ali, the Egyptian Viceroy, decided to attempt to take over the Ottoman Empire and establish his family as the ruling family. He had access to the strongest military force in all of the Near East, so his chances of success seemed high. Ali launched his attack in November of 1831 and quickly approached Constantinople; the Ottoman Empire appeared to be about to fall. The Sultan though asked for Russian assistance and in exchange for Egypt ensuring that the entry into the Black Sea was guarded, the Russians would assist. The British were horrified by this and feared that the Russians would turn Turkey into one of their satellite states. The attack by the Sultan in 1839 nearly brought about the Second Near East Crisis. He attacked Ali’s armies and as defeated. The Sultan died, and his successor was weak and ineffective, and was quickly used by Russia to gain Middle Eastern power and disturb relations between France and Britain. The negotiations that occurred in 1840 revolved around deciding how much conquered area Ali would be able to have. It was decided that Ali would have to give up significant amounts of land including Syria – this caused much outrage amongst the French who were not only excluded from negotiations, but had a stake in what was decided. The French Prime Minister, Thiers, hoped that Ali’s forces would withstand the allies so Palmerston could be eliminated, and Prussia and Austria bullied into accepting the French, however, Ali was defeated, Palmerston kept his position, and at the notion of a European war, King Louis-Phillipe retracted his support causing Thiers to resign. As a result, Russia lost their treaty with Egypt for protection of the entrance to the Black Sea, as well as their exclusive influence and control over Constantinople, and the Ottoman Empire was restored and given full sovereignty (no naval ship could enter their territory). This is considered one of the most notable achievements of the Concert of Europe. Other aspects of the crisis were: o Theirs’ threats of war on the Rhine impacted the growth of German nationalism o Thwarting of French ambition was a major blow to LouisPhillipe o Palmerston’s arguments with Theirs damaged Anglo-French relations (liberal powers of Europe set at odds) o Anglo-Russian cooperation led to the Russians underestimating what the British knew of their intentions to move into the Ottoman Empire. d. East vs. West: ideology or self-interest in European diplomacy? Metternich’s greatest success was coordinating Russian and Austrian policy on three points: the Polish problem, revolution threatening Europe, and the Eastern Question. o There were many Polish nationals within Austria and Russia, so it was felt action was needed to quell Polish nationalism and their insurrections. o This alliance was later joined by Prussia and each monarch became devoted to the preservation and assistance of all the 9 other monarchs, should any liberal challenges arise (Troppau/Holy Alliance continued) o Russia’s reassurance that they had no intention of destroying the Ottoman Empire and they would assist with holding up the Sultan. This alliance seemed very sinister, so the British created their own Quadruple Alliance (Britain, France, Portugal and Spain) to combat the “triple league of despotic powers” Palmerston really wanted to keep France under British political control as they assumed that since France was looking for friendship with other nations, the partnership would be under British terms. The French were reluctant to accept the deal and so turned to the Austrians for an alliance, however European diplomacy failed to divide along ideological lines, and by 1848 both Guizot (the French foreign minister) and Metternich had lost all authority due to revolution. IV. The Age of Metternich – 3: 1848 – Fall a. Interpretations of Metternich Historians regard the 1848 Revolution as the judgment by the Europeans on the Austrian Chancellor and the international policies he supported. The Vienna Settlement appeared to be Metternich’s way of frustrating German and Italian nationalist ambitions to gain more power in Europe. Metternich had made it his life’s goal to crush out liberalism and nationalism. Metternich’s critics said that he would fail due to the “manifestation of the popular will” in nationalism, and the careful guidance of Bismarck and Cavour. 