Download ANCIENT BRITAIN

1
Organizational items:
1. variants of taking the exam (after each lecture I ask about 5 students to stay and
to answer the material of the previous lecture and if a student is always present and
is always ready to answer the material of the previous lecture he/she will be
exempt from the exam in June; a student gets a mark for every answer and the
arithmetic mean is the examination mark; if a student isn’t ready once he/she will
answer all the material at the exam)
2. attendance (if a student is always present and is always ready to answer the
material of the previous lecture, the student will be exempt from the exam)
3. synopses (I’ll give the task later)
4. seminars (I’ll give the task later)
5. map (last year the students complained …)
ANCIENT BRITAIN
1. Preceltic and Celtic Peoples. (two variants of pronunciation)
You have probably heard that the British history is a story about invasions at
least throughout the first millennium AD. What invasions should we enumerate
here?
2. Roman Invasion.
3. Anglo-Saxon Britain.
4. Invasions of the Vikings.
5. Harold. William the Duke (г-г) of Normandy.
During the 1st lecture we should mention the names of the country (the state is
officially called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the
United Kingdom, the UK; Britain or Great Britain is often also incorrectly used to
the political state; actually Britain or Great Britain (GB) is an area consisting of
what? England, Scotland and Wales, but not Ireland) and show its parts England,
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland on the map.
2
1. Preceltic and Celtic People.
Most of you have heard the name of the greatest ancient monument located on
the British Isles. What is it?
The greatest material monument of the ancient population of the British Isles is
Stonehenge located on the Salisbury Plain (равнина Солсбери) (I should show
it on the map).
The first inhabitants of the British Isles were hunters who came from the
Continent during the Old Stone Age (древнекаменный век или палеолит) (2
million years ago up to 13000 BC). They were able to come by land because at
that period the Channel didn’t separate the British Isles from the Continent.
In about 3000 BC the Beaker people (люди культуры чаш) lived on the British
Isles. The people were called so because they could make beakers – clay mugs.
(In Modern English a beaker is used in the meaning пластиковый или
бумажный стаканчик; мензурка). The Beaker people were farmers and
already used metal.
In about 1000 BC invaders arrived from the territory of modern France. They
were the Celts. They had artistic skills and were good craftsmen. Some of you
know what their priests were called. What’s the word? Their priests called the
Druids were skilful in teaching and administration.
The Celtic dialects were imposed on the native population. The Gaelik ([ei]
г(а)эльская) form was spread mainly in Ireland and Scotland, the Brythonic ([i]
бритская) form in England and Wales. The Brythonic tribe of the Celts gave its
name to the whole country.
So who invaded Britain after the Celts?
2. Roman Invasion.
The Roman Emperor Julius Caesar carried out two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC
and both the expeditions were a failure. Almost a century later in 43 AD
Emperor Claudius sent his legions ([i:dg nz]) to occupy Britain. The British
3
were not conquered easily but after all the occupation lasted more than 3
centuries and the Romans saw their mission as civilizing the country.
The Roman occupation was spread mostly over England while Scotland, Wales
and Ireland remained unconquered preserving Celtic culture.
The Romans were in Great Britain for over 350 years. They were both an
occupying army and the rulers. They imposed Pax Romana – Roman Peace,
which stopped tribal wars. The Romans also protected Britain from the attacks
of other tribes.
The centre of Roman Rule in Britain was London. London was walled, the
Thames was bridged and straight roads connected London with garrison towns.
The name of the city originated from the Latin word Londinium and there are
different points of view on its meaning. The most common is that it meant
“furious” and the Celts who were not conquered easily.
Under Emperor Hadrian in 120 AD a great wall was built across Britain
between the river Tyne and the Solway Firth to protect the Romans against the
attacks of Scots and Picts (I should show it on the map). Hadrian’s wall (вал
Адриана) was and actually is a vast project and a material monument, it was
117 km long, 5-6 metres high and about 3 metres wide. It was made of stones
and turf and now it is quite well preserved.
Now what about the religion? Which religion did the Romans bring to Britain?
The Romans also brought Christianity to Britain and the British Church became
a strong institution. So what words appeared in English at that time? The native
language absorbed a lot of Latin words at that time.
Well, why did the Romans have to leave Britain? And when did it happen?
By the fifth century the Roman Empire was disintegrating and the Roman
legions in Britain had to return to Rome to defend it from the attacks of
invaders. Britain was left to defend and rule itself.
And what was the next invasion?
3. Anglo-Saxon Britain.
4
Barbaric Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes made raids against the
British throughout the fifth and sixth centuries. The British Celts tried to check
the Germanic tribes. Who was the hero of that period? Most of you have heard
his name. Which king? and that was the period of the half-legendary King
Arthur and who? his nights of the Round Table who defended Christianity
against the heathen Anglo-Saxons.
The Germanic invaders managed to oust do you remember the TV
advertisement of the air freshener? the British population to the mountainous
parts of Great Britain. So the Anglo-Saxons controlled the central part of
Britain, i.e. England while the Celts fled west to preserve their culture.
The Anglo-Saxon England was a network (образование) of small kingdoms. In
the 7th century England was divided into Seven Kingdoms known as the
Heptarchy (гептархия – союз семи королевств англов и саксов). The largest
three were Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex.
The Anglo-Saxon kings were elected by the members of the Council of
Chieftains ([первый ударный, в последнем schwa] – вожди) (the Witan –
витенагемот, совет старейшин при короле у англосаксов). The kings ruled
with the advice of their councilors. It became a custom to elect a member of the
royal family and the power of the king grew parallel to the size and strength of
his kingdom. The king’s subjects gave him free labour and military service,
paid taxes and in return the King gave them protection and lands.
And what was the next invasion?
4. Invasions of the Vikings.
By the end of the 8th century another invasion took place on the British Isles.
Non-Christian people arrived from Scandinavia. The invaders were called the
Norsemen ((древние) скандинавы) or the Danes (зд. древние скандинавы; in
Modern English of course датчане) or the Vikings. Of course you’ve heard that
they were brilliant sailors. They raided the Eastern Coast of England and by the
middle of the 9th century almost all English kingdoms were defeated by the
5
Norsemen. Only Wessex resisted the Vikings. The king of Wessex was Alfred
who was later called Alfred what? the Great. No other British king has earned
this title. Alfred the Great made the Vikings accept Christianity and live in
Eastern England while he was the master of the South and West of England. He
created an efficient army and built a fleet of warships on the Vikings’ pattern.
