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CHAPTER 25
The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, students should be able to describe the efforts of Napoleon III
of France to reconcile popular and conservative forces in an authoritarian nation. They should be able to
explain how the unification of Italy and Germany led to the creation of conservative nation-states. They
should also be able to discuss the United State’s experience of nation building. They should be able to
assess the effectiveness of Russian and Ottoman efforts at modernization. They should be able to
explain the growing loyalty of citizens to the state in the late nineteenth century. Finally, they should be
able to explain why socialism grew in the second half of the nineteenth century and debate the question
of its revolutionary potential.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I.
II.
Napoleon III in France
A. The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon
1. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte easily won the presidential election of December 1848.
2. Louis Napoleon believed that government should give particular focus to helping the
people economically.
3. When the National Assembly failed to change the constitution so Louis Napoleon
could run for a second term, he dismissed the Assembly and seized power in 1851.
4. He called on the French people to legitimize this action and received the overwhelming
majority of the vote.
B. Napoleon III’s Second Empire
1. Louis Napoleon, proclaimed Napoleon III, experienced both success and failure
between 1852 and 1870.
2. Napoleon III granted workers the right to form unions and embraced other pro-labor
measures.
3. In the 1860s, he liberalized his empire.
4. In 1870, he granted France a new constitution, moving France further in the direction
of democracy.
Nation Building in Italy and Germany
A. Italy to 1850
1. Three approaches to unifying Italy:
a) Giuseppe Mazzini’s centralized democratic republic.
b) Vincenzo Gioberti’s federation of existing states headed by the Pope.
c) Italian nation built around aristocratic kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont.
2. The third alternative was strengthened by the failures of 1848.
3. After 1848, the papacy resolutely opposed national unification.
B. Cavour and Garibaldi in Italy
1. Cavour (head of Sardinian government, 18501861) sought to unify northern and
central Italy under Sardinian rule.
2. With French aid, he defeated Austria in 1859 and gained Lombardy.
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Chapter 25: The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914
3.
4.
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Central Italy voted to join Sardinia.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) led a patriotic expedition to the kingdom of Two
Sicilies, overthrew the government, and presented southern Italy and Sicily to Sardinia
(1860).
C. Germany Before Bismarck
1. The German customs union (Zollverein) unified the northern German states, but
excluded Austria.
2. The national uprising in Italy made a profound impression in the German states.
3. William I of Prussia (r. 1861–1888) sought to reform the army and strengthen the state.
4. The parliament rejected the new military budget in 1862 and the liberals triumphed in
new elections.
5. William called on Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898) to head a new ministry and defy the
parliament.
D. Bismarck and the Austro-Prussian War, 1866
1. Bismarck collected taxes without permission of the Prussian parliament.
2. Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark in the 1864 war over Schleswig-Holstein.
3. The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 resulted in a Prussian victory and the establishment
of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership.
E. The Taming of the Parliament
1. Bismarck sought to make peace with the liberal middle class and German nationalists.
2. Bismarck created a federal constitution for the new North German Federation.
3. He conciliated parliamentary opposition and established universal manhood suffrage.
F. The Franco-Prussian War, 1870–1871
1. Bismarck used a diplomatic pretext to spark a war with France.
2. The war gained Bismarck the support of the southern German states.
3. Franco-Prussian War of 18701871 ended in Prussian victory and the absorption of
southern Germany into the new German Empire.
4. Bismarck and the Germans imposed a harsh peace on France.
III. Nation Building in the United States
A. Growth and Division
1. The United States experienced a split between slave-holding South based on big
plantation agriculture and North built on smaller family farms.
2. Industrialization in the North was linked to the development of large-scale cotton
cultivation in South.
3. In the aftermath of the Mexican-American War of 1848, a conflict emerged over the
extension of slavery into newly acquired areas.
4. The secession of eleven southern states from Union followed Abraham Lincoln’s
election as president in 1860 and led to civil war (18601865).
5. The North’s victory strengthened industrialization and American nationalism.
IV. The Modernization of Russia and the Ottoman Empire
A. The “Great Reforms”
1. The Crimean War of 18531856 versus Britain, France, Sardinia, Ottoman Empire
showed the backwardness of Russia’s transport system and military.