20th Century critics blamed the failure on the rise of the middle class and industrialization. Metternich is accused of being anachronistic as he “defended the indefensible” and tried to reinstate the old hierarchies, however modern critics are less general and say that it was due to a number of these factors that Metternich fell. Restoration Europe was by no means static economically or socially – its growth continued and industrialization spread. Metternich’s reaction to this was hostile and counterproductive. The British, in response to approaching rebellion, granted their citizens the right to vote – an act Metternich considered preposterous. It caused him to incorrectly predict the British aristocracy’s fall; this instead allowed the aristocracy to hold power for decades longer. Metternich viewed the world as an arena of perpetual struggle between two great principles: of order and good vs. anarchy and evil. “Every existing right was not merely legitimate but holy; every call for change or attempt at change made by anyone except a legitimate sovereign was not merely illegitimate, but wickedly presumptuous.” (Schroeder) Although Metternich was at heart in favor of a paternalistic, efficient government, his own personal views would prevent him from being able to successfully bring about his view. Conservatism must be 10 flexible, allowing liberal change to be made where it cannot be avoided, while guiding the process and preserving what it can. b. The Long Peace and the Great Powers There was nearly unbroken peace from 1815 to 1853 as a result of a collective change in the attitude of Europe’s Great Powers toward each other. The Schroeder Thesis on the Long Peace: o Napoleon’s reign changed the views of Europe’s leaders. They abandoned their rivalries and instead focused on international relations and cooperation. They built a diplomatic culture of self-restraint and mutual respect, allowing what could have been major crises to be contained and dealt with peacefully. o Prussian Foreign Policy: Up to 1840 was very timid, and afterwards very eccentric reflecting the ruler’s personalities. Frederick William III was very bland and manipulated by Metternich where as Frederick William IV was an outrageous dreamer. Due to this, Prussia was the least of the powers. o French Foreign Policy: Keys – prudence and caution France was involved in a number of political maneuverings, however it was aware that if it was too radical or stepped out of line, the Waterloo Coalition would quash it. Napoleon III caused major damage and caused the allies to believe France had not yet settled down o Austrian Foreign Policy: Metternich was very anxious to maintain peace and stability in Europe, with a primary focus on upholding legitimacy. They aimed to keep the borders defined by the Congress of Vienna, and defend the absolutist monarchies associated with them. They wanted this so as to uphold their highly vulnerable multi-national empire and ensure that a war would not break out (their treasury was depleted and war would bankrupt them) o British Foreign Policy: The three major foreign ministers in Britain all held startlingly different views in ideology and personality – Castlereagh was conservative, whereas Canning and Palmerston were liberals Two major objectives guided British foreign policy: containment/cooperation of France (west) and containment/cooperation of Russia (east). The Crimean War (1853 – 1856) resulted from Russian movement, and but for France’s restraint another war could’ve started in 1831. 11 They held these goals as they wanted to show that they remained superior to France, their age-old enemy whom they defeated in their quest for world dominance. They wanted to preserve the peace, because they had won. o Russian Foreign Policy: Russian foreign policy was the source of much unrest from 1815 – 1853 because the other powers were unsure of what the Russians would use their massive army for; Paris and Constantinople could be within their grasp. Alexander I wanted to bring Christian peace and justice to Europe, however Metternich deceived him into doing otherwise (Troppau Protocol). Nicholas I was much more perceptive, allowing France to have 2 rebellions and exercising restraint in his dealings with the Ottomans. Internal governing issues led to Russian restraint during the crises of this time paired with unwillingness to shed Russian blood on foreign soil. o Although Schroeder’s interpretation focuses on the idea that European policy of the time was built on mutual respect and cooperation, another interpretation states that events were driven by a blend of caution, calculation and self-interest. They were driven by a collective fear of revolution and liberalism than by a desire to repent and cooperate. o Schroeder states that it is necessary to look not at the individual statesmen who participated in the negotiations but instead at the underlying structure of European diplomacy. The balance of power in Europe was not equal – it was controlled by Britain and Russia (both of whom were considered undefeatable: Britain for its navy and Russia for its size and army). Austria held some regional power, and Prussia can be effectively discounted. o Metternich held little control over the better part of Europe – Britain had control of the west, while Russia controlled the east, and these two would cooperate do dictate politics in Europe and the East. These superpowers respected each other’s spheres of influence, so peace could exist, however war broke out when they each tried to impose their own solution on the Eastern Question. o The predominance that Russia and Britain held becomes evident after the Crimean War when the two powers retreat into semi-isolation, freeing the rest of Europe to do as they please. This causes tremendous change to the 12 map of Europe to the point