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1. What is integument?
 Skin and structures derived from it.
2. Name 3 functions associated with the integument system.
 Physical protection, coloration, thermo-regulation, water/salt balance, sensory functions, respiration
(salamanders), Excretory functions, Protection from U.V. radiation, diseases, locomotion (claws,
hooves, etc.), Feeding (mammary glands).
3.
Epidermis and Dermis
 Epidermis: outer layer, derived from ectoderm, Kertatin is made of protein and important to epidermis
 specialized structures in verts made of keratin
 Dermis: Underlying layer, thicker than epidermis, derived from mesoderm, glands formed by epidermis,
but sink into dermis (many times)
4.
In bony fishes, the epidermis is the layer on the outside of
scales and has mucous glands, while the dermis is thicker and
produces fish scales
5.

True / False Osteichthyes generally have a large amount of keratin in their integument.
False – small amount
6. Amphibians have both mucous and Granular or serous glands.
Evidence of keratin is found in warts . Many amphibians produce toxins
7. Describe the dermis in Amphibians

Has chromatophores – cells that hold pigment, rearranged in amphibians allowing them to
change color for cryptic coloration.

Produces scent glands for reproductive and social purposes
8.

9.




Reptiles often shed their epidermis through a process called ______________
ecdysis
How do each of the following shed? (i.e. 2 pieces, 1 piece, etc.)
Turtle  None
Snake  One
Lizard  Several
Crocodiles  None
10. The dermis is thicker / thinner in reptiles.

Thinner
11. Some reptiles (such as turtles) have ___________ ____________, which make up the carapace and
plastron.

Dermal plates
12. In birds, the epidermis produces Feathers which are made of keratin. Birds also shed and replace
feathers in a process known as molt.
13. What is the preening gland found in birds?

Uropygial gland
14. The main shaft of a feather is called a Rachis and ends in a quill or calamus . hamuli or hooklets
branch off barbules and interlock.
15. Mammals have 4 types of glands. Name and describe them.

Sweat: eccrine – cooling animal
i.
Apocrine – sexual functions

Scent – mark territorial boundries
i.
Found on legs, near eyes, check, and anal region

Sebaceous
i.
Associated with hair follicles
ii.
Produce oily material that keeps hair pliable

Mammary
i.
Paired, prominent in females, rudimentary in males, grow much with sexual maturity,
produce milk
16. True / False Since mammary glands are paired, all mammals only have two mammary glands.

False
17. Describe three general characteristics of hair.

Major derivative of epidermis, strong/pliable, thick layer for thermoregulation, affects
coloration
18. ______________ hair is what you generally __________

guard, see
19. ______________ hair is a shorter layer, below the _________ hair.

Under, guard
20. _______________ are the whiskers and are used as ______________

Vibrissae, sensors
21. Compare and contrast antlers and horns
 Antlers:
i. Found in cervids (deer, moose, etc.) only, only in males (except for caribou/reindeer), part of skeletal
structure – outgrowth of skull, shed yearly, covered with velvet during growth which is an epidermal
layer.
 Horns: Found in bovids (goats, sheep, antelope, bison), bony base, covered with thick layer of keratin,
epidermal material, not shed but continues to grow throughout life, both sexes have horns.
22. Describe a rhinoceros tusk.
 Thick keratin layer derived from dermis, not shed but can regenerate.
23. The endocrine system works with the Nervous system and has both
slow-acting and long-lasting responses.
24. Name 3 things the endocrine system controls.
 Reproduction
 Growth
 Behavior


Color change – rapid
Metabolism – rapid
25. Describe endocrine glands.
 Ductless glands that produce hormones
26. What are hormones?
 Complex chemicals, stimulate changes in other parts of the body
27. Hypothalamus is the “master center” of the endocrine system and is found in
the brain
28. They hypothalamus produces Releasing hormones which stimulate the pituitary gland
29. What are the two portions of the pituitary gland?

Anterior and posterior
30. Name and describe the hormones produced in the anterior pituitary.
 Follicle stimulating hormone: FSH
Egg and sperm production; estrogen secretion
 Luteinizing Hormone: LH
Induces ovulation, estrogen and progesterone production (females)
Testosterone production in males
 Gonadotropins
Hormones affecting gonads (development and growth)

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone: TSH
causes thyroid to produce hormones
 Growth Hormone: GH
stimulate body cells to grow and maintain body size once attained, help maintain structure.
 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Causes adrenal cortex to produce hormones
Important for molting
 Prolactin
Maturation of mammary glands, mild production, nest building, protection of young
31. Name and describe the hormones stored in the posterior pituitary.
 Oxytocin
Uterine contractions in mammals, milk release
can stimulate labor
 Vasopressin (also ADH)
Regulates water loss by kidneys
32. What produces the oxytocin and vasopressin?

Hypothalamus
33. Which gland is located in the neck? What hormone controls it? What hormone is produced by this
gland?

Thyroid, TSH, Thyroxin
34. Which hormone is a key to metamorphosis in amphibians?

Thyroxin
35. Describe the Parathyroid gland and its products.

2 pairs, near thyroid

Parathyroidic Hormone: PTH
i.
Controls calcium levels in blood
ii.
Important for shell and bone formation
36. Adrenal gland gland is found next to the kidneys in mammals and is
controlled by Adrenocorticotropic hormone
37. Name and describe the two areas of the adrenal gland.