The country at that period received a new code of laws which improved the
standards of the English society. New churches were built, foreign scholars
were brought, schools were founded. Alfred the Great himself translated a
number of books from Latin and began the Anglo-Saxon chronicle, a year-byyear history of England.
5. Harold. William the Duke (г-г) of Normandy.
Alfred the Great saved England from the Vikings’ conquest. In 1042 Edward
from the House (дин-я) of Wessex was elected king by the Council of
Chieftains. He got the name Edward the Confessor (Исповедник; confess –
исповедовать), since he was a religious monarch. William the Duke of
Normandy was his cousin and close friend. Edward the Confessor died in 1066
without an obvious heir and the Council of Chieftains elected Harold king of
England. Harold’s right to the English throne was challenged (оспорено) by
William the Duke of Normandy.
1066 was a crucial year for Harold and for English history. Harold had to fight
against two enemies at the same time. In the South William was preparing to
land in England and in the North the Norsemen renewed their attacks. Harold
succeeded in defeating the Norsemen and rushed his army to the South to meet
William who had landed near Hastings ([ei]). Harold’s men were tired and
William’s army was better armed. After a hard long struggle Harold and his
brothers were killed in the battle of Hastings. Some historians believe that
Harold was killed by an arrow in his eye. If Harold had waited and given his
army a rest, the result of battle might have been different, but as we know,
history doesn’t know the Conditional Mood.
6
William captured London and was crowned King of England in Westminster
Abbey in December 1066. The Norman period in English history began.
BRITAIN IN MIDDLE AGES
1. Anglo-Norman Britain (11-12). The Royal House of Normandy.
You may know the name of the next royal dynasty.
2. Plantagenet Kings (12-14).
3. Lancaster Dynasty (15).
And you may know which war we are going to speak about in this question.
The Wars of the Roses.
1. Anglo-Norman Britain (11-12). The Royal House of Normandy.
The Norman Conquest had social, political and cultural consequences. The new
foreign aristocracy captured power and lands. Saxon bishops were replaced by
Normans.
There was a language gap (языковой барьер) between the local Anglo-Saxon
population and the new landowners. Norman French was the language of law
and authority, English remained the language of common people, and you
understand very well that your favourite foreign language Latin was the
language of what? the Church.
The Royal House of Normandy started with William the Conqueror (10661087). He died as a result of falling from his horse in a battle and was
succeeded by his two sons – William II and Henry I.
All land in the country belonged to the king. He was the greatest landowner in
the country and gave away the land to the barons. The barons held their land in
return for services to the king. As you can clearly see, the barons didn’t need all
the lands and they required knightly services from their tenants. For example
during the reign of William I 170 had in their service about 4000 who were a
separate social group.
7
The social, political and cultural changes taking place after
the Norman
Conquest were the following:
a strong royal government,
the supreme power of the king over his vassals,
the establishment of the feudal hierarchy ([ju:] [ai(schwa)- -k]),
making of Parliament.
2. Plantagenet Kings (12-14).
The first Plantagenet king was Henry II. His reign was one of territorial
expansion. Richard I the Lion Heart (1189-1199) spent most of his life in
cru’sades (крестовый поход), but he was not very lucky. He was captured and
kept imprisoned in Austria waiting for the payment of a huge ransom. Then he
returned to England to stop his younger brother John from ascending the throne
and finally Richard was killed. So John became the king.
John Lackland (what’s the Russian for “lack”?) (Иоанн Безземельный) was
the most unpopular English king. He lost most of his French possessions, he
broke his father’s heart with misbehaviour, he quarrelled with the Pope, etc.
The list of his stupidities was endless but he did one good thing (or rather was
forced to do it). The point is he signed an important historic document. You may
have heard its name? In 1215 the barons made John Lackland sign the Magna
([m широкое е]) Carta Libertata (the Great Charter of Liberties). This
document limited the prerogative of the Crown, extended the power of the
barons and became the foundation stone (краеугольный камень, основа) of
the Englishmen’s liberty. During the struggle for the Great Charter the legions
of barons openly opposed the King, didn’t pay taxes, raised an army of knights
and the King had to sign the Charter.
King John Lackland’s son, Henry III faced a further development of the barons’
protests. After a very bad harvest in 1257 Henry III demanded a third of all
English property. It resulted in the barons’ rebellion. The country was divided
8
into supporters and enemies of the King and a civil war broke out. Henry III
was taken prisoner, then rescued by his son (Prince Edward) and finally Henry
III managed to secure his crown.
During the reign of Edward I (1272-1307) there were not only lords and
bishops in Parliament but also knights and townsmen. It demonstrated the
growing importance and wealth of the “commons” in the country.
Edward I succeeded in imposing English rule on Wales. His son was made the
Prince of Wales. Since that time the eldest son of the English monarch has been
given the title. Edward I also made military raids to Scotland and was even
called the Hammer of Scots (Молот шотландцев).
The son of Edward I whose name was Edward II wasn’t talented or successful.
Social relations in the country were undergoing changes in the 13 th century.
Free labour services (трудовые повинности) gave way to wage labour
(наёмный труд).
The 13th century was a period of substantial economic activity. The wealth of
the country was coming from the exports of wool and wheat.
The son of Edward II, Edward III (1327-1377), was a passionate fighter. He
started the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) when he declared his claim to the
French throne since his mother had been the sister of the French King who
didn’t leave a male heir. The results of the first stage of the war were not so
successful as the English had expected them to be.
In 1348 the outbreak of plague, the Black Death, was a terrible disaster in
Europe and England. More than 1/3 of the English population died.
The economy and trade of England suffered and social unrest was spreading. In
1381 a new poll tax (подушный налог) was imposed and people revolted in the
south and south-east of England (the Peasants’ Revolt). The ‘rebels led by Wat
Tyler and John Ball marched to London, captured the Tower, killed the
archbishop and the Lord Chancellor. The Peasants’ Revolt had a lot of
demands: a new charter of liberties, the end of serfdom (крепостное право),
9
return of church land to people, etc. What Russian revolts can we compare with
the Peasants’ Revolt?
Richard II (1377-1399) met the peasants and seemed to agree, but during the
negotiations Wat Tyler was treacherously killed and his head was shown to the
'rebels to persuade them to retreat from London. The 'rebels retreated from
London and the Peasants' Revolt was defeated. But the ruling class was frightened
and the poll tax was withdrawn. Besides the barons didn't dare to refuse the
peasants who wished to buy freedom and the peasants dependence in Britain
disappeared by the 15th century.
