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European Relations:: 1814 – 1856
Introduction: An Overview of European Diplomacy 1814 – 1856: European Themes
a. War and Peace
 From 1792 through 1815, there were a near continuous series of wars, which
plagued Europe. They stemmed from the French Revolution, and despite the
attempts of the European monarchies to contain the Revolution, France retained
its status as a superpower.
 Napoleon Bonaparte (crowned Emperor in 1804) solidified France’s status in
Europe. By 1815 however, Napoleon had been crushed and France’s control
lessened.
 Despite the fact that Napoleon was defeated and the Revolutionary threat
temporarily quelled, the monarchist European nations still had to attempt to
return Europe to its pre-Napoleonic state. The met at the Congress of Vienna
and faced a few major decisions:
o How far – or should – the old states of Europe be restored?
o How could France – whose size, population and wealth had
made it such a formidable enemy – be restrained from future
aggression?
o How could international relations as a whole be restructured so
as to minimize the risks of future conflict?
b. The Specter of Revolution
 Although there were many dangers posed by the violence of the French
Revolution, in the long term it was the ideals that came from it, which would be
more dangerous.
 Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity were the source of power for the rising people,
and these ideals were not compatible with Europe’s old order, which had been
nearly obliterated.
 The monarchist powers of the time attempted to restore the old order. They were
driven by both strategic and ideological concerns.
o Excluding France and a number of other German states, Europe
was absolutist – the countries had no constitutions and were
controlled by monarchs. Liberals would continue to challenge
these ideals and they began making a difference through their
active participation in the government.
o Nationalism was inspired by the idea that political authority
belonged to the people, an idea that was established during the
Revolution. Many fragmented countries (i.e. Germany, Italy – all
of whom were comprised of city states) began to join together
under the influence of the liberals with minimal success.
 Diplomacy in this time period revolved around how and how far the
liberal/nationalist challenge could be contained. The threat became so
pronounced that international governments felt the need to act. They wished to
avoid another French Revolution in one of their nations, and the fact that neither
the 1830 or 1848 French uprisings caused any further rebellion reinforces the
fact that the containment methods were effective.
c. The Eastern Question
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 Between 1815 and 1848, the major issue concerning the powers was the one that
had been ignored by the previous councils – the Eastern Question.
 Eastern Question:
o The Ottoman Empire was in decline and all the powers believed
that they had a right to claim portions of the land. Grecian
Independence was a major headache for Europe (due to the fact
that it had been a part of the Ottoman Empire)
o Mehmet Ali, a subject of the Ottoman Sultan caused trouble in
1831 – 1833 and 1839 – 1841 while conflicting interest of the
Russians/Turks caused the Crimean War (1853)
o The massive size of the Russian Empire was also a cause of
concern to the powers, as it was comparable to Napoleon’s
Empire at its height.
o Between 1815 and 1853 none of the major powers had been at
war with each other. This was considered Europe’s “long peace”
and despite the exclusion of the Eastern Question from the
original pacemakers planning, this suggests that they succeeded
in what they were attempting to do.
I.
Europe Makes Peace: The Treaties of Paris and The Congress of Vienna
Timeline:
March 9, 1814
March 31, 1814
April 6, 1814
May 3, 1814
May 30, 1814
Sept. 1814
Dec. 1814 – early Jan. 1815
Jan – Feb 1815
March 1815
June 9, 1815
June 18, 1815
July 8, 1815
Nov. 20, 1815

Treaty of Chaumont: Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain
worked out terms of anti-French alliance
Russian troops entered Paris
Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to the Mediterranean island
of Elba
Restoration of Louis XVIII to the French throne
First Treaty of Paris: very generous peace terms imposed on
France
Delegates begin to assemble for the Congress of Vienna
Deadlock over the future of Saxony and Poland almost led to
collapse of Congress
Compromise reached over Poland and Saxony
Napoleon escaped from Elba (March 1) and re-entered Paris
(March 20)
Louis XVIII went into exile again
Final Act of Congress of Vienna signed
Battle of Waterloo: Napoleon defeated
Second restoration of Louis XVIII
Second Treaty of Paris: terms harsher than in the first Treaty.
Quadruple Alliance signed: Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria
committed themselves to the containment of France ad lose
future co-operation.