Cortex:
i.
Outer part, makes several hormones that control glucose

Medulla
i.
Inner part, makes epinephrine and norepinephrin
38. Adrenaline is another name for epinephrine and noradrenaline is another name for norephinephrin
39. What hormones are produced in the Islet Cells of the pancreas? Describe them.

Insulin:
i.
Controls blood glucose, allows body to use glucose
ii.
Increases glucose storage (less glucose in the blood)

Glucagon:
i.
Similar to insulin, but opposite effect
ii.
Decreases glucose storage, increases glucose in blood
40. ________________ is caused by a lack of insulin.

Diabetes
41. The Pineal gland secretes melatonin during dark, thus it is negatively light sensitive. It is responsible
for hypothermia in lizards preceeding dormancy. It is linked to seasonal affective disorder in humans.
42. In females, the ___________ are controlled by gondadotropins. These produce what hormones?

Ovaries

Estrogen:
i.
Sexual development and behavior; secondary sex traits
 Progesterone:
i. Reproductive tract, mammary gland maturation; maternal behavior
 Relaxin:
i. Prepare body for labor, cervix dilates
43. In males, gonadotropins control the_______________, which produce ______________.

Testes, androgens (testosterone)
44. Name the functions of androgens.

Development of male repro behavior


Secondary sexual characteristics in males
“Challenge response” correlated with increase testosterone
45. Androgens are _______________ hormones and steroid based.

Steroid
46. What are the three most common androgens?

Estrogen, progesterone, testosterone
47. Describe receptors.

Note changes in the environment, such as photoperiod, water temperature, sexual displays
(etc.),

Trigger hypothalamus to make releasing hormones
 Releasing hormones trigger gonadotropins
1.
What is parthenogenesis?
 Virgin birth, asexual repro where ovum develops into new individuals without fertilization,
in verts, most species are female, in some fish (Trinidad guppies), lizard, snake, turkey* and
komodo dragons* - *facultative – only when necessary, off spring identical to parents (no
mutations)
2. What is hermaphoditism?

Simutaneously male and female
3.
True / False Hermaphrodites can be sequential or at same time
4. True / False Generally hermaphodites self-fertilize.

False
5. R-selected species produce many offspring with low survival rate. Can be found in fish and some
amphibians.
K-selected species produce few offspring with a high survival rate. Generally found in long-lived species
such as primates, whales, seabirds.
5.

Most vertebrates have ____________ fertilization.
Internal
6.

In ___________ fertilization, ova and sperm combine outside the female’s body.
External
7.



What are adaptations to increase the number of ova fertilized
large number of gametes, especially in ova
behaviors to bring sexes in close contact (i.e. amplexus)
synchronized gamete release
8.
When few ova are released, they are released One at a time. When many are released, there is often
high mortality.
9.
Generally, species with few offspring display _________________ parental care, while species with
many offspring provide ____________ parental care.
a.
Much parental care, little
10. How much do each of the following display in terms of parental care?

Mammals  high

Birds  high

Some snakes  high (incubate eggs)

Fish  low
11. What does oviparous mean?

Embryo develops in structures outside of the female body

Egg contains all the nutrients to nourish embryo

Common in fish, amphibians, some reptiles, all birds, few mammals (monotremes)
12. What does viviparous mean?

Embryo retained inside female’s body

Female provides nourshiment through placenta

Embryo develops to live outside body aka born alive
13. What does Ovoviviparous mean?

Female produce egg, but retains within repro tract

Female doesn’t provide further nourishment

Egg hatches inside female, young exit body alive

Found in some snakes
14. The three types of pair bonding are _______________, ________________, ________________.

monogamy, polygamy, promiscuity

Monogamy
i.
1 male + 1 female pair-bond at least through breeding season
ii.
Can last for life in some species
iii.
Historically assumed to be primary pair-bond type (previously assumed 94% birds)
iv.
Actually uncommon, except in birds (and even in pairs, extra-bond progeny are
common)

Polygamy
i.
Multiple pair-bonds formed at one time, or sequentially
ii.
Polyandry: 1 female + many
iii.
Very rare in vertebrates
iv.
Very rare in mammals because males not equipped for nursing
v.
No mammary glands
vi.
Polygyny: 1 male + many
females
vii.
Much more common in vertebrates
viii.
Lizards, chipmunks, birds, mice

Promiscuity
i.
No real pair-bonds formed; multiple partners
ii.
Come together only to shed gametes
iii.
Many fish, reptiles, mammals
iv.
May actually be most common pattern in vertebrates (especially where sperm
storage/competition occurs)
v.
Adaptations to increase success – Sperm storage
15. Polyandry are when there is 1 female with many males and is rare in vertebrates.
16.
Polygyny is when there is 1 male with many females and is common in vertebrates.
17. In Promiscuity no real pair-bonds are formed.
18. True / False Promiscuity is most likely the most common pattern in vertebrates.

True
19. True / False Most vertebrates do not have a distinct breeding season.

False
20. Name 3 proximate factors affecting breeding season?

Photoperiod (daylight/24 period)

Temperature (especially water)

Tidal cycles

Rainfall (when sunlight doesn’t vary, monsoon sets of repro.)
21. Name 2 ultimate factors affecting breeding season.

Food (availability when offspring born)

Availability of nesting/breeding sites

Climate
22. In fish, there is a great deal of _________ ______________ , especially in color, forehead crests, and
hooked jaws among others.