Richard II was the last king from the House of whom? Plantagenets. He was
dethroned by Henry IV (1399-1413) who started the House of Lancaster.
The 13th
century is described by historians as the Plantagenet spring after the
severe Norman winter. The 13th century was the period of the new gothic style
in architecture, foundation of universities and development of Parliament (when
the British political institution is meant, no article is used). But the 14th brought
the disasters of the Hundred Years’ War (1338-1453), the Peasants’ Revolt
(1381), and the Black Death (1348). At the same time there were achievements
in literature (Geoffrey Chaucer completed “The Canterbury Tales”) and
architecture. Also it was the period of active development of the English
language.
3. Lancaster Dynasty (15). The Wars of the Roses.
Henry IV (1399-1413) started the Lancaster Dynasty and the Lancaster Kings
continued the Hundred Years’ War. Henry V was successful in his military
campaign, and Henry VI was crowned to Britain and France but lost the French
lands (all of you remember the French national heroine’s name who helped the
French to win the war - St Joan of Arc). The reign of Henry VI ended in
confusion and a cruel war which one? – the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485).
Why is it called in this way? The barons of the North supported the Lancaster
who had a red rose in the coat of arms. The barons of the South supported the
Yorks whose coat of arms was decorated with a white rose. The bloody struggle
10
for the crown lasted for 30 years. It was a merciless annihilation [nai shwa l] of
the old aristocracy with rights to become rulers.
Finally the two dynasties [di-] were destroyed and a distant relative of the
Lancaster family – Henry Tudor married Elisabeth of York in 1485 (the two
roses united) and Henry Tudor was crowned Henry VII (1485-1509).
The 15th century saw development of woollen manufacture, steel making
developed, trade development facilitated (способствовало) the growth of the
Navy and shipbuilding. Folklore advanced (what should be mentioned here?
ballads of Robin Hood), singing, dramatic arts, portrait painting left wonderful
examples for us to admire.
So, in the 15th century the forces of progress laid foundation for destroying
feudalism, for developing capitalism and formation of the English national
economy.
THE TUDOR AGE (1485-1603)
1. Henry VII.
2. Henry VIII. The English Reformation.
3. The heiresses [‘e schwa resiz] of Henry VIII. Mary I. The Golden Age of
Elisabeth.
1. Henry VII.
The end of the Middle Ages was actually the beginning of the Tudor Age. The
English type of absolute monarchy was shaped by Henry VII (1485-1509). He
was opposed to the power of old barons. A bit later you’ll be able to understand
why and you’ll also explain it. He ordered that their old castles should be
destroyed and he became very rich with the confiscated wealth. He was strong
enough to prevent any revolt of the nobles and he enjoyed merchants and small
landowners’ support. Merchants supported Henry VII because he developed
trade and small landowners got the lands which had belonged to the old barons.
These two groups were useful allies [‘широкое е laiz] of the Tudor kings and
11
queens and enabled them to become despotic rulers while at first they played
the progressive historic role.
The financial policy of Henry VII filled the treasury and strengthened the
throne. Besides he improved the position of England in international affairs.
2. Henry VIII. The English Reformation.
The son of Henry VII, Henry VIII (1509-1547), was a wasteful monarch and on
his death the treasury was practically empty. Henry VIII invited to his court
outstanding people, for example Thomas More who was one of the greatest
humanists of the Renaissance period (you may remember the title of his bestknown book Utopia). He was appointed Lord Chancellor but dared to
contradict the king and was beheaded. To be exact Thomas More refused to
recognize Henry VIII as Head of the Church of England and it cost him his life.
It was the destiny of many Chancellors at that period which made the post the
most dangerous in the country. It’s possible to compare the Chancellors’
destiny only with the destiny of the King’s wives. By the way, how many wives
did Henry VIII have? Six. Their destiny is sort of ironically described in the
following rhyme:
Divorced, beheaded, died,
Divorced, beheaded, survived.
Henry VIII had 6 wives. His first wife was Catherine of Aragon (Екатерина
Арагонская). She gave birth to Mary who later became the Queen. Catherine of
Aragon was divorced against the Pope’s will. So Henry VIII declared himself
Head of the Church of England (do you remember it cost Thomas More his life)
(Protestantism – separating of the Western Christian Church from the Roman
Catholic Church). It was the English way of Reformation, because the
Reformation in England was conducted from above by the King. The second
wife was who? Anne Boleyn [b schwa ‘lin] (Анна Болейн) who gave birth to
Princess Elizabeth. It caused the King’s disappointment and he got rid of Anne
accusing her of unfaithfulness (taken to the Tower and beheaded). No one could
predict the triumph of Elizabeth I.
12
As soon as Henry VIII declared himself Head of the Church of England, he
captured the wealth and lands of monasteries and his empty treasury was filled.
Though he was a selfish tyrant [‘tair schwa nt], after his death England was
more united and more confident (зд. устойчивой).
3. The heiresses [‘e schwa resiz] of Henry VIII. Mary I. The Golden Age of
Elisabeth.
The 3d wife of Henry VIII was Jane Seymour [si:mo:] (Джейн Сеймур) who
gave birth to Prince Edward. After the death of Henry VIII he became Edward
VI (1547-1553), but he was a sickly child and died at the age of 15. He
proclaimed Lady Jane Grey the Queen of England. She ruled only for 9 days,
because people revolted and supported Mary’s claim.
Mary I (1553-1558) was determined to return England back to the Pope. Not
paying any attention to the English hostility towards Catholic Spain she
married Philip Prince of Spain. Her marriage was very unpopular and caused
several revolts. She pur’sued an aggressive policy against protestants. She
burned more than 300 people and earned the nickname Bloody Mary. In
general her reign was a political disaster and when she died people in the streets
of London danced and drank to the health of the new queen. Who was she?
Elizabeth I (1558-1603) was a well-educated woman who combined a feminine
intuition with a masculine intelligence and courage. She received a dangerous
heritage, because the country was surrounded by powerful enemies which
countries? – Spain and France.
Her first step was restoring the moderate Protestantism of her father. In foreign
affairs she continued the work of Henry VII encouraging the expansion of the
English merchants. Spain was the greatest trade rival and enemy of England.
English captains (do you remember their names? John Hawkins, Francis Drake,
etc.) attacked Spanish ships when they were returning from America. They tried
to look just adventurers, but they shared their plunder with the Queen. The
Spanish king was outraged.
13
In 1587 Francis Drake attacked the fleet in the Spanish harbour and destroyed a
great number of ships. Next year the Armada, the great Spanish fleet, was in the
Channel preparing to start the invasion. Elizabeth was at the head of her nation.