In April of 1814, Emperor Napoleon was forced to abdicate, and Louis XVIII
was made King of France. France was forced to subject to a number of war
reparations including minor territory loss and they committed themselves to
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

accepting the new borders which would be established by the Congress of
Vienna.
The First Treaty of Paris is unique, in that it is very lenient towards the French.
There were no considerations as to taking away territory and all lost colonies
were restored. The allies allowed France to remain strong as they feared a
weakened France would be unstable and vengeful, causing further problems. The
Treaty established the framework that would eventually be applied to the rest of
Europe.
After the defeat of Napoleon, the allies found themselves having difficulty
remaining cooperative and strong – the individual goals and interests of each
country conflicted with others. They found themselves requiring England to act
as mediator to ensure the equal and safe distribution of power and land amongst
the allies.
a. The Congress of Vienna
 Began in October 1814 with most of Europe’s rulers and aristocracy in
attendance.
 Some considered the Congress to be a social occasion and a joke. It seemed to be
guided by a sense of self-satisfaction worshipping the principle of legitimacy
(the rights of the royalty) and ignored liberalism/nationalism.
 Poland and Saxony:
o Resolution of this crisis considered to be one of the most important of the
Congress (if not resolved, could have resulted in war in 1815)
o Russia determined to control all of Poland (including Prussian/Austrian
territory). Prussia would be compensated with the whole of Saxony.
o Austria and Britain did not accept, and France supported them. Tense
negotiation followed resulting in Prussia losing claim to ½ of Saxony,
and keeping some Polish territory while gaining territory in the
Rhineland.
o Significant because: it weakened Prussia enough for Austria to gain
control of the German Confederation, however Prussia’s gains in the
Rhineland would eventually add to its power. The crisis also reveals the
self-centeredness of the countries, however it also shows that the
congress was capable of creating “political equilibrium” where no one
had enough power to control Europe.
 The Netherlands:
o Settlement on Low Countries was not a failure or a success. Britain
wanted the territory to remain out of French control due to its close
proximity.
o The Dutch/Belgians were gathered into the Kingdom of the United
Netherlands, however this solution was short lasting. Tensions among
various groups (Catholics/Protestants, Dutch/Flemish/French) caused a
revolt resulting in a separate Belgian state with other powers
guaranteeing its independence (lasted until 1914)
 Italy:
o Austria was made the major power in the area, regaining control of
Lombardy and annexing Venetia, while also gaining control of the states
of Italy, Parma, Modena and Tuscany (ruled by Emperor’s family). Papal
States and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were sure to look to Vienna for
help.
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o
o
Domination of Italy used to secure three things:
1. Venetia was compensation for loss of Belgium
2. Austria could be relied on to suppress revolution
3. Austria’s presence guaranteed French exclusion
Three Main Problems:
1. Austria’s strict policing against revolution discouraged the
government to consider reforms (revolutionary ideas)
2. Austria became an easy target for Italian nationals giving their
fragmentary movement focus
3. Through taxation of Lombardy and Venetia helped the treasury,
the peninsula as a whole was a resource drain.
b. Assessing the Congress of Vienna
 Austrian power was vital to the Vienna Settlement and this was
considered to be a weakness. They had great influence in Italy and had
a leading role in the German Confederation. They were tasked with
maintaining a strong central Europe against French or Russian
insurgence.
 Despite the fact that Austria now held a great deal of power, they were in
danger of being overthrown as other nations had more economic and
political organization and strength.
 Two strategies would have allowed Austria to fulfill its commitments:
1. Internal Reform: the Austrian government ignored Metternich’s
advisories and so the government was left short of funds and
could barely mobilize its army.
2. Metternich was able to convince other leaders at critical times
that what was good for Austria was good for Europe as a
whole. This provided a temporary solution, however the
willingness of other countries to keep up this charade was
unlikely.
 France remained a great power, but it was closely watched:
o The first Treaty of Paris was fairly lenient to the French,
however Napoleon’s escape and return disinclined the allies to
be as lenient again. The second Treaty imposed much harsher
indemnity along with occupation.
o France’s borders and areas that were prone to trouble were
strengthened and buffer states were put into place, quelling
French expansion ambition.
o The institution of a constitutional monarchy provided stability as
it sated both the desires of liberals and monarchists. The
government became stable and cautious.