Sexual dimorphism
23. Describe reproduction in fish, as discussed in class.
 Much sexual dimorphism: color, forehead crests, hooked jaws, etc.
 Chondricthyes: most have internal
fertilization
 Osteichthyes: most have external fertilization
 Some have elaborate courtship dance that identifies mate and leads them through nest (where eggs then
sperm deposited)
 Sneaky males – look like females and coerce external fert. w/o nest building, etc
24. Describe amphibian reproduction, as discussed in class.
 Sexually dimorphic characters develop during breeding season (mental glands, nuptial crests, etc.)

Varied forms: eggs deposited in water (where larvae develop), eggs deposited on land (larvae
develop in water), eggs and young terrestrial

Anurans: most external fertilization: male grasps female (amplexus) to stimulate egg
expulsion (coordinates sperm release)

Caecilians: internal fertilization

Salamanders: most internal fertilization via spermatophore (packet of sperm): elaborate
courtship dance leads female to spermatophore
25. Describe reptilian reproduction, as discussed in class.

Amniotic egg: less dependence on water

Most are oviparous with internal fertilization

Courtship often involves stereotyped displays (head-bobs, dewlap extension, etc.)

Breeding aggregations can be large in some species

Turtles return to same beach each year
26. Describe avian reproduction, as discussed in class.

Sexual dimorphism prevalent, especially in coloration and plumage

Courtship involves species-specific

songs and postural displays

Monogamy common, but not universal
27. Describe mammalian reproduction, as discussed in class.

Most mammals viviparous and have internal fertilization

Sexual dimorphism can exist: male cervids (deer, elk, etc.) grow antlers

Courtship during mating season involves calls, male-male competition, and other displays
1. What type of feeding is important in aquatic vertebrates?

Suction
2. What are 3 things important to terrestrial vertebrates that enable them to eat successfully?

Muscular tongue, salivary glands, large intestine
3. What are the functions of the digestive system?

Transportation, physical treatment/breakdown, chemical treatment, absorption
4.

Describe the differences present in fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.
Mammals practice true mastication while the others have teeth for gripping prey.
5. What are the types of teeth found in mammals (mentioned in lecture)? What are their purposes?

Incisors, canines, molars

Incisors – biting and cutting

Canines – seizing and piercing

Molars – grinding and crushing
6. Name the modification(s) of the digestive system found in birds & crocodiles and in ruminants.
 Gizzard/Proventriculus
 4 compartment stomach – rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum
7. What esophageal adaptation is found in birds?

Esophagus crop
8. What is chime?
9. Reduction of food to a soft, moist pulp, which is accomplished by muscle action.
10. Birds are _______________ or lack teeth.

Edentate
11. rhythmic muscle contractions.

peristalsis
11. Esophagus means “__________________________” in Greek and is made of __________ material that
resists scouring.

Carry-to-eat, tough
12. Describe the crop.
 Formed from esophagus, used for storage of grain and other food. Pigeons exude a milky substance
regurgitated to young as “milk”
13. What does mucus do? Where is it from?
 Provides moisture, facilitates passage and improves pulverization
i. From mucus producing glands along the length of the gut
14. True / False Stomachs are not found in all vertebrates.

True
15. Describe the stomach.

Muscular pouch, expansion of the foregut anterior to pylorus, in most vertebrates, serves in
food storage, physical and chemical treatment. Inside is convoluted and studded with mucous and
secretory cells. (filter feeders have no stomach) Is large and muscular in animals that feed on big chunks
of food.
16. Name the 4 stomach epithelia and describe them.

Esophageal: Anterior, non-glandular epithelium similar to esophagus
~expanded portion of esophagus~

Cardiac: only in mammals, transitional region of columnar cells excreting mucus

Fundic: Region producing mucus secretions and digestive enzymes

Pyloric: “Downstream” end of stomach containing tubular glands (as in cardiac region)
17. ____________ is a digestive enzyme that breaks down protein. ____________ breaks down fats.
________ decreases the pH, making it more acidic and more favorable for __________

Pepsin, lipase, HCl, Pepsin
18. The____________ is the largest gland in the vertebrate body and receives blood
from the ________________ _______ carrying molecules of digestion.

Liver, intestinal walls
19. The __________________ is a blind storage sac that stores _________, which is used to breakdown
fats, and is also rich in bicarbonate.

Gallbladder, bile
20. What are functions of the pancreas?

Secrete enzymes for breaking down carbs to simple sugars and fats to glycerol and fatty
acids. Pancreatic juice is rich in bicarbonate.

Secretes enzymes into the intestine to split sugars, starchs, fats, peptides to amino acids, etc.
21. What is the purpose of bicarbonate? In what “juices” can it be found?

Neutralize stomach acid.

Bile and pancreatic juices
22. Where does most true absorption occur in the vertebrate body?

Intestine (or gut)
23. The small intestine plays a major role in _________________ of nutrients.

Absorption
24. Teleost fish add to surface area with numerous pockets called _____ which are used for both____
and___.

Pyloric cecae, digestion and absorption
25. Describe the cecum.

Present in almost every animal, reservoir for intestinal bacteria in humans.

Divides small and large intestine in birds and mammals.
26. What function does the large intestine perform in vertebrates?

Collects unabsorbed materials into feces, water absorption
27. In mammals and many fish, the intestine terminates into a _____________ and _________, but into a
_____________ in sharks, amphibians, reptiles, and birds.