2. Alexander II (r. 1855–1881) freed the serfs modernization program (1861).
3. Other reforms followed including the strengthening of local self-government,
modernization of legal system, and the relaxation of censorship.
4. Until the twentieth century, Russia’s greatest advances toward modernization were
economic, rather than political.
5. Russian industry and transport were transformed by two industrial surges.
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176
Chapter 25: The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914
6.
V.
Between 1860 and 1880, the government encouraged the construction of privately
owned railroads (18601880).
7. In 1881, Alexander II was assassinated bringing the era of reform to a halt.
8. In the 1890s, Russia experienced a second wave of industrialization under the
leadership of Sergei Witte.
B. The Revolution of 1905
1. Russia’s defeat in its war with Japan (19041905) combined with demands of business
and professional people, workers, and peasants for political power led to Revolution of
1905.
2. In response, Tsar Nicholas II granted new constitution, with an elective assembly, the
Duma.
3. It soon became clear that the Duma had little real power and efforts to cooperate
between the tsar’s ministers and elected officials soon broke down.
C. Decline and Reform in the Ottoman Empire
1. The Ottoman Empire faced a real danger of conquest and division by the Great Powers
of Europe.
2. The Ottomans were forced to grant Serbia local autonomy in 1816.
3. Greece won its independence in 1830.
4. The French began their conquest of Algeria around the same time.
5. Ottoman weakness reflected the decline of the janissary corps.
6. Under the leadership of Mahmud III (r. 1808–1839), the janissaries were destroyed.
7. Mahmud II faced a challenge from Muhammad Ali, the Ottoman governor in Egypt.
This challenge was only turned back with the help of the European powers.
8. Reformers launched the Tanzimat in 1839.
9. The Tanzimat fell short of its goals for a number of reasons.
10. Declining international power and conservative tyranny led to a resurgence of the
modernizing impulse among the Young Turks.
11. The Young Turks seized power in the revolution of 1908.
The Responsive National State, 18711914
A. The German Empire
1. The new German Empire was a federal union of Prussia and twenty-four smaller states.
2. Bismarck conciliated liberals and waged a Kulturkampf against Catholics
(18701878).
3. Bismarck moved to enact high tariffs on cheap grain from the United States, Canada,
and Russia. The tariffs won Bismarck Catholic and conservative support.
4. In 18831884, Bismarck passed social security laws to prevent the spread of socialism.
These included old-age pensions and national health and accident insurance.
5. In 1890, the new German Emperor, William II (r. 1888–1918), fired Bismarck.
B. Republican France
1. The 1871 surrender of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany by the National Assembly led
to an uprising in Paris and the formation of the Paris Commune. The French army
brutally crushed the Commune.
2. Moderate republicans sought to stabilize France.
3. Teachers in new public school system spread republican ideas and undermined the grip
of Catholic Church schools on rural thinking.
4. In 18981899, the Dreyfus affair increased tension between republicans and Catholics
(Alfred Dreyfus was a Jewish army captain falsely accused of treason).
C. Great Britain and Ireland
1. The franchise was extended in 1832, 1867, and 1884 leading to universal manhood
suffrage.
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Chapter 25: The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914
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2.
Between 19061914, the Liberal party defeated aristocratic conservatives in the House
of Lords, raised taxes on the rich to fund national health insurance, unemployment
benefits, pensions, and other social programs.
3. Irish nationalists demanded political autonomy and Irish Protestants in the north
resisted.
D. The Austro-Hungarian Empire
1. Due to ethnic divisions, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was unable to harness
nationalism as other major European states did after 1870.
2. Throughout the 1850s, Hungary was ruled as a conquered country.
3. After the defeat by Prussia in 1866, Austria was forced to establish the dual-monarchy.
4. Austria’s ethnic Germans felt threatened by Czechs, Poles, and Slavs.
5. In Hungary, the Magyar nobility dominated the Magyar peasantry and minority
populations.
E. Jewish Emancipation and Modern Anti-Semitism
1. Beginning in France in 1791, Jews gradually gained their civil rights.
2. The process of emancipation presented Jews with challenges and opportunities.
3. Jews became prominent in journalism, medicine, law, finance, and railroad building.
4. The stock market crash of 1873 catalyzed vicious anti-Semitism. Conservative and
extremist nationalist politicians used anti-Semitism to mobilize support.