 The Quadruple Alliance (1815) was created and devoted itself to 20
years of upholding the Second Treaty of Paris and preventing the
return of Napoleon. Instituted the holding of conferences between the
nations to consider and take action for the benefit of all European
nations.
II.
The Age of Metternich – 1: 1815 – 1824 – Conducting the Concert of Europe
Timeline:
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1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
Carlsbad Decrees
Congres of Troppau; Troppau Protocol
Congress of Laibach
Greek Revolt began
Congress of Verona
French intervention in Spain
a. Metternich
 Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1821 only falling after the 1848
revolutions (he was a prominent member of European politics for
nearly 40 years)
 He was able to control Europe and shape politics to suit Austrian needs.
He imposed a system of government that was absolutist, aristocratic
and repressive so as to frustrate the desires of the people for freedom.
 His strongest personal attributes were being able to convince the other
leaders of Europe to see things through Vienna’s eyes through his
charismatic diplomacy. His greatest successes were between 1815 and
1821.
b. The Holy Alliance
 But for the brief crisis in Vienna during 1814 – 1815, the last few years
of the war held cooperation between the powers (Russia, Austria,
Britain and Prussia). The leaders were convinced that cooperation must
be continued throughout peacetime.
 Alexander I (who was a religious fanatic) brought forward the concept of
a Holy Alliance in 1815. He aimed to create peace and harmony in
Europe through religious intervention, however the more politically
minded diplomats were disinterested in this idea.
 Austria was caught in the middle of this debate over the Alliance: the
Alliance stated that the best way to bring about peace was through
sweeping liberal reform (something undesirable), however they could
not risk offending one of their most powerful allies.
 The Holy Alliance would become simply a group of powerful Christian
nations who strove to protect their subjects. Metternich once again took
a radical idea and channeled it through conservatively.
c. The Congress
 Was intended to be as inclusive as possible of all nations in Europe. This
appeared to be one of the aspects of the Congress System being carried
out.
 The word “system” is misleading as the meetings occurred in no planned
order:
o Aix-la-Chapelle, September – November 1818
o Troppau, October – December 1820
o Laibach, January – May 1821
o Verona, October – December 1822
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 The first meeting was the only one considered to be a real success.
France had paid off its indemnities and was welcomed as a powerful
nation, however tension existed between the other major powers.
 The Congress of Troppau:
o The most significant of the meetings as it was during revolution
in Germany, France, Italy and Spain.
o Russia’s Position:
 The great powers should act collectively and quell the
uprisings by imposing settlements or constitutions on
troubled areas.
o Britain’s Position:
 Did not want to fix situation with a standard set of
principles – each situation was unique and should be
dealt with accordingly.
o These differences were a source of tension throughout, as
Austria recognized the need to take action, however they did
not want to risk offending Russia by operating on their own
(Italy was considered to be Austrian territory).
o They also had to consider whether they wanted to risk the spread
of liberal constitutionalism by allowing Russia to intervene in
any and all areas of Europe in the name of peace.
o Metternich was able to move around this situation by introducing
the idea that Europe was revolutionizing, convincing the other
leaders that conservative action was the answer. The Troppau
Protocol worked in Austria’s favor – it was conservative and
anti-revolutionary, and limited Russia’s power.
o This also succeeded in creating a gap between Russia and
France, an alliance between whom would have been
disastrous.
 Metternich continued controlling politics in Europe and was able to
suppress revolution and liberalism. He persuaded the Tsar not to
intervene in Greece (independence against Ottomans) and he gained
the right for Austria to police Italy.
 The Congress System was a failure past this point – it became a way in
which Metternich attempted to reconcile international differences
while retaining control and suppressing revolution. He succeeded with
this for a brief time, however his influence was wearing thin.
III.
The Age of Metternich – 2: 1825 – 1841 – Decline?