Rectum and anus, cloaca
28. What is the difference between a cloaca and a rectum?

Cloaca  Discharges both urine and feces (Common exit) (and repro site)

Rectum  discharges feces
29. What factors influence gut size?

Body size

Primary feeding mode (herbivory vs carnivory)

Amount of indigestible material.
30. In general, what type of diet was largest in terms of gut size? The smallest?

Herbivores largest

Carnivores smallest
31. What is the purpose of water balance?

Keeping body from drying out or getting flooded
32. What is the purpose osmoregulation?

Keeping the body from getting too salty or not getting enough salt.
33. Name some water conservation measures.

Decrease evaporative loss through lungs and skin

Produce concentrated urine

Produce very dry feces
34. How is water loss related to size?

The bigger the animal (or egg), the more water loss

Evaporative water loss increases rapidly for mammals (endothermic homeotherms)

Could limit the size of organisms or eggs?
35. How do vertebrates minimize evaporative water losses?

Resistant skin
i.
Scales or plates
ii.
Thick skin, hair, feathers

Behavioral adaptations
i.
Burrowing or staying in shade
ii.
Nocturnal activity

Allowing body temperature to fluctuate
i.
less evapotransporation occurs
ii.
Recycle or retain
1.
By nasal counter-current exchange (kangaroo rat)
2.
By high-pressure condensation through pores in beak
iii.
Adjustment of normal body temperature
iv.
Poikilothermy (no need to limit excess heat)
36. Is water loss proportionally greater in large or small animals?

Small animals
37. There is a(n) upper / lower limit on animal size in relation to evapotranspiration.

Lower
38. The ____________ is the primary organ of salt:water balance in reptiles, birds, and mammals and
receives _____________% of blood flow, though is less than ______% of body mass of the animals.

Kidney, 20-25, <1
39. What are 3 functions of the kidney
 filtration of the blood, reaabsorption of salts and useful materials, Secretion of waste materials
40. The functional unit of the kidney is the _________________.

Nephron
41. Compare and contrast osmoregulation in freshwater and saltwater teleosts.

Freshwater:
i.
Hyperosmotic regulators
ii.
Gills permeable to ions and water
iii.
Kidney compensates for water influx by copious urine production
iv.
Special beta-chloride cells in gills actively transport Na and Cl from water
v.
“water wants to come in”

Saltwater:
i.
Hypoosmotic regulators
ii.
Water lost across gills
iii.
Kidney produces small amounts of concentrated urine
iv.
Gill water-loss compensated by drinking water (up to 80% body mass per day)
v.
Excess salt pumped out through gills by special beta-chloride cells
42. What does stenohaline mean?

Not capable of much osmoregulation and live only where salinity is constant
43. What does Euryhaline mean?

Tolerate wide range of salinity
44. What does Diadromous mean?

Progressive change in physiology
45. ______________________ organisms live most of their adult life in fresh and spawn in saltwater.
___________________ organisms live most of their adult life in salt and spawn in freshwater.

Catadromous, anadromous
46. __________________ is the basic cellular unit in the nervous system.

Neuron
47. ____________ and ______________ are the two different kinds of processes. Describe each.

Axon – carry impulse away from cell body, long

Dendrites – branched, cell receptors
48. Name the 3 classes of neurons and describe them.

Afferent – sensory outside central nervous system

Efferent – motor outside central nervous system

Interneurons – connect neurons together (99%)
49. Which neuron class corresponds to each of the following?
Motor  efferent
Sensory  afferent
50. True / False All classes of neurons are within the central nervous system.

False
51. What cells “covers” the axon?

Schwann cells
52. What structure along the axon allow a signal to be passed along the axon so quickly

nodes of Ranvier and schwann cells
53. What does Binary mean and to what does it refer?

All or none firing and nerve impulses
54. Describe the resting state of a nerve cell.

Membrane maintains high K+ in axon

Fluid around nerve has high Na+

At rest, permeable to K but not Na or Cl

K passing out gives + charge out, Cl- remains and gives negative charge in
55. Describe the conduction of an Action potential, which is also called a ___________ _____________.

Nerve impulse

Origin in cell body, moves toward axon

Impulse propagated by opening Na+ permeable channels

Na+ rushes across membrane reversing polarity

Na+ balanced by K+ that moves out

Na pumped out by Na-pump to restore resting potential
56. During the depolarization stage, the inside of the cell becomes ___________ and __________ during
the repolarization stage.

Positive, negative
57. Small axons conduct ___________ because resistance to current flow is high and axons with quick
responses are _____________.

slowly, larger
58. In what other way do vertebrates increase conduction speed in an axon?
This increases _____________ conduction.

Myelinating – insulating membrane, salutatory
59. Name and describe the two types of nerve synapses.

Electrical – Charge flow across “gap junction” no time lag, good for escape reactions (more
natural responses…)

Chemical – use specialized neurotransmitters that move across membrane to propagate signal
60. In vertebrates and invertebrates, the nervous system displays a ______________ _____________ in
complexity from nerve net to linear to _______________ ____________ __________, which includes a
brain and spinal column.

Progressive increase, centralized nervous system
61. Vertebrates display ____________ of axons, which connect the spinal cord and brain. Unlike most
invertebrates, vertebrates have a _______________ nervous system. The _________ __________
changed little over vertebrate evolution

Bundles, centralized, spinal cord
62. Larger animals tend to have ____________ brains.