She made a speech to inspire the English sailors and in July, 1588 the Armada
was defeated by the English. The Spanish ships were too large and awkward in
comparison with the English ones and besides the weather favoured the
English. It was a glorious moment for England.
Though England had economic problems (what are the most common economic
problems in the world nowadays? inflation and unemployment), in the 16th
century the economic growth was getting faster. Trade and industry were
growing.
Elisabeth gave her name to the historical period which was one of the most
colourful and splendid in the English history. Her reign is traditionally
described as the Golden Age of Elisabeth. She was the embodiment of
everything English and the English found themselves as a nation.
Education was further developing and many grammar schools (ист. школа
латинской грамматики; общ. средняя классическая школа) were founded.
The works of Christopher Marlowe (playwright and poet), Edmund Spenser (a
poet) and William Shakespeare laid the foundation of the English literary and
dramatic heritage (in 1576 the first theatre appeared in England). Francis Bacon
was the founder of English materialism.
The 16th century was the age of the consolidation (укрепление) of bourgeois
relations and at the same time the age of transition from the medieval twilight to
a more progressive period.
THE STUARTS (STEWARTS) (1603-1714)
AND THE STRUGGLE OF PARLIAMENT
AGAINST THE CROWN
1. James VI of Scotland. James I of England (1603-1625).
2. Charles I Stuart (1625-1649) (обычно Карл). The Civil War.
14
You may know that in the 17th century in England there was no king for a while.
So who ruled the country?
3. Oliver Cromwell’s Dictatorship. The Interregnum.
4. The Restoration of Monarchy. Charles II (1660-1685).
5. James II (1685-1688) (обычно Яков). The Glorious Revolution (славная
революция) (1688). William III (1689-1702) and Mary II (1689-1694).
1. James VI of Scotland. James I of England.
At the beginning of the 17th century the ideology [aidiol schwa] of the
developing bourgeoisie in England was Puritanism (пуританство). It was a
form of democratic religion demanding the direct contact between Man and
God, thus denying the Church as an unnecessary institution. That was a
challenge to the Church of England and the Monarch as its head. So the
bourgeoisie began to oppose the absolute monarchy, particularly using what?
Parliament.
In general the Stuarts were less successful than the Tudors. James VI of
Scotland became James I of England on Queen Elizabeth’s death when? in
1603. He thought a lot of himself, he was sure that the royal prerogative was
given to him by God and it was hardly surprising that he often quarrelled
violently with Parliament.
You may know that the 5th of November is the traditional English holiday. What
holiday is it? Guy Fawkes Day (День Гая Фокса). Why is it held? On
November, 5 1605 the Gunpowder Plot took place as a protest against the anticatholic laws. It was an attempt on the King’s life and also the Protestant
aristocracy in the House of Lords. Fawkes rented a house adjoining the Houses
of Parliament, dug a tunnel and hid a charge of gunpowder in the cellar. Was
the Gunpowder Plot successful? The Gunpowder Plot was unsuccessful
because one of the plotters had warned an MP to stay away from a meeting in
the House of Lords on the day fixed for the explosion. It led to the discovery of
the plot and Guy Fawkes was hanged. Which American holiday can we
15
compare Guy Fawkes Day with? (Halloween) (31 October). On November 5 it
is customary in England to dress up and to carry an effigy (чучело) of Guy
Fawkes along the streets and then to burn it. There’s a simple rhyme about the
holiday:
Remember, remember,
The 5th of November
The Gunpowder Treason
And Plot.
What’s the Russian for “treason”?
The first Stuarts faced the alternative to collaborate with bourgeoisie or to
support reactionary noblemen. They preferred to struggle against bourgeoisie.
2. Charles I Stuart (1625-1649) (обычно Карл). The Civil War.
Charles I Stuart was in a constant conflict with Parliament and Parliament
refused to give him financial support. Charles I ruled for 11 years without
Parliament (1629-1640). So the king had to earn money himself. In what way do
you think he could do it? He pawned the Crown Jewels, sold honours, and so
on. When Charles I had got involved in a war with Scotland, he needed money
so badly, that he called Parliament and conceded almost all Parliament
demanded. Later his attempts to go back on his word caused the Civil War
(1642-1648). It was inevitable due to his policy and also his father’s policy.
After several battles Charles I was taken prisoner by the New Model Army
(Армия новой модели) (the commander was Sir Thomas Fairfax and his
second-in-command was Oliver Cromwell). Charles I was brought to trial
(предстал перед судом) for treason and was sentenced to death. He was
beheaded in 1649.
3. Oliver Cromwell’s Dictatorship. The Interregnum.
The House of Lords was abolished, some famous Royalists were beheaded. The
Council of State was created to govern the country. But the troubles were not
16
easy to stop. There was mutiny in the Army (бунт, мятеж), a revolt in Ireland,
the Scots declared the son of Charles I their king. Oliver Cromwell managed to
solve the problems and to establish his authority in the country and in the army.
In 1653 together with the New Model Army officers he established the military
dictatorship and accepted the title of Lord Protector of the United
Commonwealth of England, Scotland, Ireland and the colonies. Oliver
Cromwell had been a farmer and he didn’t dare to accept the title of the King,
because there was a strong opposition to that in the Army.
There was a confrontation of political and religious views at that period. For
example, there were extreme republicans who were anxious to defend the rights
of common people and demanded the abolition of titles and equality in
everything but property (the Levellers – левеллеры, уравнители). Another
group which was even more radical opposed the private property altogether
(the Diggers). What political party can we compare them to?
The new regime [rei’-] closed pubs and theatres, banned horse racing, cock
fights, celebrating Christmas, etc. So the republic was called a joyless country.
The period of the Commonwealth when England was a republic is described as
the Interregnum and all the events starting with the Civil War (1642-1648) are
characterized as the English Bourgeoisie Revolution.
Cromwell died in 1658 and the republic collapsed as his son Richard lacked the
necessary qualities and was deposed 6 months after the beginning of his rule.
4. The Restoration of Monarchy. Charles II (1660-1685).
Parliament voted to call Charles II and restore monarchy. He landed in England
in 1660 and was warmly welcomed by people. The restoration of monarchy
brought back the joys of life forbidden during the Interregnum. The House of
Lords was restored.
Charles II did his best to escape the con’trol of Parliament, though Parliament
and the Protestants wanted to keep the leading position. Charles II governed the
country by means of the Council (Ca’bal – кабальный совет).