Timeline:
1827
1829
1830
1831
Battle of Navarino
Treaty of Adrianople
Revolution in France (July)
‘Chiffon de Carlsbad’
Belgian Revolt
Polish Revolt
Austria crushed
Revolution in Papal States
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1833
1834
1839
1840
1841
Belgian independence confirmed by Treaty of
London
Mehmet Ali invaded Syria
Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi
Münchengrätz agreement
Quadruple Alliance
Mehmet Ali at war again with Turkey
Four Power Ultimatum to Mehmet Ali; Thiers
threatened war in Europe
Straits Convention
 Between 1825 and 1841, a series of crisis caused this period of peace to
collapse. The Tsar refused to recognize Metternich’s authority and as
revolutions began breaking out across Europe, Metternich lost power.
a. The Eastern Question
 Some considered the Ottoman Empire to be one of the great powers of
Europe. The Sultan was considered ineffective and corrupt and it was
predicted that the Empire would soon collapse due to:
o The Viceroy of Egypt rebelling against Ottoman authority
o A rise in nationalism among Christians in the Empire
o Pressure from Russia to acquire Constantinople
 The collapse of the Ottoman Empire was considered significant as many
of the European powers had stakes there and wanted to profit should
the Empire collapse.
 Austrian Concern:
o Collapse of Ottoman power would lead to Russian expansion
into the Balkans (an unstable area on the edge of Austria)
 French Concern:
o The Congress of Vienna tightly locked their eastern borders and
so they wished to expand their territory across the
Mediterranean, and Egypt (whom the French had helped in the
past) was their key into the area.
 British Concern:
o Had vital imperial/naval interests in the eastern Mediterranean.
Although it had no interest in actually controlling the Ottoman
Empire, it wanted to ensure that no other nation could either
(trade routes could be blocked or naval dominance diminished)
 Russia:
o At minimum they wished to ensure that the trade route from
Russia through the Black Sea into the Mediterranean was left
open. At most, they wished to assist in the disintegration of the
empire allowing Russia to send warships to the Mediterranean
and gain control of Constantinople.
 The Greek Revolt:
o Russia was relatively restrained during the Revolution. The
Greeks had counted on the Russians as allies, however
Metternich managed to convince them that the Greeks were
rebels.
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o After the death of Alexander I, Nicholas I changed Russia’s
policy and struck a deal with Britain for Grecian
independence. As a result of their joint attack on the Ottoman
Empire, the Turks declared war on Russia.
o Although the Russians were able to near Constantinople, the
Tsar on advice from his advisors pulled back and allowed the
Empire to remain. They did however gain some territory in the
area and more control over politics.
o Greece gained independence as an autonomous state.
o This was a disaster for Metternich as all his predictions were
wrong – Britain, France and Russia all worked for Greek
independence, and the Ottoman Empire remained standing.
b. Further Problems
 The fall of the Bourbons in France in 1830 was disastrous for
Metternich’s career. It threatened to overthrow everything he had done
and cause the spread of revolution and liberalism across Europe.
 It became evident that Metternich over reacted to this situation:
o Louis-Phillipe, the new king of France, stopped France from
becoming a republic when he claimed the throne, preventing
revolution from spreading. Metternich attempted to convince
the allies to restore the Bourbons, however he had to settle
with issuing a warning to the government to behave.
o The German and Italian revolutions made no progress –
Germany was complacent and only pushed for publications
bans to be lifted. Italy was bloodier, however Austrian arms
and lack of French support doomed it.
o The Polish revolution was more serious as army officers revolted
against Russia for fear of being deployed. They declared
national independence, however the absence of the French and
the lack of enthusiasm by the peasants caused the revolution to
fail (may have dissuaded Russian intervention in Belgium).
o The Belgian revolution was the most dangerous of them all as
rioting broke out over religious and political differences
between different groups as well as economic hardship. The
Dutch and the Belgians failed to contain the situation; so
international assistance was called for, however no one was
willing to intervene due to reactions from other nations,
possibly causing a major war.
o Palmerston (Britain) ensured war did not break out by proposing
that Belgium be granted independence in 1830. He convinced
the other powers to sign off on this and so Belgium was made
an individual and neutral country. This was a victory for
revolutionary liberalism/nationalism, and Metternich was
appalled by Palmerston’s policies.
c. The Eastern Question again: the adventures of Mehmet Ali:
 While the allies were occupied with the Belgian crisis, there was a series
of events that occurred in the Ottoman Empire.
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 Mehmet Ali, the Egyptian Viceroy, decided to attempt to take over the
Ottoman Empire and establish his family as the ruling family. He had
access to the strongest military force in all of the Near East, so his
chances of success seemed high.