Smaller (in proportion to body size)
63. Birds have enlarged _________ lobes, but reduced __________ portions of the brain.

Optic, olfactory

64. True / False Effernt and afferent neurons are sometimes bundled in the same nerve.
True
65. Describe the peripheral nervous system.

Efferent/Afferent nerves bundled in same nerves

Carry action potential from central nervous system to periphery

Effector neurons originate in brain or spinal column and are either somatic or autonomic
nervous system cells.
66. The _____________ nervous system includes skeletal muscle, while the ______________ nervous
system includes muscles and glands.

Somatic and autonomic
67. The parasympathetic system increases / decreases heart rate while the sympathetic system increases /
decreases heart rate.

Decreases, increases
68. What must vertebrates be able to detect from the environment?

Heat, light, pressure, other organisms
69. What do sense organs enable vertebrates to do?

Monitor the environment

Permit evolution of complex behaviors
70. What are the three general types of sense organs?

Chemoreceptors– smell, taste

Mechanoreceptors touch/pain, hearing/lateral line, equibibrium

Electromagnetic– light, heat, electrical/magnetic
71. Most vertebrates can taste sour, Salty, bitter, and sweet. They taste buds last between 5 and 10 days.
bitter tastes are important in warning of toxicity.
72. Which type sense is most ancestral and most universal among classes?

Smell
73. True / False Taste is more complex than smell

False
74. There are about 20 million ____________ receptors in a human nose.

Olfactory
75. Most touch receptors are found in the ________ and ______________________.

Face and limb extremities
76. Distant touch receptors used for detecting ___________ vibrations and currents are known as
__________ ____________. These are present in ________, ______________________, _________.

Wave, lateral line; fish, adult salamanders, frogs
77. In a lateral line, receptors are called ____________ and are used to ____________ fish in location of
predators, prey, and social partners.

Neuromasts, guide
78. What is sound?

Vibrations of a certain frequency
79. Compare sound in air to sound in water.

Underwater – more difficult to initiate, more rapid transmission, speed slows with cold an
depth
80. The ___________ of a (sound) vibration determines the pitch, while the ____________ determines the
loudness.

Frequency, amplitude
81. Describe the origin of the vertebrate ear.

Originated as the balance organ (labyrinth) – semi-circular canal
82. What is the name of organ of hearing in mammals and birds?

Cochlea
83. __________, ______________, and ___________ are the 3 bones of the middle ear.

Hammer, anvil, stirrup
84. Pitch discrimination depends on the _________ of hairs stimulated and __________ depends on the
number of hairs stimulated. The quality of the sound depends on the _________ of hairs stimulated.

Area, loudness, pattern
85. Name and describe the different types of auditory specialization in vertebrates.

Enlarged inner ear – increases amplitude, found in desert animals often

Asymmetrical ears (size and position) – owls, broad skull, sound arrives separately in each
ear, directional hearing, sound is caught by facial disks.

Sonar (echolocation) – bats, insectivorous/fish eating, high frequency sound emitted and
bounced back, 25-100kHz, force of 10-70jackhammers, search and capture varying frequency

Sonar (whales, propoise, weddell seals, etc.) – well developed for feeding, obstacles, hi
pulses, clicking, muddy rivers/deeper/darker waters
86. Fish hear best at _______ frequencies, the aquatic salamander uses bones of the _______ and tiger
salamanders use __________. Snakes hear through _____ & __________ bones. Birds have a
___________ range and mammals detect sound better than ___________. Whales can detect sound
through _____, skull, and ______.

low, head, foreleg, jaw and skull, narrow, birds, fat, jaw.
87. What are the three layers of the eyeball?

Sclera, choroids coat, retina
88. ____________ is transparent and bends light and the __________ regulates the light opening or the
___________. ______ is behind the iris.

Cornea, iris, pupil, lens
89. What are the types of photoreceptors found in the eye? Describe each.

Rods – night vision – “black and white”, good in dim light, poor acuity, 1 nerve/many rods

Cones – color, good in high light, high acuity, fewer cones/nerve?
90. What is rhodopsin? Where is it found?

Found in rods, enzyme opsin
91. How is vision accomplished?

Light strikes rod and is absorbed by rhodopsin (enzymatic activity of opsin) amplifies photon
to propagate a nerve impulse

Cones similar with blue, green, red absorbing at different wavelengths
92. What is the wavelength range most vertebrates can see?

400-750 nm
93. Violet is _________ while red is ___________.

Short, long
94. What is a median eye?

Light sensitive spot on top of head of some birds, reptiles, many fish
95. What is the area that is scanned by eyes?

Visual field
96. Describe monocular vision.

Verts with lateral eyes (many verts.), fish and some mammals

Poor discrimination at distances

Visual field does not overlap
97. Describe binocular vision.
 Frontal eyes, visual field with broad overlapping, depth perception, accurate location of objects, set in 3-D
98. True / False It is impossible for vertebrates to have both monocular and binocular vision.

False
99. How is the visual field different between prey and predators?

Prey – larger visual field, greater monocular vision

Predator, - smaller visual field, more binocular vision (maybe more binocular than
monocular)
100.




Describe the differences in pupils shape.
Round – only night or only day
Vertical – nocturnal with day activity (more complete closure
Vertical pinhole – several images (gecko lizard), great depth of field
Horizontal – wide open habitats (ungulates and whales)
101.