17
The opposition to the King was organized into a party with the majority in
Parliament. They demanded a further limiting of the Monarch’s prerogatives
[pri’ro-] and were nicknamed the Whigs. Were the Whigs the liberal or the
conservative party? (the liberal party) Their opponents supported the King and
were called what? the Tories (the conservative party). The Whigs and the
Tories became the basis of the British two-party parliament system.
The Great Plague [-ei-] of 1665 and the Great Fire of London in 1666 were the
calamities that brought a lot of suffering to the English people.
In the 50s of the 17th century outstanding scientists gathered at Oxford and
founded the 1st great scientific society in England. It was called the Royal
Society for its patron was the King (Christopher Wren the architect who was
the rebuilder of London after the Great Fire; John Locke a political philosopher;
Isaac Newton the great physicist who discovered the law of gravity [like in
“bad”]).
5. James II (1685-1688) (обычно Яков). The Glorious Revolution
(славная революция) (1688). William III (1689-1702) and Mary II
(1689-1694).
After the death of Charles II his brother James II (1685-1688) became the King.
His first wife was a Protestant and he had two daughters Mary and Ann from
her. Mary was married to William of Orange, a Dutch prince. The second wife
of James II was a Catholic and when she gave birth to a son, Parliament and the
Protestant bourgeoisie were alarmed. They were scared that the new monarch
would take away their rights and so on. So they invited William of Orange to
invade Britain. When William’s troops landed in England, James II fled from
the country and Parliament decided that James II should lose his right to the
Crown.
Mary and William began to rule the country together but the royal prerogatives
were limited by the Bill of Rights (Билль о правах) adopted by Parliament in
1689. According to the Bill of Rights all the bills passed by Parliament had to
18
be signed by the monarch, but the monarch could not refuse to sign them. The
monarch couldn’t impose taxes and the Army could be kept only with
Parliament’s permission.
These changes are considered as the historic turning point, the further
development of the process which began in 1215. What occurred in 1215? John
Lackland signed Magna Carta. The political events of 1688 were called the
Glorious Revolution (Славная революция). It was a sort of compromise
between the new bourgeoisie and the traditional institutions, such as the
Monarchy, the House of Lords, etc.
Historians praise the Glorious revolution as great and bloodless, but it was
bloodless only in England. In Ireland there was a bloody war between the
French army of James II supported by the Irish and William’s army. James II
was defeated and left for France. The Irish Catholics lost their rights.
In Scotland William was recognized in the Lowlands (Средне-шотландская
низменность; южная, менее гористая часть Шотландии), but in the
Highlands (север и северо-запад Шотландии) a revolt rose and the loyalty of
the Highland nobles was bought with a large sum of money and some of the
nobles were killed.
The 17th century was the age of the Stuarts – their rise in 1603, their defeat from
1649 up to 1660, their restoration in 1660, their constant struggle against
Parliament which resulted in the victory of Parliament and the new ruling class.
By the end of the century the economy of Britain was developing freely, trade
and colonies were flourishing. So Britain was becoming a prosperous country.
THE 18TH and THE 19TH CENTURIES.
THE HANOVERIAN DYNASTY
1. Queen Anne (1702-1714). The War for Spanish Succession (война за исп.
наследство) (1702-1713 or 1701-1714).
19
2. The Hanoverian Dynasty. George I (1714-1727). George II (1727-1760).
George III (1760-1820).
3. The Technological Revolution (промышленная революция).
4. The Battle of Trafalgar (1805) who? Admiral Nelson. The Battle of
Waterloo (1815). who? Napoleon.
5. The political situation in the country and Parliament. Chartism.
6. The Victorian Age. Queen Victoria (1837-1901). The Crimean War. The
British colonies. The Irish problem.
7. Victorian arts and science.
1. Queen Anne (1702-1714). The War for Spanish Succession.
At the beginning of the 18th century England was involved into the War for
Spanish Succession (1702-1713 or 1701-1714). The great strategies of Britain
were to stop the French expansion and to place the Austrian prince on the
Spanish throne. The British troops led by the Duke of Marlborough delt a blow
to the French forces. The victory was the time of a great triumph in Britain.
Britain gained a lot advantages, such as new territories (Gibraltar, Minorca,
etc.) and the right to sell slaves to the Spanish colonies. Great Britain became a
great European power.
At that time the Whigs were actively preparing the union with Scotland and in
1707 the Act of Union with Scotland was adopted. Thus in 1707 England,
Scotland and Wales were united.
Anne (1702-1714) became the Queen after the death of Mary and William and
she was the last Stuart monarch.
2. The Hanoverian Dynasty. George I (1714-1727). George II (1727-1760).
George III (1760-1820).
Queen Anne was succeeded by the Hanoverian dynasty. George I (1714-1727)
was an elderly German who could speak no English handed over a lot of royal
prerogatives to the Whigs and their leader became the Chairman of the King’s
20
Council. That was the beginning of the Cabinet system of government in Great
Britain with Prime minister as the head of the Cabinet. Robert Walpole became
the first PM in 1721. He managed to stabilize the financial situation with the
help of taxes imposed on goods sold in the country. The taxes on tea and coffee
were a success, but the taxes on wine and tobacco aroused ‘protests of people
in the country.
When George II (1727-1760) became the king, he continued his father’s policy
and relied on Robert Walpole as the PM.
1745 was the year of the Jacobite (якобиты) attempt to restore the Stuarts. The
grandson of James II, whose name was Charles Edward, landed in Scotland
with his followers. They were enthusiastically greeted by the Highlanders (the
Highlands – север и северо-запад Шотландии; the Lowlands – среднешотландская низменность). They revolted in his support, captured
Edinburgh (the capital of Scotland) but were defeated by the regular English
army. Charles Edward escaped back to France and the Highlanders were
subjected to cruel punishments. For example it was forbidden to wear a kilt and
play bagpipes.
In the middle of the 18th century Britain got new territories in North America
(Quebec [kwi’bek], Montreal [mοntri’o:l], etc.) and also India.
George II was succeeded by his grandson George III (1760-1820). He was the
first Hanoverian to be born in Britain. Do you remember George I couldn’t even
speak English? And George III declared himself Patriot [pei- or pæ] King and
was determined to take a more active part in the government of the country.
Meanwhile there were deteriorations in the relations with North American
colonies (“No taxation without representation”). You know of course, who was
the first American President. The Congress of the United Colonies elected
George Washington commander of their armed forces and which American
political holidays do you know? and a year later, on the 4th of July 1776 the
Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence.