5. Russian government officials used anti-Semitism to channel popular resentment. They
encouraged pogroms.
VI. Marxism and the Socialist Movement
A. The Socialist International
1. Marxian socialist parties were eventually linked together in an international
organization.
2. The Second International brought socialist leaders from many countries together.
B. Unions and Revisionism
1. Several factors combined to blunt the radical thrust of socialism.
2. Nationalist and patriotic appeals were at least as attractive to workers as socialism.
3. Workers’ standard of living rose substantially in the second half of the 1800s.
4. The growth of labor unions and their legalization reflected increased focus of worker
and socialist activists on “bread-and-butter” wage issues rather than the violent seizure
of political power.
5. “Revisionist” Marxists such as German Edward Bernstein argued for “evolutionary
socialism” that would not involve violent seizure of political power.
6. Socialism varied from country to country.
LECTURE SUGGESTIONS
1.
“Nationalism Nurtured in Germany.” How did the nationalist movement gain a considerable
following in Germany? What factors led to German unification? Sources: H. Kohn, The Mind of
Germany: The Education of a Nation (1960); H. Glasser, ed., The German Mind in the Nineteenth
Century (1981).
2.
“Ethnicity and Nationalism.” What problems did the Austro-Hungarian Empire face concerning
its multinational empire? How did the Habsburgs view the non-Austrians in their empire?
Sources: A. Sked, The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 2d ed. (2001); R. Kann, The
Multinational Empire, 2 vols. (1964); S. Stavrianos, The Balkans, 1815–1914 (1963).
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
178
3.
Chapter 25: The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914
“Women and Nationalism in Germany.” How did the powerful force of nationalism affect the
status of women in nineteenth-century Germany? What role did women play in the nationalist
movements of the period? Sources: H. Glasser, ed., German Women in the Eighteenth and
Nineteenth Centuries (1986); J. Quataert, Reluctant Feminists in German Social Democracy,
1885–1917 (1979).
USING PRIMARY SOURCES
Read the selection by Edward Bernstein in the “Primary Sources” section of this manual. List the
differences between Bernstein’s ideas and those of Marx and Engels in The Communist Manifesto.
Write a paper comparing the two views of socialism.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
I.
Classroom Discussion Suggestions
A. What would have been the outcome if a Gross-Deutsch solution had been achieved in 1871?
B. How was the Dreyfus case affected by the issue of racism?
C. What were the differences between Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis? The similarities?
D. What factors led to the end of serfdom in Russia in 1861?
E. What challenges did the Russian and Ottoman Empires face in the second half of the
nineteenth century?
F. What forces were behind modernization efforts in Russia?
G. What did the Tanzimat fail to achieve its goals?
II. Doing History
A. Give students outline maps of Europe and ask them to fill in the boundaries of the Ottoman
and Austro-Hungarian Empires and the other major states of Europe in 1900.
B. Have students read selections from the letters of Confederate and Union soldiers in the
American Civil War. Have them first look for clues about the daily lives of the soldiers and
then write a short paper discussing their findings. Sources: W. Fisk, Anti-Rebel: The Civil
War Letters of Wilbur Fisk (1983); L. Kohl and M. Richard, Irish Green & Union Blue: The
Civil War Letters of Peter Welsh (1987); W. Wagner, Confederate Soldier (1983).
C. Have students read the following two works on the history of Western economics and write
a paper comparing the two. Sources: K. Marx and F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto
(1848); W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto
(1963).
III. Cooperative Learning Activities
A. Major Western Nations in 1900
Organize the class into teams. Have each team compile the following information on a
specific nation around 1900: 1) estimated national income, 2) population, 3) square mileage,
4) size of army, 5) natural resources. Teams should choose from the list below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
United States
Germany
Britain
France
Italy
Russia
Spain
Austria
Canada
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Chapter 25: The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914
B.
179
10. Netherlands
11. Belgium
As a follow-up to Activity A above, have students make a wall poster showing all the
nations in the list.
MAP ACTIVITY
1.
Ask students to shade in slave-holding areas on an outline map of the United States.
2.
Have students list the major German states of Bismarck’s era on a blank outline map of Europe.
3.
Using Map 25.1 The Unification of Italy, 1859–1870 as a reference, answer the following
questions.
a.