Describe the third eyelid.
Nictitating membrane
Transparent, prevents drying
Ungulates, frogs, birds, reptiles
102.

Color vision is related to __________.
Habitat
103.

Which vertebrate groups have good color vision?
Many fish, salamanders, frogs, reptiles, most birds, some primates.
104.

Color vision increases ___________ and ______________________
contrasts and discrimination
105.
Many deep water fish species are capable of _________________ , a form of light production. This
is used for foraging, ____________ ____________ and communication.

Bioluminescence, Predator avoidance
106.

Some vertebrates can sense heat and cold with ___________ receptors.
Dermal
107.
True / False rattlesnakes are deterred by California ground squirrels waving their tales, thus
producing an infrared signal.

True
108.

109.


True / False The ground squirrels in question 25 are aware of the infrared signal they produce.
False
What types of fish can detect electric signals? For what do they use it?
Sharks, flatfish
Detect/stun prey and navigate and communicate in turbid waters
110.

111.

Birds and fish are able to use magnetic fields for ______________ and _____________
Orientation and navigation
______________ was the earliest form of locomotion.
Swimming
112.


What are the two forces generated during this locomotion? Describe them.
Lift – counteracts effects of gravity
Thrust – forward/backward movement in horizontal plane
113.

Locomotion in water must overcome ________, but water does provide some _______________.
Drag, buoyancy
114.



Name and describe ways that lift is provided.
Swim bladder – regulate internal air (increase/decrease buoyancy)
Body structures – specific gravity of organs less than water  buoyancy (ex. Oily flesh)
Fins – Heterocercal caudal fin acts as lever, pushes tail down head goes up.
115.

How are swimming types classified? (by what means?)
body regions used and types of movement
116.



How is swimming locomotion usually accomplished?
Undulations – waves
Oscillations – back and forth
Thrust created by caudal region (and other fins utilized)
117.
Name and describe the types of movement in swimming locomotion.

Anguilliformes – most of body to generate movement – undulations – wave contractions –
one side of body then the other

Carangiform – front half body = rigid, back half produces waves and contractions

Ostraciiform – only caudal fin involved in thrust (i.e. boxfish)

Appendicular locomotion –appendages used for swimming
118.

i.

i.

i.
Describe the three types of instability.
Roll – movement from side to side
Controlled by dorsal and anal fins
Pitch – movement up and down especially at front of body
Pectoral fins for control (sometimes pelvic in advanced fishes)
Yaw – movement right or left
Controlled by fins at back with vertical orientation – caudal fin
119.

What force counteracts thrust?
Drag
120.
Viscous is friction between the water and body. Inertial comes from turbulence as fish
moves, displaces water.
121.



How is drag reduced?
Body covering – smooth skin reduces viscous drag
Mucous/slime – reduces viscous drag as much as 60%
Body shape – thin body = less viscous drag, reduces turbulence
122.
On average, which type of body movement displays greater swimming speeds?
Carangiform
123.
The type of muscle fast swimmers utilize is __________ muscle. This muscle type has more
_________________ with a good blood supply. Used for ____________ and show little fatigue.

red, mitochondria, cruising
124.
___________ muscle makes up to 90% of fish muscle. These have few ______________ and a
___________ blood supply. This is used for __________, but fatigues quickly.

White, mitochondria, poor, bursts
125.
Describe Anguilliform swimming.
 Most of body used to produce thrust. Muscles contract on one side, relax the other, wave of contractions.
Eels, sharks
126.
Describe Carangiform swimming.

Front half body rigid, back half produces waves and contractions. Jack, trout, horse mackerel
 Less lateral head movement
127.

Describe Ostraciiform swimming.
Caudal fin involved in thrust (wig-wag motion) boxfish, (trunkfish)
128.

Describe appendicular swimming
use appendages for swimming
129.
Name and descrive the two types of appendicular swimming?
 Undulatory – use fin for undulations
i.
Dorsal fin – bowfin
ii.
Anal fin – knife fish
iii.
Pectoral fin – skates, rays, surfperch
 Oscillatory
i.
Use limbs like oars – frog, duck, otter
ii.
Use limbs like wings – turtle, seal, penguin
130. True / False Flight is similar to swimming, but in a different medium.

True
131.

What forces must animals generate for both aerial and swimming locomotion?
Lift and thrust
132.

What forces must animals reduce or counter-act in both aerial and swimming locomotion?
Drag and instability
133.

What part of the wing produces lift?
Secondaries
134.


What is camber?
Distance between mid-line and chord line - curvature
Camber is thick at the leading edge, thin at trailing edge, teardrop shaped
135.
True / False Air traveling under the wing moves faster than air over the wing.
136.

What is the name of the principle that identifies that an increase in air speed, decreases pressure?
Bernoulli’s principle
137.
The high pressure zone Under the wing produces lift. Thus, the air pressure pushes the bird up.
138.

With increased speed comes ________________ lift.
Increased
139.


What happens with an increased attack angle?
More lift (~15 degrees)
Too much = stalls and lift drops
140.


What are slots?
Notches between the ends of feathers
Smoothes out air flow and reduce turbulence
141.


How is thrust accomplished and in what plane?
Flight stroke and horizontal plane
Produced by primaries
142.