21
The English army was defeated in the battle of Saratoga (битва при Саратоге)
nine miles south of Saratoga, New York. The War of Independence was won by
the American forces supported by whom? The French and when the Peace
Treaty was signed in 1782 thirteen American colonies transformed themselves
into the United States of America with who? George Washington as their first
President.
3. The Technological Revolution (промышленная революция).
Do you remember the difference btw economic and economical? The
Technological Revolution was a new breakthrough in the economic and social
development of Great Britain. Chronologically its beginning is referred to the
middle of the 18th century. The first achievements were in the production of
agricultural products due to the new farming tech’niques.
Mechanical inventions facilitated the growth of iron and coal production. James
Watt made a steam engine. A spinning (spin, spun, spun) machine was invented
that could do the work of several people. Cotton textiles played the leading part
in Britain’s economic or economical? expansion. Britain was importing raw
cotton from its colonies and exporting cotton cloth. Manchester became the
centre of the cotton textile industry.
Manufacturing of china goods was developing successfully and large quantities
of china were exported (Wedgwood is the trade mark of the exquisite English
china).
The Technological Revolution involved a transport revolution. Ca’nals together
with rivers linked the main ports, roads were improved and a service of post
coaches was started at the end of the 18th century.
4. The Battle of Trafalgar (1805) who? Admiral Nelson. The Battle of
Waterloo (1815) who? Napoleon.
The end of the 18th century was the period of social disintegration. The wealth
of the few was growing while the poverty of the majority of people was
22
increasing. Workers lived in slums and worked long hours. The country was
splitting into two nations – the rich and the poor. There were a lot of reasons for
discontent and also the British ruling classes were frightened by the French
Revolution which year? 1789. so the government took tough measures against
the working class movement.
France declared war on Britain in 1793. The British troops were defeated in the
Netherlands and West India, but the British were rescued by their Navy. The
commander of the British fleet who? admiral Horatio [hə’rei∫iəu] Nelson won
brilliant victories over the French navy. At the battle of Trafalgar which year?
in 1805 Nelson destroyed the French Spanish fleet, but was killed by a sniper.
He became one of Britain’s greatest national heroes (his words before the battle
of Trafalgar “England expects that every man will do his duty”).
The greatest general of the British army in the actions against Napoleon was the
Duke of Wellington (a wellington in modern English is one of a pair of long
rubber boots, usually reaching almost up to the knee, that you wear to you’re
your feet getting wet). After the disastrous invasion of Russia which year? in
1812 Napoleon was defeated by the European coalition in the Battle of Nations
(Битва Народов или Битва под Лейпцигом) at Leipzig [‘laipsig or -k] in
1813. He was imprisoned, but escaped and reappeared in Paris. The last battle
was fought in Belgium at Waterloo in 1815. Napoleon was defeated, he had to
abdicate (отречься от престола), was sent where? to St. Helena in the South
Atlantic and died there.
Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars a great empire: to Canada, Ausralia
and most of India were added Cey’lon, Guinea and so on. But the country was
suffering from internal problems, because the political and economic or
economical? economic reforms had been necessary for a long time.
The social and political changes in the world involved a revolution in the arts. A
brilliant galaxy of writers and poets looked for inspiration in nature and in the
spirit of freedom. Lyrical ballads of Wordsworth and Coleridge were published,
the works of Byron, Shelly and Keats were romantic and emotional. Jane
23
Austen described the adventures of young lovers. Besides Goldsmith (a writer
and a poet), Gainsborough (a painter), Sheridan (a writer) and the economist
Adam Smith should me mentioned.
George III, blind and insane, died in 1820 and was succeeded by little respected
George IV (1820-1830).
5. The political situation in the country and Parliament. Chartism.
After the Napoleonic wars more progressive laws were adopted. The efficient
police force was created (policemen were called bobbies (old-fashioned,
informal) after Sir Robert Peel the Home Secretary (министр внутренних дел)
who created it). The Parliament Reform was introduced, because the electoral
system and distribution of seats were in a mess., for example, the county of
Cornwall where the population was less than the population of Manchester or
Birmingham elected 44 men to which House? The House of Commons, but
neither of these big industrial cities elected a single M.P., the voting was not
secret, and the whole system was corrupt. The reformed Parliament also passed
a number of progressive acts. The first effective Factory Act (фабричное
законодательство) was adopted which limited the working hours of children to
9, prohibited their employment under 9 years old, etc. It improved the workers’
condition to some extent, but a lot of factory workers were left unemployed by
machines replacing them and so they were outraged, wore masks, smashed
machines and damaged the factories.
Besides Parliament imposed some responsibility on the poor. Which law is
meant here? The one we discussed reading “Pygmalion”? According to the
Poor Law (закон о бедных) all the able-bodied poor were to go where? to
workhouses (работные дома) where the conditions were terrible (who
described them? Charles Dickens “Oliver Twist”). The working classes were
outraged at the inhumanity of the Poor Law and demanded more radical [ræ-]
reforms.
24
During the 30s the Chartism movement was developing. Its leaders drew up
(составили, сочинили) the People’s Charter (do you remember the Great
Charter? When did it appear? 1215) which included the following demands:
the vote for all males, a salary for MPs, no property qualifications for MPs
annual Parliaments, etc. All these reforms seemed revolutionary at that time.
Though the Chartism movement was supported by the working people, the
Charter was rejected by Parliament and the leaders were arrested. It was
followed by protests of the working people and repressions by the government.
In the middle of the 19th century Chartism grew into trade union movement.
6. The Victorian Age. Queen Victoria (1837-1901). The Crimean War. The
British colonies. The Irish problem.
18-year-old Victoria became the Queen at a difficult time. The Hungry Thirties
passed into the Hungry Forties. Very many people suffered from famine, but then
the reforms brought cheaper foods and improved workers’ conditions.
Victoria married her cousin Albert from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha dynasty. The
marriage was happy and the Royal family became a model for moral standards.
Prince Albert got deeply interested in the British affairs, both foreign and home.
In 1854 the Crimean War broke out, when Britain and France declared war on
Russia in support of Turkey. The Crimean War revealed the courage of ordinary
soldiers and the incompetence of the command. Newspapers reported the shocking
conditions in the army hospitals and the terrible organization of supplies. For
example, a load of army boots sent out from Britain turned out to be for the left
foot. (We should also mention Florence Nightingale “the lady with the lamp” who
organized hospitals.) The war solved nothing.