where it is almost unrecognizable. The Crimean War: o Lasted form 1853 – 1856 and was the bloodiest conflict in the Eastern Question. It was fought in and around the Black Sea and pitted the French, British and Ottoman forces against the Russians. The reasons for it were ridiculously trivial and the adjustments made to the Congress of Paris were nearly non-existent. o The causes of the war may be inconsequential, however the diplomatic situation that arose from it is highly relevant. (Austria suffered disastrous consequences) o The conflict erupted over a question of prestige – the Ottomans controlled the Christian Holy places in Middle East. They allowed full access to all Christians, however the monks that controlled the area had divided allegiance; half were subservient to the Pope (the Latins) and half to the Tsar (the Orthodox). o Napoleon III attempted to force the Sultan to restore French control over the area so as to impress a domestic Catholic audience, however this backfired spectacularily with the highly offended Tsar dispatching one of his generals and declaring that the Sultan would reverse all the changes he had made and grant Russia a protectorate over the Empires 13 million Christians or war would ensue. o The Tsar’s threat failed miserably: The British were determined to protect Ottoman integrity and the confused Tsar believed that he had convinced the British that the collapse of the Ottomans was inevitable (he had not). The Tsar also mistakenly believed that the Austrians were aligned with the Russians; they were not and viewed the situation with much alarm. Finally the Tsar believed that all he was asking for was Russia’s right – in fact the most important concepts had already ben conceded by the Turks previously. When the Turks rejected the Tsar’s requests, they were not trying to escape their commitments; merely to protect their independence. o Nicholas I was almost solely responsible for the Crimean War due to his bullying, selfishness, incomprehension and misjudgment. o At the last minute, a solution was drawn up called the Vienna Note, however it excluded the Turks and when 13 they wished to join, the Russians refused, using their own interpretation of the Note, offending Britain and guaranteeing war. o At the opening of the war, the Ottomans suffered heavy losses to the Russians, and it became evident that if the Ottomans wished to survive, an alliance with Britain and France was necessary. o The war occurred over a period of two years and with terrible casualties and a spectacular display of incompetent leadership. o As a result of this war, the following territorial adjustments were made: Russia lost the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and all the Ottoman Christians. The Black Sea was demilitarized, which was a great source of humiliation for the Russians. o Britain’s gains for winning the war were minimal at best, and Britain underwent self-criticism and isolationism. France was satisfied with their prestige victory and their friendship with Britain. o The greatest loser of this war was not Russia, but Austria who lost no troops or territory, but the good favor of the Tsar. Nicholas did not receive Austria’s support and felt betrayed. o The Crimean War did not cause the unifications of Germany and Italy, however they created the political environments in which it was possible for this to occur. o An age in which the only guiding principle was “every man for himself” resulted and would lead Europe into the latter half of the 19th Century. 14 Glossary of Terms: Ideology: is a system of political ideas, which helps to determine policy and mobilize support. Absolutism: A political system under which the monarchy or government has complete or absolute power, without and checks or balances. Liberals: In nineteenth century context, people who believed in the rights of individuals. Nationalism: A belief that peoples of a particular race, background or culture should be citizens of their own country or nation-state, or a concept vigorously promoting patriotic sentiments. Legitimacy: A belief that states could only justifiably be ruled by their “legitimate”, i.e. traditional rulers. Indemnity: A payment extracted by a victorious country from another defeated war. Constitutional Monarchy: A system of government in which a monarch governs according to a constitution, usually involving a parliament, which limits the monarch’s power. The Concert of Europe: The name given to the ideal- sometimes achieved in practiceaccording to which Europe’s Great Powers would act together in a spirit of trust and mutual goodwill, to preserve peace and defuse crises. Reactionary: A belief or policy fundamentally opposed to change or reform. Unilateral: An action taken by one county or person without consultation with anybody else. Entente: Friendly agreement. Autonomy: Self-government/ self-rule. Anachronism: Transferring the expectations or values of one era to an earlier (or later) one is to be guilty of anachronism. Demilitarization: The removal of armed forces or military equipment from a region. 15