 Ali launched his attack in November of 1831 and quickly approached
Constantinople; the Ottoman Empire appeared to be about to fall. The
Sultan though asked for Russian assistance and in exchange for Egypt
ensuring that the entry into the Black Sea was guarded, the Russians
would assist. The British were horrified by this and feared that the
Russians would turn Turkey into one of their satellite states.
 The attack by the Sultan in 1839 nearly brought about the Second Near
East Crisis. He attacked Ali’s armies and as defeated. The Sultan died,
and his successor was weak and ineffective, and was quickly used by
Russia to gain Middle Eastern power and disturb relations between
France and Britain.
 The negotiations that occurred in 1840 revolved around deciding how
much conquered area Ali would be able to have. It was decided that
Ali would have to give up significant amounts of land including Syria
– this caused much outrage amongst the French who were not only
excluded from negotiations, but had a stake in what was decided.
 The French Prime Minister, Thiers, hoped that Ali’s forces would
withstand the allies so Palmerston could be eliminated, and Prussia and
Austria bullied into accepting the French, however, Ali was defeated,
Palmerston kept his position, and at the notion of a European war,
King Louis-Phillipe retracted his support causing Thiers to resign.
 As a result, Russia lost their treaty with Egypt for protection of the
entrance to the Black Sea, as well as their exclusive influence and
control over Constantinople, and the Ottoman Empire was restored and
given full sovereignty (no naval ship could enter their territory).
 This is considered one of the most notable achievements of the Concert
of Europe. Other aspects of the crisis were:
o Theirs’ threats of war on the Rhine impacted the growth of
German nationalism
o Thwarting of French ambition was a major blow to LouisPhillipe
o Palmerston’s arguments with Theirs damaged Anglo-French
relations (liberal powers of Europe set at odds)
o Anglo-Russian cooperation led to the Russians underestimating
what the British knew of their intentions to move into the
Ottoman Empire.
d. East vs. West: ideology or self-interest in European diplomacy?
 Metternich’s greatest success was coordinating Russian and Austrian
policy on three points: the Polish problem, revolution threatening
Europe, and the Eastern Question.
o There were many Polish nationals within Austria and Russia, so
it was felt action was needed to quell Polish nationalism and
their insurrections.
o This alliance was later joined by Prussia and each monarch
became devoted to the preservation and assistance of all the
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other monarchs, should any liberal challenges arise
(Troppau/Holy Alliance continued)
o Russia’s reassurance that they had no intention of destroying the
Ottoman Empire and they would assist with holding up the
Sultan.
 This alliance seemed very sinister, so the British created their own
Quadruple Alliance (Britain, France, Portugal and Spain) to combat the
“triple league of despotic powers”
 Palmerston really wanted to keep France under British political control
as they assumed that since France was looking for friendship with
other nations, the partnership would be under British terms.
 The French were reluctant to accept the deal and so turned to the
Austrians for an alliance, however European diplomacy failed to divide
along ideological lines, and by 1848 both Guizot (the French foreign
minister) and Metternich had lost all authority due to revolution.
IV.
The Age of Metternich – 3: 1848 – Fall
a. Interpretations of Metternich
 Historians regard the 1848 Revolution as the judgment by the Europeans
on the Austrian Chancellor and the international policies he supported.
 The Vienna Settlement appeared to be Metternich’s way of frustrating
German and Italian nationalist ambitions to gain more power in
Europe. Metternich had made it his life’s goal to crush out liberalism
and nationalism.
 Metternich’s critics said that he would fail due to the “manifestation of
the popular will” in nationalism, and the careful guidance of Bismarck
and Cavour. 20th Century critics blamed the failure on the rise of the
middle class and industrialization.
 Metternich is accused of being anachronistic as he “defended the
indefensible” and tried to reinstate the old hierarchies, however
modern critics are less general and say that it was due to a number of
these factors that Metternich fell.
 Restoration Europe was by no means static economically or socially – its
growth continued and industrialization spread. Metternich’s reaction to
this was hostile and counterproductive.
 The British, in response to approaching rebellion, granted their citizens
the right to vote – an act Metternich considered preposterous. It caused
him to incorrectly predict the British aristocracy’s fall; this instead
allowed the aristocracy to hold power for decades longer.