What are the three parts of the flight stroke?
Flapping, twisting, folding
143.
Describe each of the parts of the flight stroke.
 Flapping – up/down, produces thrust and lift
 Twisting – allows each part of the wing to keep necessary angle relative to air flow (avoid drag or lack
of lift)
 Folding – decrease wingspan on upstroke to compensate for backward lift force (allows birds to fly with
less effort
144.

In what stroke is most of the wing produced?
Downstroke or powerstroke
145.
Cambered feathers create a Low pressure zone in front of the wing and high pressure behind.
146.

What shape do wing tips make during a flight stroke?
Figure 8
147.


On the upstroke, how is air allowed to pass through/past the wings?
Feathers split and let it pass
Wings tuck toward body and make a quick recovery stroke
148.

What does the combination of the upstroke and downstroke do for flight?
Reduces drag, makes flight stroke more efficient and powerful
149.

150.

What is surface friction?
Air friction from passing over the body
What is pressure drag?
Air hit with front of wing
151. How is correcting for instability accomplished?

During flight stroke
i.
Roll – increase: angle of attack, surface area, flapping harder with wing on rolling side
ii.
Pitch – wings moved forward to create upward pitch and backward for downward pitch
iii. Yaw – increase drag on wing that is advancing more rapidly (increase angle of attack while decreasing
area)
152.

What structure do some birds use to induce roll, pitch, and yaw?
Tail
153.


What are the types of flight?
Gliding – use height/speed to become airborne, cannot remain airborne
Powered – use own muscular power to take off, remain airborne, developed 3 times in verts.
154.
Name groups with gliding fliers.
 Flying fish, flying frogs, flying dragon lizard, flying squirrel, birds, flying snakes (jump from tree to
tree, use swimming like motion in the air)
155.

What is a patagium?
Flap of skin along body, supported by ribs, allows for gliding
156.

Name groups with powered fliers?
Pterosaurs (reptiles of Mesozoic), bats, birds
157.

What is the only group of actively flying mammals?
Bats
158.

True / False All active flyers utilize a patagium.
False – birds have airfoil
159.

What are the type birds glide extensively?
Soaring birds
160.
What are the types of soaring? Describe each.

Static and dynamic

Static – deep slotted high –lift wings, high angle of attack, use thermals (mass rising hot air)
and updraft (air deflected off air cliffs, hills), seen in vultures, pelicans, storks

Dynamic – high aspect ratio wings: very long, slender wings, birds live in areas with strong
winds every day (i.e. oceans), bird glide downwind, lose altitude, gain speed, then turn into wind,
momentum lifts back into air for another glide.
161.
Describe Hovering

found in hummingbirds, can rotate wings 180 degrees, get forward thrust on downstroke, get
backward thrust on upstroke
162.

163.


Why do birds utilize flight formations?
Birds following a leader experience less turbulence, use less energy, minimize drag.
What are some of the types of flying formations?
V-shape  geese
Pelicans  Straight lines
164.

165.
What are the five general types of terrestrial locomotion?
Running, jumping, climbing, crawling, digging
Cursorial means good at running.
166.


What is the olecranon process?
Part of the ulna projecting past the elbow joint
Muscle attachement
167.


What does the length of the olecranon process indicate about a vertebrate?
Short – running
Long – digging
168.



i.
Compare and contrast different types of foot posture.
Plantigrade - Walk on the sole of the foot, palm of hand (bears, humans)
Digitigrade – walk on fingers and toes, (most birds, dinosaurs, dogs, cats)
Unguilgrade – walk on tips of digits or nails touch ground (horse, deer)
Nail modified into a hoof.
169. How does the ratio of limb length to limb protrusion differ between cursorial and digging
vertebrates?

Cursorial: high Lo/Li

Diggers: low Lo/Li
170.







Name several speed adaptations.
Increased limb length – longer stride = greater speed
Flexing spinal column
Unsupported intervals during stride
Free shoulder girdle
Reduce distal weight on limbs
Increase rate of stride
Suspensory ligament: spring action in foot
171.

What is another name for jumping locomotion?
Saltatorial locomotion
172.

What is ricochet locomotion?
Specialized form of bipedal jumping
173.



What are physical characteristics of jumpers?
Well-developed hind limbs
Strong pelvic girdle for shock absorption
Relatively long tail to counter-balance
174.

What is another name for climbing locomotion?
Scansorial locomotion
175.


What are various adaptations that allow vertebrates to climb?
Long claws/ nails – usually sharp
Adhesive disks on digits, suction-cup like structure


176.

177.


178.




Lamellae –series of pads with many small hairs, hairs bond with surface
Opposable digits
What is the name of the small hairs in lamellae?
setae
How are opposable digits useful and in what groups are they found?
Allow organism to grip objects
Found in primates, some lizards, panda
What are the four types of crawling?
Lateral undulations
Rectilinear
Concertina
Side winding
179.
Describe each type of crawling briefly.

Lateral undulations – anguiliform movement on land

Rectilinear – straight line movement, belly scale grabs surfaces, pushes body forward

Concertina – used by burrowers, climbers: anchor part of body with S-shaped coils, pull
body forward, anchor again, stretch out body

Side-winding – throw body 2-3 coils at a time; animal tracks forward, but at angle to direct
travel
180.




181.

Name some adaptations for digging.
Powerful forelimbs
Long claws,
Low, flat body profile with short limbs
In mammals, fur very thick and plush to protect from dirt.
What is the oldest field of biological study?
The study of behavior
182.
Behavior is the ability to act, _________, or function in a particular way in response to a
_____________.