What were the most important geographical divisions in pre-unification Italy? How did they
hinder unification?
b.
Compare and contrast northern and southern Italy. Why was Cavour reluctant to include
southern Italy in the new country he envisioned?
c.
What role did outside powers play in the unification of Italy? Why did France see Italian
unification as in its own interests?
AUDIOVISUAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
The Unification of Germany. (33 min. Color. Encyclopedia Britannica Films.)
2.
The Unification of Italy. (30 min. Color. Encyclopedia Britannica Films.)
3.
Bismarck’s Germany from Blood and Iron. (30 min. Color. Learning Corporation of America.)
4.
Marxism: The Theory That Split a World. (25 min. Color. Learning Corporation of America.)
5.
U.S.A. Wars: Civil War. (CD-ROM. Learning Services.)
6.
Daumier’s France. (Videodisc. 60 min. Color. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.)
7.
Historical Maps of Europe (http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/history_europe.html)
8.
Museo del Risorgimento Italiano (http://www.regione.piemonte.it/cultura/risorgimento/index.htm)
9.
Gustave Courbet (cgfa.sunsite.dk/courbet/index.html)
INTERNET RESOURCES
1.
U.S. Civil War (http://www.civilwar.com/)
2.
The Valley of the Shadow: Two Communities in the American Civil War
(valley.vcdh.virginia.edu)
3.
Atlas of the German Empire (http://www.library.wisc.edu/etext/ravenstein)
4.
Italian Unification: Primary Sources (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook23.html)
5.
German Unification: Primary Sources (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook22.html Germany)
6.
France: Second Republic (flagspot.net/flags/fr_secdr.html)
7.
Crimean War Society (http://www.crimeanwar.org/)
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180
Chapter 25: The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914
SUGGESTED READING
In addition to the general works mentioned in the Suggested Reading for Chapter 23, R. Gildea,
Barricades and Borders: Europe, 1800–1914, 2d ed. (1996), and T. Blanning, The Cambridge
Illustrated History of Europe (1996), provide useful surveys of the entire nineteenth century. E.
Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875–1914 (1987), and B. Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and
Democracy (1966), remain outstanding interpretative works.
R. Tombs, France, 1814–1914 (1996), is an impressive recent survey with an up-to-date bibliography,
and R. Anderson, France, 1870–1914 (1977), provides a clear introduction. K. Marx, The Eighteenth
Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, is a famous denunciation of the coup d’etat, and D. Harvey, Paris,
Capital of Modernity (2004), is handsomely illustrated and captures the spirit of the great city in the late
nineteenth century. G. Gullickson, Unruly Women of Paris: Images of the Commune (1996), is an
exciting portrait of contested images of radical women in the Paris Commune, and E. Accamapo, R.
Fuchs, and M. Stewart, Gender and the Politics of Social Reform in France, 1870–1914 (1995), shows
how views of women influenced social legislation. E. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (1976), stresses
the role of education and modern communications in the transformation of rural France after 1870. E.
Cahm, The Dreyfus Affair in French Society and Politics (1996), and G. Chapman, The Dreyfus Case:
A Reassessment (1955), are careful examinations of the famous case. In Jean Barois (1972), Noble
Prize winner Roger Du Gard accurately recreates in novel form the Dreyfus affair, and Emile Zola’s
novel The Debacle treats the Franco-Prussian War realistically.
The resurgence of European nationalism since the fall of communism has led to important new studies;
particularly recommended are H. Schulze, States, Nations and Nationalism: From the Middle Ages to
the Present (1996), and R. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (1992). D.
M. Smith has written widely on Italy, and his Mazzini (1994) is an engaging biography. R. Ridley,
Garibaldi (2001), is a thorough study of the world-renowned revolutionary nationalist. In addition to
the classic study on Germany by O. Pflanze, Bismarck and the Development of Germany: The Period of
Unification, 1815–1871 (1963), see D. Williamson, Bismarck and Germany, 1862–1890 (1994), and A.