 Metternich viewed the world as an arena of perpetual struggle between
two great principles: of order and good vs. anarchy and evil. “Every
existing right was not merely legitimate but holy; every call for change
or attempt at change made by anyone except a legitimate sovereign
was not merely illegitimate, but wickedly presumptuous.” (Schroeder)
 Although Metternich was at heart in favor of a paternalistic, efficient
government, his own personal views would prevent him from being
able to successfully bring about his view. Conservatism must be
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flexible, allowing liberal change to be made where it cannot be
avoided, while guiding the process and preserving what it can.
b. The Long Peace and the Great Powers
 There was nearly unbroken peace from 1815 to 1853 as a result of a
collective change in the attitude of Europe’s Great Powers toward each
other.
 The Schroeder Thesis on the Long Peace:
o Napoleon’s reign changed the views of Europe’s leaders. They
abandoned their rivalries and instead focused on international
relations and cooperation. They built a diplomatic culture of
self-restraint and mutual respect, allowing what could have
been major crises to be contained and dealt with peacefully.
o Prussian Foreign Policy:
 Up to 1840 was very timid, and afterwards very
eccentric reflecting the ruler’s personalities.
 Frederick William III was very bland and manipulated
by Metternich where as Frederick William IV was an
outrageous dreamer.
 Due to this, Prussia was the least of the powers.
o French Foreign Policy:
 Keys – prudence and caution
 France was involved in a number of political
maneuverings, however it was aware that if it was too
radical or stepped out of line, the Waterloo Coalition
would quash it.
 Napoleon III caused major damage and caused the allies
to believe France had not yet settled down
o Austrian Foreign Policy:
 Metternich was very anxious to maintain peace and
stability in Europe, with a primary focus on upholding
legitimacy.
 They aimed to keep the borders defined by the Congress
of Vienna, and defend the absolutist monarchies
associated with them.
 They wanted this so as to uphold their highly vulnerable
multi-national empire and ensure that a war would not
break out (their treasury was depleted and war would
bankrupt them)
o British Foreign Policy:
 The three major foreign ministers in Britain all held
startlingly different views in ideology and personality
– Castlereagh was conservative, whereas Canning and
Palmerston were liberals
 Two major objectives guided British foreign policy:
containment/cooperation of France (west) and
containment/cooperation of Russia (east). The
Crimean War (1853 – 1856) resulted from Russian
movement, and but for France’s restraint another war
could’ve started in 1831.
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 They held these goals as they wanted to show that they
remained superior to France, their age-old enemy
whom they defeated in their quest for world
dominance. They wanted to preserve the peace,
because they had won.
o Russian Foreign Policy:
 Russian foreign policy was the source of much unrest
from 1815 – 1853 because the other powers were
unsure of what the Russians would use their massive
army for; Paris and Constantinople could be within
their grasp.
 Alexander I wanted to bring Christian peace and justice
to Europe, however Metternich deceived him into
doing otherwise (Troppau Protocol). Nicholas I was
much more perceptive, allowing France to have 2
rebellions and exercising restraint in his dealings with
the Ottomans.
 Internal governing issues led to Russian restraint during
the crises of this time paired with unwillingness to
shed Russian blood on foreign soil.
o Although Schroeder’s interpretation focuses on the idea
that European policy of the time was built on mutual
respect and cooperation, another interpretation states that
events were driven by a blend of caution, calculation and
self-interest. They were driven by a collective fear of
revolution and liberalism than by a desire to repent and
cooperate.
o Schroeder states that it is necessary to look not at the
individual statesmen who participated in the negotiations
but instead at the underlying structure of European
diplomacy. The balance of power in Europe was not
equal – it was controlled by Britain and Russia (both of
whom were considered undefeatable: Britain for its navy
and Russia for its size and army). Austria held some
regional power, and Prussia can be effectively
discounted.
o Metternich held little control over the better part of Europe
– Britain had control of the west, while Russia controlled
the east, and these two would cooperate do dictate
politics in Europe and the East. These superpowers
respected each other’s spheres of influence, so peace
could exist, however war broke out when they each tried
to impose their own solution on the Eastern Question.
o The predominance that Russia and Britain held becomes
evident after the Crimean War when the two powers
retreat into semi-isolation, freeing the rest of Europe to
do as they please. This causes tremendous change to the
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map of Europe to the point where it is almost
unrecognizable.