In India the British policies aroused a revolt in 1857. It was known as the Indian
Mutiny and it developed into a national movement against foreign rule. There was
a lot of violence on both sides.
25
Victoria suffered a great personal tragedy in 1861 when Prince Albert died (of
typhoid) and she withdrew (отстранилась) from public duties and lived in
isolation for a decade [‘de-] (10 лет).
On the great issues such as the limitation of the power of the House of Lords,
social reform, Home Rule (самоуправление) for Ireland, the new aggressive
policy abroad, etc. Victoria strongly sympathized with the Tories (Conservatives)
headed by PM Disraeli [-‘reili].
Great Britain together with its colonies was called the Empire. The Empire that
Great Britain had gained by the middle of the 19th century was the result of the
greatest power that Britain possessed through its trade, finance and manufacturing.
The colonies were united by law and trade. Their population was growing due to
the emigration from the British Isles. The poor and the disadvantaged (лишённые
возможности) sought a better life in the colonies. Do you remember Sybil Vane’s
brother? He was going to live in Australia. By the end of the century the Empire
was spreading over the continents of Africa, Asia, North America, South America,
Australia. They said the sun didn’t set on the Empire. The Colonial Office
(Министерство колоний) (don’t forget the Home Office, the Foreign Office)
became a large and important ministry. The followers of jingoism (extreme
patriotism) sounded more and more aggressive and there was a chain of small
colonial wars caused by the aggressive policy of Britain. But the Anglo-Boer [bo:]
War (1880-1881, 1899-1902) (Africa) turned out an unsuccessful surprise to the
British people and proof of a certain weakness of the Empire.
There was the Irish Problem. The Irish MPs demanded Home Rule for Ireland
(terrorists’ actions). The Liberal Party which had a majority in Parliament voted
against the Home Rule Bill, but after all the Liberals were split and replaced by the
Labour Party.
7. Victorian arts and science.
The Victorian writers, poets, painters glorified English culture. Alfred Tennyson
and Elizabeth Barrett Browning dominated the poetry, Charles Dickens exposed
26
the social evils of the time (what novels by Ch. D. do you remember? – David
Copperfield, Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby, etc.). William Makepeace Thackeray
[-ri] exposed the middle class hypocrisy in his “Vanity Fair”. Women writers, e.g.
the Bronte sisters, Elizabeth Gaskel flourished as never before. The English drama
was brilliantly represented by Oscar Wilde and Bernard Shaw.
Victorian science became greatly influential. Charles Darwin, the founder of the
theory of biological evolution, Sigmund Freud, the founder of psycho-analysis, and
Karl Marx, the founder of Communism theory shocked the world. Which of them
was born in Great Britain? Darwin. The rest left in England for some years and
died there.
Due to the strength of the Empire Great Britain was still the greatest power of the
world, but the nations of the New World and Europe were becoming industrial
rivals of Britain. Meanwhile the conflicts and contradictions among the European
countries were bringing the world to the brink of the World War.
THE UK IN THE 20TH CENTURY
1. Changes in the country.
2. George V (1910-1936). (1,2 should be placed in 1)
3. World War I (1914-1918).
4. Between the Two World Wars.
5. The Great Depression.
6. Foreign Policy in the 1930s. (probably 4,5,6 should be placed in 4)
7. World War II.
1. Changes in the country.
The son of Victoria and Albert Edward VII reigned for nine years (1901-1910).
His father had been a German prince from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Dynasty [s
широкое е ks … gou devoiced consonant sound+schwa] (Саксен-КобургГотская династия) so Edward VII started Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Dynasty in the
27
British history. He was joyful and popular and was know as Edward the
Peacemaker for his diplomacy in Europe. But the King’s image of carefree easy
living was in direct contrast to the growing forces of discontent felt by many
members of the British society.
The British education system was advanced (усовершенствована). The
Education Bill placed primary, secondary and technical education under the
control of local authorities. It helped to create an “education ladder” by which
abler children could win scholarships to enter secondary grammar schools.
The Civil Service (госслужба) was enriched by a steady stream of educated
qualified young men.
The Royal Navy was concentrated in home waters and wasn’t dispersed all over
the world any longer. As you can see the main reason for that was the threat
from whose fleet? German fleet.
The trade union movement which began in the second half of the 19 th century
was getting more and more active and many people saw strikes as a means of
improving factory conditions and the workers’ lives (the Fabian Movement
Фабианское общество или движение of middle-class intellectuals – George
Bernard Shaw). In 1918 a very important event for women took place. What
was it? Women over 30 were granted the right to vote in political elections.
Many historians see Edward’s death as the dividing line btw the security and
stability of the 19th century and the uncertainties of the 20th.
2. George V (1910-1936).
George V changed his family name from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha [s широкое е ks
…
gou
devoiced
consonant
sound+schwa]
(Саксен-Кобург-Готская
династия) to that of Windsor due to anti-German views during World War I.
He did much to continue the popularity of monarchy. Radio and newspapers
added to the prestige of the royal family.
Many reforms took place at that period. The National Insurance Act was passed
to ensure that the worker, the employer and the government all contributed to
28
the general fund to pay for free medical treatment, sick pay, disability and
maternity benefits. Hours and conditions of the workers’ labour were regulated,
slum-clearances were effected, labour exchanges (биржи труда) were set up
and old-age pensions were given to workers. All this cost a great deal of money.
It came from the pockets of the rich.
3. World War I (1914-1918).
By the turn of the century it had become apparent that expanding the Empire
would only result in future problems. So the British foreign policy changed
drastically [широкое е] (резко). Instead of the old cordiality towards which
country? Germany and fear of which countries? a combined France and Russia,
Britain now became friendly towards France and Russia and hostile to
Germany. By the way Germany supported the Boers [o:] in the Boer War
(1899-1902?) and the British of course knew about it. The Germans were
alarmed by the Anglo-French agreement (1904) and especially by the AngloRussian Entente [ontont] (from French) (1906). Historians have different
opinions about the reasons for the war. Perhaps it was the result of a
breakdown in the European diplomatic system and was the mistake of a number
of politicians, perhaps it was the result of the profound economic changes.
Britain didn’t want to lose the position of the world’s leading power and
Germany realized she was late to get new lands because Britain had occupied
them and the Germans were willing to change the situation.
Here we should mention the assassination of the Austrian Archduke
(эрцгерцог) Franz Ferdinand in June 1914 by a Serb, Gavrilo Princip, a
nationalist assassin. It sped up the war. W.W.I broke out in August 1914 when
Austria declared war on Serbia and Germany declared war on Russia and
France. Britain made the decision to aid the allies and it marked the beginning
of the end for the country’s world dominance.