React, stimulus
183.

Causes of behavior are either _______________ or ________________.
Proximate, ultimate
184.

What are the different levels of behavior?
Behavior of individual, two individuals, groups
185.

What are behavioral characteristics to study at the individual level?
Feeding, hunting, self maintenance, predator avoidance, investigative – play
186.

What is ethology?
Study of animal behavior
187.

What is behavioral ecology?
Study of the inter-relationships between animal behavior and environment
188.

What is sociobiology?
Study of animal behavior: evolution, genetics, population biology, ecology
189.

What are ultimate factors?
Evolutionary causes
190.



What are proximate factors?
Immediate factors present in the environment
Physiological reasons
Functional explanation
191.



What are the parts to understanding behavior?
Observation, experiment, theory
Field, lab
Experiment units and controls (look for a change in behavior based on manipulations)
192.



Describe the nature/nurture
myth – behavior is either due to genes (nature) or environment (nurture)
Not either/or, but is influenced by both.
Degree of influence of genetics vs. environmental influence become important.
193.


i.
What is innate behavior?
Developmentally fixed
Has genetic and environmental underpinnings
Baby bird begging for food
194.
What is a Fixed action pattern

FAP’s
 A sequence of behavioral acts that is unchangeable and usually carried out to completion once initiated
1. Learning - Experience-based modification of behavior
2. maturation - Changes in behavior caused by developmental changes in neuromuscular systems
195.

What is associative learning?
Associating one stimulus with another.
196.


What are types of conditioning studied in class? Describe each.
Classical conditioning – associating arbitrary stimulus with reward or punishment
Operant conditioning – trial and error learning
197.
What is cognition?

Ability of animal’s nervous system to perceive, store, process & use info gathered by sensory
receptors

Connection between mental data processing and behavior
198.
What is a cognitive map?

Internal representations or maps of spatial relationships among objects in their surroundings
199. Individual behaviors can be termed as __________________ or simple, while multi-individual
systems are ________.

Predictable, not
200.





What are the axioms of behavior?
Is one of the most important biological systems
Behaviors have evolved as well from nervous system
Selection has favored those behaviors that increase individual fitness and survival
Behavior is adaptive to particular (yet average environmental conditions
Can be flexible and adaptable to changing environments
201.

Interactions frequently __________ behavior strategies.
Alter
202.
Interactions involving 2 or more individuals can quickly become _________________.

complicated
203.
What is social behavior?
 Interaction between two or more animals, usually the same species
204.

What is another name for social behavior?
Intraspecific interactions

True / False All aggregations are social.
False

What behaviors are generally displayed between two individuals?
Courtship/mating, parental care, predator-prey, aggression and agonistic, predator avoidance

What are outcomes of social interactions?
Division of labor, beneficial to individuals (schools of fish, rearing of young), hierarchies
(oldest = generally dominant)

What does effective communication dependent upon?
Senses: chemical (pheremones), sight, sound, tactile and electrical signals

What are the types of social behavior?
Agonistic, dominance, courtship, altruism, territorially

Describe agonistic behaviors.
Contest involving threatening and submissive behavior determines which competitor gains
access to resource. Generally ritualized and symbolic

Why are aggressive displays important?
Convey info, evolved to minimize expenditure of energy and less chance of injury.


What is the function of aggression?
Obtain priority resources
Defend resources


What is a dominance hierarchy>
pecking order, alpha male and female
advantages  saves energy for top and bottom animals
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.


215.

What is altruism?
Selfless behavior
Altruistic behavior reduces individual fitness and increases fitness of another (generally
closely related
Not really morally based

How are social aggregations and thermodynamics related?
Aggregations can minimize heat loss


What is territoriality?
Area defended to exclude other members of species (for feeding, mating, young rearing)
Distinguished from home range

What are costs and benefits of sociality?
Facilitates mate finding, synchronizes reproductive behavior, allows sharing of resources,
more difficult to hide from predators (cost)


What are some examples of interspecific behaviors?
Competition, symbiosis, predation, human interaction
Between species


216.
217.
218.
219.
220.

Describe competition.
Cornerstone of ecological and evolutionary theory
Similar organisms tend to compete for resources – consumes time and energy, manifested as
growth, birth and death rates
In ecological communities, can influence which species can coexist and how similar they are.

How can competition be reduced?
Specialize on resources (habitat partitioning), shift activity time (temporal partitioning)

What is limiting similarity?
Theory describing how similar competing species can be and still coexist

What is the strongest evidence for limiting similarity?
Comparison of locations with and without competition are compared – allopatry and
sympatry


What is Competitive exclusion?
Local species extinction as a result of competition
Generally predictable pattern

What is symbiosis?
Living together


221.
222.
223.
224.
225.
226.
Describe courtship/reproduction behaviors.
Complex, ritualized behavior
Congregation common for mate-selection
i. Species congregate during mating, incubation, and rearing young
Name and describe the types of symbiosis.

227.
Commensalisms (+/0) (i.e. gopher tortoise and burrowers), mutualism (+/+) (birds and
iguanas), predation/parasititsm (+/-) (lampreys and fish - parasitism)

What are predator avoidance measures?
Getting away, take cover, freezing/aposematic coloration, chemical defense, confronting

What are some human interactions?
Harvest to extinction, game farming/fish hatcheries, global warming…
228.