 The Crimean War:
o Lasted form 1853 – 1856 and was the bloodiest conflict in
the Eastern Question. It was fought in and around the
Black Sea and pitted the French, British and Ottoman
forces against the Russians. The reasons for it were
ridiculously trivial and the adjustments made to the
Congress of Paris were nearly non-existent.
o The causes of the war may be inconsequential, however the
diplomatic situation that arose from it is highly relevant.
(Austria suffered disastrous consequences)
o The conflict erupted over a question of prestige – the
Ottomans controlled the Christian Holy places in Middle
East. They allowed full access to all Christians, however
the monks that controlled the area had divided allegiance;
half were subservient to the Pope (the Latins) and half to
the Tsar (the Orthodox).
o Napoleon III attempted to force the Sultan to restore French
control over the area so as to impress a domestic Catholic
audience, however this backfired spectacularily with the
highly offended Tsar dispatching one of his generals and
declaring that the Sultan would reverse all the changes he
had made and grant Russia a protectorate over the
Empires 13 million Christians or war would ensue.
o The Tsar’s threat failed miserably:
 The British were determined to protect Ottoman
integrity and the confused Tsar believed that he
had convinced the British that the collapse of the
Ottomans was inevitable (he had not).
 The Tsar also mistakenly believed that the
Austrians were aligned with the Russians; they
were not and viewed the situation with much
alarm.
 Finally the Tsar believed that all he was asking for
was Russia’s right – in fact the most important
concepts had already ben conceded by the Turks
previously. When the Turks rejected the Tsar’s
requests, they were not trying to escape their
commitments; merely to protect their
independence.
o Nicholas I was almost solely responsible for the Crimean
War due to his bullying, selfishness, incomprehension
and misjudgment.
o At the last minute, a solution was drawn up called the
Vienna Note, however it excluded the Turks and when
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they wished to join, the Russians refused, using their own
interpretation of the Note, offending Britain and
guaranteeing war.
o At the opening of the war, the Ottomans suffered heavy
losses to the Russians, and it became evident that if the
Ottomans wished to survive, an alliance with Britain and
France was necessary.
o The war occurred over a period of two years and with
terrible casualties and a spectacular display of
incompetent leadership.
o As a result of this war, the following territorial adjustments
were made:
 Russia lost the protectorate over Moldavia and
Wallachia and all the Ottoman Christians.
 The Black Sea was demilitarized, which was a great
source of humiliation for the Russians.
o Britain’s gains for winning the war were minimal at best,
and Britain underwent self-criticism and isolationism.
France was satisfied with their prestige victory and their
friendship with Britain.
o The greatest loser of this war was not Russia, but Austria
who lost no troops or territory, but the good favor of the
Tsar. Nicholas did not receive Austria’s support and felt
betrayed.
o The Crimean War did not cause the unifications of
Germany and Italy, however they created the political
environments in which it was possible for this to occur.
o An age in which the only guiding principle was “every man
for himself” resulted and would lead Europe into the
latter half of the 19th Century.
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Glossary of Terms:
Ideology: is a system of political ideas, which helps to determine policy and mobilize
support.
Absolutism: A political system under which the monarchy or government has complete
or absolute power, without and checks or balances.
Liberals: In nineteenth century context, people who believed in the rights of individuals.
Nationalism: A belief that peoples of a particular race, background or culture should be
citizens of their own country or nation-state, or a concept vigorously promoting
patriotic sentiments.
Legitimacy: A belief that states could only justifiably be ruled by their “legitimate”, i.e.
traditional rulers.
Indemnity: A payment extracted by a victorious country from another defeated war.
Constitutional Monarchy: A system of government in which a monarch governs
according to a constitution, usually involving a parliament, which limits the
monarch’s power.
The Concert of Europe: The name given to the ideal- sometimes achieved in practiceaccording to which Europe’s Great Powers would act together in a spirit of trust
and mutual goodwill, to preserve peace and defuse crises.
Reactionary: A belief or policy fundamentally opposed to change or reform.
Unilateral: An action taken by one county or person without consultation with anybody
else.
Entente: Friendly agreement.
Autonomy: Self-government/ self-rule.
Anachronism: Transferring the expectations or values of one era to an earlier (or later)
one is to be guilty of anachronism.
Demilitarization: The removal of armed forces or military equipment from a region.
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