The length of the war and its enormous toll (потери) on life and resources was
completely unpredicted. The losses and the failure of the British counter-
29
offensive brought a government crisis in Britain. What made matter worse for
the allies? The new Russian revolutionary government made peace with
Germany freeing nearly 50 German divisions. But the British efforts were
rewarded when which country entered the war? By the entry of the United
States into the war in 1917. So the British successes on the Eastern front, the
capitulation of Turkey, a revolt by the German people against their military
leaders and other reasons convinced the German command to start peace
negotiations. The allies (Britain, France, the USA, Italy, Japan and to a lesser
extent Russia) imposed severe terms on the defeated powers (Germany, Austria,
Hungary, Bulgaria [Δ] and Turkey) and one of the costliest wars in human
history was over in November 1918. The British weren’t exactly satisfied with
the final treaty and at the same time it became an excuse for Herr Hitler to
begin a new war. Everybody was displeased and the disunity of the countries
was unfavourable for the future of Europe.
The cost to Britain was the loss of an entire generation.
4. Between the Two World Wars.
The matter of Ireland became a serious source of trouble for a seemingly-united
Great Britain after World War I. The Irish nationalists were eager to get Home
Rule (самоуправление; автономия) and in 1919 they proclaimed the Irish
Republic. The war against British rule then began and as a result Parliament
adopted the Government of Ireland Act which divided Ireland into Northern
Ireland and Southern Ireland giving both the parts Home Rule. But taxation
powers were reserved for Parliament and no one in Ireland was satisfied. The
problems were finally solved in 1948 when Ireland (Eire [‘eiri]) was declared a
republic and Northern Ireland remained as part of the UK.
There were also changes made in the relationship of Britain to the colonies.
Since approximately the middle of the 19th century the colonies of Canada,
Australia, New Zealand and South Africa had been virtually (nearly)
30
independent of Britain. The Statute [‘stætſu:t] (законодательный акт) of
Westminster passed in 1931 removed the rest of legal inferiority (низкое
положение). The independence of the Dominions (доминион – any of the
countries of the British Commonwealth that had their own government) was
now established. We should also mention the Imperial Economic Conference
which met in Canada in 1932. At the conference Britain agreed to impose a
‘tariff [æ] (пошлина) on most imported goods, but exempting Commonwealth
nations. In turn they were to provide markets for British exports. The crown
remained as a symbol of the free association of the members of the British
Commonwealth. By the way the ‘loyalty of the Commonwealth countries was
proven in World War II.
5. The Great Depression.
The G.D. is also known as the Great Slump (1929-1936). In the 20s there was a
major downturn in the British economy. The productivity rate (уровень
производства) was falling rapidly and the traditional industries (cotton
manufacturing, coal mining and shipbuilding) found it difficult to compete in
world markets. Millions of workers were unemployed. In addition to that in 1925
the pound was devalued (обесценился) and strikes became common. The great
strike of 1926 should be mentioned here.
In the 30s things improved a little. Agriculture was aided by the government’s
special measures. Old industries were replaced by newer ones such as automobiles
[-bi:lz], electrical manufactures and chemicals. So British exports became more
competitive on world markets. From 1936 the Government followed a policy of
mass [æ] rearmament (перевооружение) [-məm-]. This provided the economic
stimulus that finally ended the depression.
6. Foreign Policy in the 1930s. (probably 4,5,6 should be placed in 4)
31
In the 30s in Britain there were too many problems to worry about the foreign
policy. What problems? Unemployment, productivity rate, etc. It was vainly hoped
that the League of Nations (Лига наций) would keep the peace how do we spell
peace? And the aggressive moves by Germany, Italy and Japan were practically
ignored in Westminster. What is meant by Westminster?
Hitler became Chancellor in 1934 on a rising tide (“на волне”, в результате
всплеска) of nationalism and economic unrest. He began protesting the terms of
the peace treaty reached after World War I. His troops marched into Austria in
1938, seized Czechoslovakia [t∫-] and then invaded Poland. Britain had guaranteed
Poland security and so there was no other way out but declaring war. The Allies
turned to Russia for support, but Stalin had ideas of his own. Poland became a
pawn in the hands of Hitler and Stalin, because Stalin also took advantage of the
situation to attack which country? Finland. A bit later Soviet troops entered
where? Прибалтика – the Baltic States (which countries? – Estonia, Latvia and
Lithuania) to incorporate them into the USSR.
Britain finally saw that Hitler intended to dominate Europe and declared war on
Germany in 1939. The country was totally unprepared for the war. France followed
Britain by declaring war on Germany.
7. World War II.
In one of the most successful campaigns in the history of war, German forces
soon controlled France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg [‘lΔksm-],
Denmark, Norway and Romania, leaving Britain alone in the West to face the
fascists [-∫-] (the Blitzkrieg).
Britain then prepared for total war. Conscription was ordered for all men 20
years and older. British industry mobilized every person not on military service
into production. The old and the retired were called to play their part as airraid
wardens and night watchmen. Women worked in war industries or on the
nation’s farms. Women also entered the armed services to work as truck
32
drivers, mechanics and radar operators. Who became new PM? New PM
Winston Churchill (65 years old) informed the British people that the Battle for
France was over, the Battle for Britain was about to begin. Hitler expected
Britain to come to terms (прийти к соглашению), but Churchill’s defiant
(вызывающий, зд. демонстративный) response was that he wasn’t on
speaking terms with Adolph [‘æd-] Hitler.
Hitler then planned an invasion of England, but first he had to destroy the Royal
Air Force (ВВС Великобритании). Hitler had a decided advantage in the
number of planes and in trained pilots. The Battle for Britain began with an
attack of German bombers in July 1940. As you can understand, from airfields
in conquered France, the English coast was only a few minutes away. There
wasn’t much to stop the invader. Though 1,500,000 men in Britain had joined
the army, they had only 70,000 rifles; the regular army had left most of its
weapons behind in the evacuation from France. Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe to
destroy London but soon the heavy losses put an end to any real chances of
German forces crossing the Channel. You see, skilled use of a secret new
weapon, Radar [-ei-] gave the Royal Air Force a decided advantage.
In September the frustrated German dictator postponed the invasion of Britain
and turned eastward to attack what? Russia. It was his co’lossal mistake. You
see, his hatred of communism blinded him. Britain breathed a huge sigh of
relief.
If WWII did not involve nearly every country on earth, certainly affected them.
33