Green, Fatherlands: State-Building and Nationhood in Nineteenth-Century Germany (2001), a superb
comparative history of the German states after 1815. H. Wehler, The German Empire, 1871–1918
(1985), stresses the strength of the landed nobility and the weakness of the middle class in an influential
synthesis, which is challenged by D. Blackbourn and G. Elley, The Peculiarities of German History:
Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany (1984). M. Kitchen, The Cambridge
Illustrated History of Germany (1996), features handsome pictures and a readable text. L. Cecil,
Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor, 1859–1900 (1989), probes the character and politics of Germany’s
ruler. H. Glasser, ed., The German Mind in the Nineteenth Century (1981), is an outstanding anthology,
as is R. E. Joeres and M. Maynes, eds., German Women in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
(1986). B. Libermann, Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe (2006), and C.
Fink, Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Protection, 1878–
1938 (2004), consider skillfully the cruelty and tragedy of ethnic conflict and minority oppression. D.
Vital, A People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789–1939 (1999), is an engaging and judicious survey,
while Y. Slezkine, The Jewish Century (2004), is a brilliant interpretation of Jewish achievement in the
modern era. C. Schorske, Fin de Siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture (1980), and P. Gay, Freud, Jews,
and Other Germans (1978), are brilliant on aspects of modern culture. I. Berend, History Derailed:
Central and Eastern Europe in the Long Nineteenth Century (2003), focuses on industrialization and
consequences, and A. Sked, The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815–1918, 2d ed. (2001),
highlights the nationality problem in Austria-Hungary. D. Quartaert, The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1900,
2d ed. (2005), is an excellent historical introduction. Southern nationalism in the United States has been
interpreted from different perspectives by P. Escott, After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the Failure of
Confederate Nationalism (1974), and D. Faust, The Creation of Confederate Nationalism (1988).
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Chapter 25: The Age of Nationalism, 1850–1914
181
In addition to the fundamental study on Russian industrial development by T. von Laue, Sergei Witte
and the Industrialization of Russia (1963), McKay cited in the Notes, P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy,
1850–1917 (1986), and A. Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs Imperial Russia (1982), are
recommended. Among fine studies on Russian development, see especially H. Rogger, Russia in the
Age of Modernization and Revolution, 1881–1917 (1983), which has an excellent bibliography, and H.
Troyat, Daily Life in Russia Under the Last Tsar (1962). T. Friedgut, Iuzokvka and Revolution: Life and
Work in Russia’s Donbass, 1869–1924 (1989), and R. Johnson, Peasant and Proletarian: The Working
class of Moscow at the End of the Nineteenth Century (1979), skillfully treat different aspects of
working-class life and politics. T. Clyman and J. Vowles, eds., Russia Through Women’s Eyes:
Autobiographies from Tsarist Russia (1996), is an exciting collection. A. Asheer, P. A. Stolypin: The
Search for Political Stability in Late Imperial Russia (2001), is a sympathetic biography of tsarist
Russia’s last great statesman. A. Geifman, Thou Shalt Kill: Revolutionary Terrorism in Russia (1993),
probes the politics of violence in a pioneering study. J. Le Donee, The Russian Empire and the World ,
1700 – 1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment (1996), is an important reconsideration of
Russian foreign affairs.
G. Dangerfield, The Strange Death of Liberal England (1961), brilliantly examines social tensions in
Ireland as well as Englishwomen’s struggle for the vote before 1914. P. Gurney, Co-operative Culture
and the Politics of Consumption in England, 1870–1930 (1996), breaks new ground and is
recommended. D. Boyce, Nationalism in Ireland, 2d ed. (1991), provides an excellent account of the
Irish struggle for nationhood. The theme of aristocratic strength and survival is expanded in A. Mayer’s
provocative Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War (1981). J. Seigel, Marx’s Fate:
The Shape of a Life (1978), is an outstanding biography. G. Steenson, Not One Man! Not One Penny!:
German Social Democracy, 1863 – 1913 (1999), is an up-to-date survey. V. Lidtke, The Alternative
Culture: Socialist Labor in Imperial Germany (1985), and J. Quataert, Reluctant Feminists in German
Social Democracy, 1885–1917 (1979), are also recommended for the study of German socialists. H.
Goldberg, The Life of Jean Jaures (1962), is a sympathetic account of the great French socialist leader.
Two excellent collections by specialists are L. Berlanstein, ed., Rethinking Labor History (1993), and
D. Geary, ed., Labour and Socialist Movements in Europe Before 1914 (1989), which examines several
different countries.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.